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Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development Department of Teaching and Learning

Multicultural Perspectives in Social Studying (in Early Childhood)

CHDED 2011-001 & 2012-001—Fall 2012 Tuesdays, 4:55-6:35, Tisch Building, Room LC3

Professor: Fabienne Doucet, Ph.D. Office: Pless Hall, 7th Floor, Room 779 Phone: 212.998.7390 Email: fd30@nyu.edu

Office Hours: Tuesdays & Thursdays 3:30-4:30 pm, and by appointment

Welcome to the class!

Catalog Description: Current theories and practices in multicultural and anti-bias education. Reflection on self and others leading to a critical examination of multiple perspectives. Development of transformative multicultural curricula. Course Overview: This course provides a foundation in anti-bias, multicultural curriculum for teaching social studies from preschool through the 5th grade. The course also engages pre-service teachers in critical learning, questioning, and thinking about social studies subjects, including people, past and present; human interdependence; people and where they live; and citizenship and government1. There will be a focus on self-reflection as pre-service teachers learn to create thoughtful social studies curricula and to facilitate meaningful experiences for children. The course draws upon a statement from the National Council of Social Studies (NCSS): “Teaching social studies powerfully and authentically begins with a deep knowledge and understanding of the subject and its unique goals. Social studies programs prepare students to identify, understand, and work to solve the challenges facing our diverse nation in an increasingly interdependent world. Education for citizenship should help students acquire and learn to use the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that will prepare them to be competent and responsible citizens throughout their lives. Competent and responsible citizens are informed and thoughtful, participate in their communities, are involved politically, and exhibit moral and civic virtues.” A Vision of Powerful Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies: Building Social Understanding and Civic Efficacy. A Position Statement of National Council for the Social Studies, 2008 http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/powerful NCSS standards are available online at: http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/curriculum

1 These categories are from Meisels and colleagues’ rubric for their Work Sampling System assessment.

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Course Objectives: 1. To learn the goals of critical, anti-bias social studies education. 2. To develop critical thinking skills around dynamics of human relationships and historical

accounts. 3. To learn content for developing anti-bias, multicultural social studies curricula. 4. To develop skills for planning and implementing social studies curricula. 5. To develop knowledge of marginalized groups. 6. To promote student growth and development through students’ constructive examination of the

sources for their own biases, stereotypes, and prejudices as they relate to human diversity and oppression.

Required Reading x Textbook (Available at the NYU bookstore or online from Teaching for Change):

o Lee, E., Menkart, D., & Okazawa-Rey, M., Eds. (2008). Beyond heroes and holidays: A practical guide to K-12 anti-racist, multicultural education and staff development, 4th Ed. Washington, DC: Teaching for Change.

x Selected readings available on Blackboard (marked by a BB on the syllabus) x Children’s books (May be purchased or borrowed from a library—check NYPL.org or your

hometown library). TBD based on students’ interests. Recommended Reading: Appendix A provides an extensive list of recommended readings. This is an excellent resource that I would recommend you keep for future use in teaching. Course Format: Classes will be conducted primarily using large and small group discussions, experiential activities, and direct instruction. Class participation, in the form of attendance, comments, questions, and active engagement in classroom activities, is required for this course. It is up to you to make this class about truly engaging one another in discussions and conversations. Blackboard: This course has a Blackboard site. The syllabus, some readings, assignment instructions, and any other general course information will be available on the site as well. In addition, postings will be made regarding events or other items of importance regarding this course. Please also feel free to use the site to continue conversations started in class or raise new points for discussion during future class meetings.

Course Requirements 1. Reading Assignments and Class Participation (Objectives 1-6) The reading assignments for each week are listed in the course calendar. Readings are to be completed for the day indicated. Students must come to every class prepared to give a summary overview of each reading assigned for that class session. Class participation in the form of attendance, comments, questions, and active engagement in classroom discussion is required for this course. Attendance will be taken at every class. Because we only meet once per week, missing more than one class (especially unexcused) will significantly affect our assessment of your overall participation. Please see Appendix B for a rubric of how your participation will be assessed.

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Although we do not assign grades for participation, I consider your level of engagement and involvement in the class to determine your final grade for the course. 2. Take-home Assignments We will engage in a number of in-class activities intended to reinforce your learning. Some of these activities will extend beyond the classroom and require you to follow-up independently, then come back to class to share what you have learned. These assignments are not graded but are awarded points for completion. An overview of each take-home assignment for which you are responsible is listed below.

“Where I’m From” Poem and reflection(Objectives 4, 6). This assignment will use poetry to engage you in exploring, analyzing, and sharing your identity. Additional instructions will be given in class. “Exploring Oral History” Exercise (Objectives 2, 3, 4, 5). You will be assigned an interview to listen to at home from the Story Corps project’s collection of September 11th stories. During the following class session, you will discuss the interview you listened to with a partner in a Think Pair Share in order to compare varying accounts of a single event. Additional instructions will be given in class.

3. Papers and Projects Children’s Book Critical Reflection (Objectives 1, 3, 4, 5). Throughout the semester we will read and discuss children’s books related to the issues discussed in class. As a group, we will select about 5-6 books that we will read ahead of time and discuss on chosen dates throughout the semester. You will select one of these books and write a critical reflection on your chosen text. Additional instructions will be given in class. Privilege Paper (Objectives 5-6). The purpose of this assignment is to make “privilege” visible in your own life and surroundings. This out-of-class assignment will (1) develop your awareness about how your privilege has affected your experiences, attitudes, assumptions and beliefs, and (2) provide you with an opportunity to think about how your privilege will impact your role as a teacher. The paper should be typed, double-spaced, proofread, and 4-6 pages in length. Additional instructions will be given in class. Immigration Paper (Objectives 2, 3, 4, 5). The purpose of this assignment is to have you reflect on the role of immigration in shaping our country, and to give you an opportunity to think about how to integrate immigration into your social studies curriculum. You will watch an online interview with NYU immigration historian Hasia Diner, former NYU professor of applied psychology Carola Suárez-Orozco, or former NYU professor of global education Marcelo Suárez-Orozco, which will reinforce and extend discussions started in class about immigration in general and immigrant representation in particular. You will then write a paper about what you have learned about this topic and how you can apply this knowledge in your classroom. Additional instructions will be given in class. Appendix C shows the grading scale and rubric that will be used to evaluate your work.

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Grading Formula٭

A number of scores will determine your final grade for the course: 1. “Where I’m From” poem and reflection =100 points 2. Exploring Oral History exercise =100 points 3. Children’s Book Critical Reflection =100 points 4. Privilege Paper =100 points 5. Immigration Paper =100 points = 500 total possible points Please Note: There is no Extra Credit.

See also Appendix B ٭

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Ground Rules for this Course**: 1. Acknowledge that oppression (i.e., racism, classism, sexism, etc) exists. 2. Acknowledge that one of the mechanisms of oppression (racism, classism, sexism, etc.) is

that we have been systematically taught misinformation about our own group and especially members of devalued/subordinate groups (this is true for both dominant and subordinate group members).

3. Agree not to blame ourselves or others for the misinformation we have learned in the past, but accept responsibility for not repeating misinformation after we have learned otherwise.

4. Agree not to blame victims for their oppression. 5. Assume that people (both the groups we study and the members of the class) are always

doing the best they can. 6. Actively pursue information about our own groups and that of others. 7. Share information about our groups with other members of the class and we will never

demean, devalue, or in any way "put down" people for their experiences. 8. Agree to actively combat the myths and stereotypes about our own groups and other groups

so that we can break down the walls that prohibit group cooperation and group gain. 9. Create a safe atmosphere for open discussion. If members of the class wish to make

comments that they do not want repeated outside the classroom, they can preface their remarks with a request and the class will agree not to repeat the remarks.

Other Important Details

Accommodations for Students with Disabilities: Any student attending NYU who needs an accommodation due to a chronic, psychological, visual, mobility and/or learning disability, or is Deaf or Hard of Hearing should register with the Moses Center for Students with Disabilities at 212 998-4980, 726 Broadway, www.nyu.edu/csd. Disclaimer: In this course, we will, on occasion, discuss issues that are controversial and could make you feel uncomfortable. However it is our goal to make this a safe space for healthy communication, even if that means disagreement. If you have a serious problem with some course content, please come see us during our office hours. Disrespectful behavior in class, such as shouting at someone, making snide remarks, or walking out, will not be tolerated (please see Ground Rules for this Course, listed above). Syllabus: While some portions of this syllabus are non-negotiable, it is a working document that should reflect the needs of the class community, of which we all are members. I reserve the right to make adjustments to this syllabus should the need arise, and you, too, have the right to make suggestions for modifying its content. Attendance Policy: Attendance is expected in this course. Material is presented in class that is unavailable in assigned readings, so it is highly recommended that you attend every class. There are no texts or notes than can substitute for the discussion and interaction that will take place in class. Please be on time for class. You are responsible for turning in assignments when they are due and for knowing information announced in class, whether or not you were in class on any particular day. It is your responsibility to obtain handouts, assignments, and information you missed when absent. **Written by Lynn Weber Cannon, Memphis State University, 1986

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Late Work: All papers and projects are due at the beginning of class on the date they are due (with one exception, as you will see), unless you have made other arrangements with me before the due date. You will lose one letter grade for every day that a written assignment is late, including weekend days. DO NOT leave a paper in my mailbox, outside my office door, or under my door UNLESS this is an arrangement we have agreed upon. Always keep a copy of any paper or assignment that you turn in. YOU MAY NOT TURN IN ANY PAPERS VIA EMAIL.

Academic Integrity

The following is adapted from the NYU Steinhardt Student’s Guide (p. 24) and from the Policies and Procedures of the NYU Expository Writing Program (available from http://www.nyu.edu/cas/ewp/html/policies___procedures.html): The relationship between students and faculty is the keystone of the educational experience in the Steinhardt School at New York University. This relationship takes an honor code for granted. Mutual trust, respect, and responsibility are foundational requirements. Thus, how you learn is as important as what you learn. A University education aims not only to produce high quality scholars but also to cultivate honorable citizens. Academic integrity is the guiding principle for all that you do; from taking exams, making oral presentations, to writing term papers. It requires that you recognize and acknowledge information derived from others, and take credit only for ideas and work that are yours. You violate the principle of academic integrity when you • cheat on an exam; • submit the same work for two or more different courses without the knowledge and the permission of all professors involved;

• receive help on a take-home examination that calls for independent work; • “collaborate" with other students who then submit the same paper under their individual names. • give permission to another student to use your work for a class. • plagiarize. Plagiarism, one of the gravest forms of academic dishonesty in university life, whether intended or not, is academic fraud. In a community of scholars, whose members are teaching, learning, and discovering knowledge, plagiarism cannot be tolerated. Plagiarism is failure to properly assign authorship to a paper, a document, an oral presentation, a musical score, and/or other materials, which are not your original work. You plagiarize when, without proper attribution, you do any of the following: • Copy verbatim from a book, an article, or other media; • Download documents from the Internet; • Purchase documents; • Report from others’ oral work; • Paraphrase or restate someone else’s facts, analysis, and/or conclusions; • Copy directly from a classmate or allow a classmate to copy from you. For a very helpful self-test on what constitutes plagiarism, please visit http://www.indiana.edu/~istd/practice.html. This link also will be available on the Blackboard site.

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Course Calendar

PART I: LAYING THE GROUNDWORK September 4 Introduction: What is Social Studies? September 11 Goals and Objectives of Education for Peace and Social Justice, Part 1 Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 2-17 (readings by Lee; & Derman-Sparks)

September 18 Goals and Objectives of Education for Peace and Social Justice, Part 2 Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 18-38 (readings by Nieto; Okazawa-Rey; & Banks) September 25 Roots of Conflict: Understanding Privilege, Part 1 Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 124-130, 132-136; 138-144 (readings by Loewen; Roderick et al;

Wingfield & Karaman; & Menkart) October 2 Understanding Privilege, Part 2 Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 83-88 (readings by McIntosh & Olson) and 40-68 (readings by

Sleeter; Lawrence & Tatum; & Cohen)* * Please read these in the order listed

October 9 The Personal is Political: Seeing Ourselves and Seeing Others Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 92-107 & 121 (readings by McKeown; Fingarsen; Whitlock;

Rodriguez; & Wei) Due Today: Privilege paper October 16 No Class—Fall Recess

PART II: INTO THE CLASSROOM October 23 Language as Power and the Power of Language Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 146-190 (readings by Carter; Delpit; Verdelle; Moore; Divakruni;

Lee; Ramirez; Ada) October 30 But Aren’t They Too Young? Antibias Education and Young Children Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 193-214 (readings by Derman-Sparks; Wolpert; & Wolpert)

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November 6 Using Children’s Literature as a Critical Tool, Part 1 Readings: Ching. (2005). Children’s literature as an instrument of power. (BB)

“10 quick ways to analyze children’s books for racism and sexism” (BB) “10 quick ways to analyze children’s books for ableism” (BB)

November 13 Using Children’s Literature as a Critical Tool, Part 2 Readings: Choose one (we will decide as a group to ensure everyone reads at least one of these): Bauml & Field. (2012). Mexico in children’s literature (BB) Golos et al. (2010). Culture or disability (BB) Hsieh & Matoush. (2012). Critical awareness through Mulan (BB) Landa. (2012). Deconstructing Black history month (BB) Roberts et al. (2005). American Indian culture in children’s books (BB) Schieble. (2012). Teachers’ views on LGBT literature (BB) November 20 Holidays and Heritage Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 374-378; and 396-400 (readings by Menkart; Bisson; & Kodish

& Westerman) Due Today: November 27 (Re)Discovering Columbus Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 379-380 (readings on a Native Perspective on Thanksgiving) December 4 Immigrant History as Oral History Readings: December 11 What Can I Do?The Power of Social Action Readings: Beyond heroes…pp. 118-120 and 404-420 (readings by Ayvazian; Edler & Irons; Lee;

Christensen; & all of the “Talking Back” Stories) Due Today: Immigration paper

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Appendix A Bibliography of Recommended Course Readings

E25.2011/2012 Multicultural Perspectives in Social Studying Banks, J. (1999). Curriculum transformation An introduction to multicultural education (3rd ed., pp. 21-34). Boston:

Allyn & Bacon. Berlin, I. (2010). Movement and place in the African American past The making of African America (pp. 1-48).

New York: Viking Penguin. Bigelow, B. (2008a). Discovering Columbus: Re-reading the past A people's history for the classroom (pp. 15-20).

Milwaukee: The Zinn Education Project. Bigelow, B. (2008b). The people vs. columbus, et. al A people's history for the classroom (pp. 21-38). Milwaukee:

The Zinn Education Project. Books, S. (2008). What teachers need to know about poverty. In W. Ayers, G. Ladson-Billings, G. Michie &

P. Noguera (Eds.), City kids, city schools: More reports from the front row (pp. 184-194). New York: The New Press.

Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2008). Developmental themes, tasks, and goals in anti-bias work. In A. Pelo (Ed.), Rethinking early childhood education (pp. 13-16). Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools, Ltd.

Cohen, R. (Ed.). (2005). Dear Mrs. Roosevelt: Letters from children of the Great Depression. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Cohen, R. (2010). Robert Cohen interview with Molly Nolan and Marilyn Young and Charles J. Hanley, "No Gun Ri: Official narrative and inconvenient truths". Critical Asian Studies, 42(4), 589-622.

Cowhey, M. (2008). Heather's moms got married. In A. Pelo (Ed.), Rethinking early childhood education (pp. 177-179). Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools, Ltd.

Delpit, L. (1992). Education in a multicultural society: Our future's greatest challenge. The Journal of Negro Education, Special Issue on Africentrism and Multiculturalism: Conflict or Consonance, 61(3), 237-249.

Delpit, L. (1995). The silenced dialogue: Power and pedagogy in educating other people's children Other people's children: Cultural conflict in the classroom (pp. 21-47). New York, NY: The New Press.

Derman-Sparks, L., & A.B.C. Task Force. (1989). Why an anti-bias curriculum? In P. Greenberg (Ed.), Anti-bias curriculum: Tools for empowering young children (pp. 1-9). Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Derman-Sparks, L., & Ramsey, P. (2008). What if all the kids are White?: Anti-bias themes for teaching young children. In A. Pelo (Ed.), Rethinking early childhood education (pp. 43-48). Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools, Ltd.

Foner, E. (1998). The birth of American freedom The story of American freedom (pp. xlli-37). New York: W. W. Norton & Company Ltd.

Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2005). Perceiving and responding to differences Diversity in early care and education programs (4th ed., pp. 8-26). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Graham-Bailey, M. A. L. (2008). An incomplete identity: A young teacher laments the lack of black mentors. Rethinking Schools, Fall 2008, 24-26.

Howard, G. R. (2006). White teachers and school reform: Toward a transformationist pedagogy We can't teach what we don't know: White teachers, multiracial schools (2nd ed., pp. 117-136). New York: Teachers College Press.

King, P. M., & Howard-Hamilton, M. (2003). An assessment of multicultural competence. NASPA Journal, 40(2).

Lalley, J. (2008). Activism brings us power: An interview with Hilda Magana. In A. Pelo (Ed.), Rethinking early childhood education (pp. 183-186). Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools, Ltd.

Lawless, R. (1992). Haiti's bad press. Rochester, VT: Schenkman Books, Inc. McFadden, R. D. (December 9, 2008). Attack on Ecuadorean brothers investigated as hate crime, New York

Times.

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McIntosh, P. (1988). Excerpt from Working Paper 189. White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women's studies. Retrieved, from http://www.case.edu/president/aaction/UnpackingTheKnapsack.pdf.

McLaren, P. (1997). Decentering whiteness: In search of a revolutionary multiculturalism. Multicultural Education, 12-15.

Miner, B. (1994). Taking multicultural, anti-racist education seriously: An interview with Enid Lee. In B. Bigelow, L. Christensen, S. Karp, B. Miner & B. Peterson (Eds.), Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and social justice (pp. 19-22). Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools, Ltd.

Nieto, S. (2000). About terminology Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education (3rd ed., pp. 24-31). New York: Longman.

Noguera, P. (2003). The social context and its impact on inner-city schooling City schools and the American dream (pp. 23-41). New York: Teachers College Press.

Oliver, M. L. S., Thomas M. (2003). Race, wealth, and equality. In T. E. Ore (Ed.), The social construction of difference and inequality (2 ed., pp. 69-81). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Paley, V. G., You can’t say you cant’ play. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Pelo, A. (2008). Bringing the lives of lesbian and gay people into our programs. In A. Pelo (Ed.), Rethinking

early childhood education (pp. 180-182). Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools, Ltd. Pelo, A., & PeloJoaquin, K. (2008). Why we banned legos: Exploring power, ownership, and equity in the

classroom. In A. Pelo (Ed.), Rethinking early childhood education (pp. 87-94). Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools, Ltd.

Ross, A. (1998). Chidren becoming historians: An oral history project in a primary school. In R. T. Perks, Alistair (Ed.), The oral history reader (Vol. vol. 12, no.2, pp. 432-447). New York: Routledge.

Schniedewind, N., & Davidson, E. Open minds to equality: A sourcebook of learning activities to affirm diversity and promote equity, 3rd Ed. Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools.

Seefeldt, C., & Galper, A. (2006). Active experiences for active children: Social studies, 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Sunstein, C. R. (2004). The speech of the century The second Bill of Rights (pp. 1-16). New York: Basic Books. Waters, M. C. (2003). Optional ethnicities: For Whites only? In E. T. Ore (Ed.), The social construction of difference

and inequality: Race, class, gender, and sexuality (2 ed., pp. 28-40). New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Appendix B Class Participation Rubric

Level of

Participation Criteria

None i Absent.

Minimal i Present, not disruptive. i Tries to respond when called on but does not offer much. i Demonstrates very infrequent involvement in discussion.

Adequate

i Demonstrates adequate preparation: knows basic facts from the readings, but does not show evidence of trying to interpret or analyze them; rarely brings readings to class; does not show evidence of taking notes on readings.

i Offers straightforward information (e.g., straight from the readings), without elaboration or very infrequently (perhaps once a class).

i Does not offer to contribute to discussion, but contributes to a moderate degree when called on.

i Demonstrates sporadic involvement.

Good

i Demonstrates good preparation: knows facts from the readings well, has thought through implications of them; often brings readings to class; shows evidence of taking some notes on readings.

i Offers interpretations and analysis of readings (more than just facts) to class. i Contributes well to discussion in an ongoing way: responds to other students' points,

thinks through own points, questions others in a constructive way, offers and supports suggestions that may be counter to the majority opinion.

i Demonstrates consistent ongoing involvement.

Excellent

i Demonstrates excellent preparation: has analyzed readings exceptionally well, relating them to other material (e.g., course material, discussions, experiences, etc.); always brings readings and substantive notes to class.

i Offers analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of readings, e.g., puts together pieces of the discussion to develop new approaches that take the class further.

i Contributes in a very significant way to ongoing discussion: keeps analysis focused, responds very thoughtfully to other students' comments, contributes to the cooperative argument-building, suggests alternative ways of approaching material and helps class analyze which approaches are appropriate, etc.

i Demonstrates ongoing very active involvement.

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Appendix C Grading Scale and Rubric

Steinhardt School of Education Grading Scale

There is no A+ A 93-100 A- 90-92 B+ 87-89 B 83-86 B- 80-82 C+ 77-79 C 73-76 C- 70-72 D+ 65-69 D 60-64 There is no D- F Below 60 IP Incomplete/Passing IF Incomplete/Failing N No Grade

Letter Grade Rubric A—Outstanding Work An "A" applies to outstanding student work. A grade of "A" features not simply a command of material and excellent presentation (spelling, grammar, organization, writing style, etc.), but importantly, sustained intellectual engagement with the material. This engagement takes such forms as shedding original light on the material, investigating patterns and connections, posing questions, and raising issues. An "A" paper is excellent in nearly all respects:

x It is well argued and well organized, with a clear thesis x It is well developed with content that is specific, interesting, appropriate and convincing x It has logical transitions that contribute to a fluent style of writing x It has few, if any, mechanical, grammatical, spelling, or diction errors x It demonstrates command of a mature, unpretentious diction

B—Good Work A "B" is given to work of high quality that reflects a command of the material and a strong presentation but lacks sustained intellectual engagement with the material. A "B" paper shares most characteristics of an "A" paper, but

x It may have some minor weaknesses in its argumentation x It may have some minor lapses in organization and development x It may contain some sentence structures that are awkward or ineffective x It may have minor mechanical, grammatical, or diction problems x It may be less distinguished in its use of language

C—Adequate Work Work receiving a "C" is of good overall quality but exhibits a lack of intellectual engagement as well as either deficiencies in the student's command of the material or problems with presentation. A "C" paper is generally competent; it is the average performance. Compared to a "B" paper, it may have a weaker thesis and less effective development.

x It may have serious shortcomings in its argumentation

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x It may contain some lapses in organization x It may have poor or awkward transitions x It may have less varied sentence structures that tend toward monotony x It may have more mechanical, grammatical, and diction problems

D or F—Unsuccessful Work The grade of "D" indicates significant problems with the student‚s work, such as a shallow understanding of the material or poor writing.

x It presents no clear thesis x It displays major organizational problems x It lacks adequate support for its thesis x It includes irrelevant details x It includes confusing transitions or lacks transitions altogether x It fails to fulfill the assignment x It contains ungrammatical or poorly constructed sentences and/or demonstrates problems with

spelling, punctuation, diction or syntax, which impedes understanding An "F" is given when a student fails to demonstrate an adequate understanding of the material, fails to address the exact topic of a question or assignment, or fails to follow the directions in an assignment, or fails to hand in an assignment. Pluses (e.g., B+) indicate that the paper is especially strong on some, but not all, of the criteria for that letter grade. Minuses (e.g., C-) indicate that the paper is missing some, but not all, of the criteria for that letter grade.