Short Guide 1The European Union: History,Institutions and Functioning

Circulation: PublicAuthors: Step4All ConsortiumDate: 04/03/2014Doc. Ref. N°: STEP4ALL – SHORT GUIDE 1

Leonardo Da Vinci2012-1-IT1-LEO04-02901 1

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Contents1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 52 Brief History of the EU......................................................................................... 73 Main EU Institutions........................................................................................... 11

3.1 European Parliament................................................................................... 113.2 European Commission ................................................................................ 123.3 European Council ........................................................................................ 133.4 Council of the EU......................................................................................... 133.5 Other EU Institutions ................................................................................... 14

4 Structure of the European Commission............................................................. 174.1 The European Commission ......................................................................... 174.2 What does the Commission do?.................................................................. 174.3 Role of the European Commission .............................................................. 174.4 The Structure of the European Commission................................................ 184.5 Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) ............... 19

5 EU 2020 - the EU’s Ten-year Growth Strategy.................................................. 225.1. Priorities ...................................................................................................... 225.2. Targets ........................................................................................................ 235.3. Flagship Initiatives ....................................................................................... 245.4. Other tools for growth and jobs.................................................................... 26

6 European Union Legal Acts............................................................................... 286.1 Regulation ................................................................................................... 286.2 Directive ...................................................................................................... 286.3 Decision....................................................................................................... 286.4 Recommendation ........................................................................................ 286.5 Opinion ........................................................................................................ 28

7 Policy and Strategy Documents ........................................................................ 307.1 Green Papers .............................................................................................. 307.2 White Papers............................................................................................... 30

8 Bibliography....................................................................................................... 339 Glossary ............................................................................................................ 36

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Introduction1

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1 IntroductionThe official website of the European Union contains overall descriptions on theoperation of the EU, the applied law as well as the EU policy. However, understandingthe relationship and correspondence among plans, measures, treaties, and bodies is noteasy, even for a European citizen.The main aim of the present document is to provide a general overview on the mostimportant topics related to the past, present, and future of the integration including thebrief history of the EU along with the crucial legal acts and policy and strategydocuments. The guide also presents the main EU institutions, particularly the operationof the European Commission, and the EU’s ten-year growth strategy setting theidentified priorities, targets, and flagship initiatives.In order to help with the grasping of the text, the guide is supported by a glossarycontaining the short definitions of the commonly used EU terms.To achieve the above mentioned goals, the experts of STEP4All’s project team selectedthe most relevant information which is indispensable for the confident orientation in theEU’s world. At the same time, the present guide provides the basis for the second andthird guides which present the principal programmes managed by the EuropeanCommission and the tricks and methods of project management covering the process ofproject generation from the very first steps to the closure of the project. Accordingly, incompliance with the EU’s awareness raising measures, this guide can be considered asthe first step of the way which leads the reader to be able to manage their own projects.

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Brief History of the EU2

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2 Brief History of the EU

1945 – 1959A peaceful Europe – the beginnings of cooperation

1949: After WW2 Western European Cities create the “Council in Europe“. RobertSchuman (French Foreign Minister) presents a Schuman Plan to deepen the Coal andSteel Industry in Europe.A treaty was signed under a common management. This treaty ensured that the sixparticipating countries could not start to build weapons to turn against one another.The founding Member States were Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, andLuxembourg.1957: The Coal and Steel Treaty is successful and another treaty, i.e., the EuropeanEconomic Community (EEC) is signed.The EEC made sure that people, goods, services, and money can move as freely withinthe EU as in their own country.

1960 - 1969The ‘Swinging Sixties’ – a period of economic growth

1962: EU starts Common Agriculture Policy, which enables farmers to be able to receiveequal payments for their products and the countries obtain joint control over foodproduction.This created an enormous economic growth and even the overproduction of food.1968: The six participating countries remove custom duties for goods imported fromone another.This was combined with charging the same import duties for other countries, made theEU the world’s biggest trading group.

1970 - 1979A growing Community – the first Enlargement

1973: Denmark, the UK, and Ireland join the EU.1974: The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) is created to balance out thegaps among the poorer and richer regions.The ERDF can be used for instance to invest in infrastructure, to attract investment,and/or to create jobs.1979: EU citizens can directly elect the members of the European Parliament for thefirst time.

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The Members used to be delegated by the national parliaments. Since then the influenceof the Parliament has been increasing.1980 - 1989The changing face of Europe - the fall of the Berlin WallGreece became the 10th member of the EU in 1981. Spain and Portugal followed her fiveyears later. In 1986 the Single European Act was signed. This treaty provided the basisfor a vast six-year programme which was designed to solve the problems of the free-flow of trade across EU borders and thus created the “Single Market”. There is a majorpolitical upheaval on 9 November 1989 when the Berlin Wall was pulled down and theborder between East and West Germany was opened, which led to the reunification ofGermany in October 1990.1990 - 1999A Europe without frontiersWith the collapse of communism across Central and Eastern Europe, the Europeansbecame closer neighbours. In 1993 the Single Market was completed with the “fourfreedoms” of movement of goods, services, people, and money. The 1990s were also thedecade of two treaties, the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993 and the Treaty of Amsterdam in1999. People were concerned about how to protect the environment and also how to acttogether when it comes to security and defence matters. In 1995 three more newmembers, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU. A small village in Luxembourggave its name to the Schengen Agreement that allowed people to travel without havingtheir passports checked at the borders.2000 – 2009Further expansionThe euro is the new currency for a number of Europeans. 11 September 2001 becamesynonymous with the “War on Terror” after hijacked airliners had flown into buildingsin New York and Washington. The EU countries began to work much more closelytogether to fight against crime. The political divisions between East and West Europewere finally declared healed when no fewer than 10 new countries joined the EU in2004, followed by two more in 2007. A financial crisis hit the global economy inSeptember 2008, leading to closer economic cooperation among the EU countries. TheTreaty of Lisbon was ratified by all EU countries before entering into force on 1December 2009. It has provided the EU with modern institutions and more efficientworking methods.

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2010 – TodayA decade of opportunities and challengesNot only did the new decade start with a severe economic crisis, but also with the hopethat investments in new green and climate-friendly technologies and closer Europeancooperation would bring lasting growth and welfare.Website: http://europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/

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Main EU Institutions3

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3 Main EU Institutions3.1 European ParliamentThe European Parliament is the only directly-elected EU body and one of the largestdemocratic assemblies in the world. Its Members (often shortened to MEPs, Members ofthe European Parliament) are there to represent the EU citizens. They are elected onceevery five years by voters from across the EU Member States. The European Parliamenthas been steadily gaining power over the recent decades and the entry into force of theLisbon Treaty has defined its role as co-legislator for nearly all EU laws. As all thenational Parliaments do, the European Parliament is also arranged in committees(Agriculture, Economic Affairs, Environment, Foreign Affairs, etc.), national delegationsfor relations with all third countries and, transversally to the previous two bodies,political groups. These are the European political groups to whom each national partyrefers and decides to belong to. The Plenary is chaired by the President of the EuropeanParliament and by 14 Vice-Presidents, each one committed on a specific issue governingthe Parliament activities and functioning. The President, elected with an alternatedprinciple by political groups every 2 years and a half (mid-term mandate), oversees allthe work of the Parliament and its constituent bodies (Bureau and Conference ofPresidents of political Groups). Twelve plenary part-sessions are held each year inStrasbourg and six more in Brussels (the two seats of the Parliament, plusadministrative offices in Luxembourg). The main powers of the European Parliamentare the following:

Legislative powers: the Parliament equallyshares this power together with the Council ofthe EU Ministers, for over two-third of the EUlegislation, through the co-decisionprocedure. It starts the discussion on alegislative proposal written by the EuropeanCommission. The competent Committeediscusses and amends it, then it is voted inPlenary and the Council gives either itsagreement to the proposal, as modified by theParliament, or its refusal, thus opening for lecture in second reading. The Parliament, insome limited cases, has the right of assent with regards to Council decisions (yes or noposition) or consultation (non-binding opinions).Political powers: Being the expression of the European citizens and the only directly-elected body, its political influence is very high. In their reports, recommendations, andquestions are addressed to the EU's various actors, MEPs exert influence, for example bypressing the Commission and the Council to take measures on human rights. TheParliament also adopts "own-initiative" reports which may call on the Commission tobring forward legislation in a specific area or indicate, ahead of a concrete proposal, howlegislation should be drafted.

The EP Strasbourg Plenary

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Budgetary powers: The European Parliament is, together with the Council, responsiblefor establishing the annual budget of the Union. The EU aims to set out longer-termfinancial budgeting, which indicates the maximum levels of expenditure over a seven-year-period (Framework Programmes). No deal on these financial perspectives can bereached without the Parliament's approval that sets the maximum allocation on eachbudget item and identifies prior policies. The Parliament is responsible for monitoringthe Union’s expenditure on a permanent basis and decides whether to grant discharge to(or clear the accounts of) all EU institutions for the implementation of the budget.Website: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/00b3f21266/At-your-service.html3.2 European Commission The European Commission’s seat is inBrussels. It has offices also in Luxembourg,representations in all EU countries, anddelegations in plenty of capital cities aroundthe world. It is made up of 28 Commissioners,one from each Member State. The President ofthe Commission is nominated by commonagreement of the Governments of the MemberStates after consultation with the EuropeanParliament. Once the President has beennominated, the Government of each MemberState nominates a Commissioner. Then theParliament has to either approve or refuse each Commissioner’ appointment.Commissioners (and the President of course) are appointed for a renewable term of 5years. They are given a portfolio which is his/her area of responsibility (Culture,Transports, Environment, etc.). Each one of them has an attached Cabinet. TheCommission's personnel is organised into specialist departments called "DirectoratesGeneral" which are in turn divided into Directorates and then into Units. At the head ofeach department, there is a General Director responsible to the relevant Commissioner.Agencies also act under the responsibility of the European Commission as executivebodies, which are located throughout Europe delivering specific services (see nextparagraph).The Commission is very often indicated as the “executive” or “technical” body of the EU.Its main (but not all) competencies are:Legislative proposal: The Commission initiates legislation. The European Commissionhas the exclusive right to propose new European legislation (of course also based onpolitical perspectives and observed societal needs). Then legislation proposals aresubmitted to the European Parliament and the Council for approval.Enforcing European law: It has the role to ensure that EU legislation is applied by allthe Member States, as it can institute proceedings against the Member States orbusinesses that fail to comply with EU law. It can launch a procedure taking Member

Berlaymont building, the main EU Commission seat

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States to the Court of Justice in Luxemburg in case of breaching the EU law(infringement procedure).Implementing EU policies and the budget: It is responsible for implementing andmanaging the EU budget and the EU funding programmes approved by the Parliamentand the Council. In this perspective, the Commission makes direct financialcontributions in the form of grants, to help develop an EU programme/ policy or tosupport projects/organisations which are of further EU interests. Grants and funding areawarded by the Commission Directorate-General, which directly responsible for thepolicy in question, by the Commission offices and agencies around Europe, and/or byother authorities (national or regional authorities, also in non-EU countries, etc.).International role:The Commission represents the EU on the international stage including tradenegotiations and cooperation agreements with non-EU countries.Website: http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm3.3 European CouncilThe European Council defines the general political direction and priorities of theEuropean Union representing the national Governments’ voice. It does not exercise anylegislative function. It comprises the heads of state or Government of the EU MemberStates, along with the President of the European Commission and the President of theEuropean Council. The High Representative for Foreign Affairs also takes part in itsmeetings. Except where Treaties provide otherwise, decisions of the European Councilare taken by consensus. In some cases, it adopts decisions by unanimity or by qualifiedmajority, depending on what the Treaty provides. The European Council elects itsPresident by qualified majority. The President's term of office lasts for two and a halfyears, which is renewable only once.The European Council usually meets in Brussels, in the Justus Lipsius building. It isassisted by the General Secretariat of the Council. The meetings, commonly referred toas EU summits, are chaired by its president and take place at least twice every sixmonths.Website: http://www.european-council.europa.eu/home-page?lang=en

3.4 Council of the EUThe Council of the European Union is based onan intra-governmental principle, i.e., itrepresents the interests of all the MemberStates participating at their nationalMinisterial level. There are ten configurationswithin the Council: General Affairs andExternal Relations; Economic and FinancialAffairs; Cooperation in the fields of Justice andThe Justus Lipsius building

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Home Affairs; Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs;Competitiveness; Transport, Telecommunications and Energy; Agriculture andFisheries; Environment; Education, Youth and Culture.The meetings of the Council are led by the Member State holding the Presidency of theCouncil of the European Union for a half-year term. The order of the Presidencysuccession is determined beforehand. The presiding country designs the agenda and thepriorities of the Council, thus influences the course the entire Union will take. The mainseat of the Council is in Brussels for the formal summits but some meetings take placealso in Luxembourg. The informal meetings of the Council traditionally take place in thepresiding country.The Council of the European Union has three essential functions:The power to legislate. The Council shares this power with the European Parliament. Inmost situations, the European laws are made by a co-decision procedure. This meansthat the Council and the Parliament jointly adopt proposals for legislation issued by theEuropean Commission.Co-ordination of the economic policies of the Member States. Every year the Councildrafts guidelines for the economic policies of the Member States. These are then madeinto a recommendation and their implementation by the Member States is supervised bythe Council.The power to approve the budget of the EU. This power is shared with the Parliament.The Parliament supervises spending by the EU and it also adopts the annual budget forthe EU. It has the last word with regards to spending on the main EU fundingProgrammes, which are the European Regional Development Fund, the European SocialFund, cultural and educational programmes, humanitarian aid and refugee programmes,etc.Website: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/homepage.aspx?lang=en3.5 Other EU InstitutionsCourt of JusticeThe European Court of Justice (ECJ) is the highest court in the European Union judiciarysystem. Its main responsibility is interpreting EU law and ensuring its equal applicationacross all EU Member States. The Court was established in 1952 and is based inLuxembourg. The Court of Justice has one judge per EU country. The Court is helped byeight advocates-general whose job is to present opinions on the cases brought beforethe Court. Its seat is in Luxembourg.Website: http://curia.europa.eu/jcms/jcms/j_6/European Economic and Social CommitteeThe European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) is a consultative body of theEuropean Union. It provides the Parliament, the Council of the EU and the EuropeanCommission with views, opinion and support mainly on the economic, employment,competitiveness sectors. EESC has 353 members (employers, employees, group ofinterests) drawn from across Europe. Its seat is in Brussels.

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Website: http://www.eesc.europa.eu/?i=portal.en.homeCommittee of the RegionsThe Committee of Regions (CoR) is as an advisory body composed of nominatedrepresentatives of Europe's regional and local authorities. When the legislation mayaffect local and regional policies such as employment policy, the environment,infrastructure, transport, education and health, it ensures that regional and localidentities and interests are respected within the EU. It is also in Brussels.Website: http://cor.europa.eu/en/Pages/home.aspxEU Central BankThe EU Central Bank (ECB) is the monetary reference for the Euro Economic Area and itadministrates the Euro monetary system. Its primary goal, as established in the Treatyof Amsterdam 1998, is to maintain price stability within the so-called Eurozone. Itsheadquarters are in Frankfurt, Germany.Website: http://www.ecb.europa.eu/home/html/index.en.html

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Structure of the EuropeanCommission4

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4 Structure of the European Commission

4.1 The European CommissionThe European Commission was set up in the fifties under the founding treaties of the EU.It is an executive body operating independently from the Member States because itsmission is to represent and defend the interests of the EU. It is headquartered inBrussels and offers some services in Luxembourg as well as representation in all EUMember States (http://ec.europa.eu/about/index_pt.htm).Every five years, six months after the elections to the European Parliament, a newCommission is appointed. Currently, the Commission is composed of 28 Commissioners,each of them representing a Member State, and is chaired by José Manuel Barroso whosemandate ends on 31st October 2014.4.2 What does the Commission do?Firstly, the EC is considered as the guardian of the Treaties. On the one hand, it preparesproposals for new European laws which are presented to the European Parliament andthe Council. It is also responsible for implementing the decisions of the Parliament andthe Council by ensuring the application of policies, implementation of programmes, anduse of funds.In short, the European Commission has four main functions(http://ec.europa.eu/about/index_pt.htm):1. Proposing legislation to the Parliament and the Council2. Managing and implement the EU policies and the EU budget3. Ensuring compliance with the EU law (jointly with the Court of Justice)4. Representing the EU in international affairs4.3 Role of the European Commission

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4.4 The Structure of the European CommissionDerived from the Commission’s performance in the various fields of the Europeanpolicies and initiatives, their establishment has a complex structure which is divided bythe General-Directories that act in conjunction with the general and specialised services.General-directories as well as agencies and foundations established by the Commissionare listed below. All the information can be found in the following EU website(http://www.etui.org): http://ec.europa.eu/about/ds_en.htm1. General-Directories

General Services Central LibraryCommunication (COMM)European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF)Eurostat (ESTAT)Historical archivesJoint Research Centre (JRC)Publications Office (OP)Secretariat General (SG)Policies Agriculture and Rural Development (AGRI)Budget (BUDG)Climate Action (CLIMA)Competition (COMP)Economic and Financial Affairs (ECFIN)Education and Culture (EAC)Employment, Social Affairs, and Inclusion (EMPL)Energy (ENER)Enterprise and Industry (ENTR)Environment (ENV)Health and Consumers (SANCO)Home Affairs (HOME)Information Society and Media (INFSO)Internal Market and Services (MARKT)Justice (JUST)Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (MARE)Mobility and Transport (MOVE)Regional Policy (REGIO)Research and Innovation (RTD)Taxation and Customs Union (TAXUD)

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External RelationsEnlargement (ELARG)EuropeAid Development & Cooperation (DEVCO)Foreign Policy Instruments Service (EEAS)Humanitarian Aid (ECHO)Trade (TRADE)Internal Services Bureau of European Policy Advisers (BEPA)European Commission Data Protection OfficerHuman Resources and Security (HR)Informatics (DIGIT)Infrastructures and Logistics - Brussels (OIB)Infrastructures and Logistics - Luxembourg (OIL)Internal Audit Service (IAS)Interpretation (SCIC)Translation (DGT)Legal Service (SJ)

2. Decentralised AgenciesThere are over 30 agencies operating in different Member States, which play a key rolein reference to the implementation of public policies, and therefore require specialisedtechnical, scientific, and operational expertise. You can find a list of agencies as well astheir contacts and access links on the European Commission's website:http://europa.eu/about-eu/agencies/regulatory_agencies_bodies/index_en.htm3. Executive AgenciesThe primary mission of the Executive Agencies is to support the European Commissionon the management of financing instruments that integrate community programmes.Consequently, its operation is set for a limited time period. The Executive Agencieswhich are currently active are given below:

4.5 Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA)Avenue du Bourget, 1B-1140 BrusselsVisiting address:Rue Colonel Bourg, 135-139B-1140 BrusselsTel: +32 (0) 2 299 11 11E-mail: eacea-info@ec.europa.euInternet: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index_en.php

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European Research Council Executive Agency (ERC)COV2 24/164BE-1049 BrusselsTel: +32 (0)2 296 8870Fax: +32 (0)2 299 3173E-mail: erc-info@ec.europa.euInternet: http://erc.europa.euExecutive Agency for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (EASME)Postal address:European CommissionEASMEB-1049 BrusselsVisiting address:Covent Garden BuildingPlace Rogier 16B-1210 BrusselsEnquiries: http://ec.europa.eu/easme/contact_en.htmInternet: http://ec.europa.eu/easme/The Consumers, Health and Food Executive Agency (CHAFEA)Visiting address:DROSBACH building12, rue Guillaume KrollL-1822 LuxembourgTel: +352 4301 32015Fax: +352 4301 30359E-mail: eahc@ec.europa.euInternet: http://ec.europa.eu/chafea/index.htmlResearch Executive Agency (REA)COVE B-1049B-1049 BrusselsInternet: http://ec.europa.eu/research/rea/index.cfm?pg=homeInnovation and Networks Executive Agency (INEA)Visiting address:Chaussée de Wavre 910B-1049 BrusselsInternet: http://inea.ec.europa.eu/

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EU 2020 – the EU’s Ten-yearGrowth Strategy5

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5 Europe 2020 - the EU’s Ten-year Growth Strategy5.1. PrioritiesThe ten-year growth strategy is not only covering the economic crisis that continues toaffect many countries but also the growth model that lacks in several parts in order tocreate a smarter, more sustainable and more inclusive growth.Since the current crisis has almost wiped out most of the advances this becomes evenmore relevant. Europe must act:Innovation: R&D spending in Europe is below 2%, compared to 2.6% in the US and3.4% in Japan, mainly as a result of lower levels of private investments. It is not only theabsolute amount spent on R&D that counts – Europe needs to focus on the impact andcomposition of research spending and to improve the conditions of the private sectorrelated to R&D in the EU. Our smaller share of high-tech firms explains half of our gapwith the US.Education, training and lifelong learning: A quarter of all pupils have poor readingcompetences, one in seven young people leaves education and training too early. Around50% reach medium qualification level but this rate often fails to match the labourmarket needs. Less than one person in three aged 25-34 has a university degreecompared to 40% in the US and over 50% in Japan. According to the Shanghai index,only two European universities are in the world's top 20.Digital society: The global demand for information and communication technologies isa market worth € 2 000 billion, but only one quarter of this comes from the Europeanfirms. Europe is also falling behind on high-speed internet, which affects its ability toinnovate, including in rural areas, as well as on the on-line dissemination of knowledgeand on-line distribution of goods and services.Therefore, a strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth has been formed.Priorities of the strategy are to emerge from the economic crisis and to createappropriate conditions for higher employment. This will be achieved via growth andimproving education and sustainability.Growth is going to be:Smart, through more effective investments in:a) education by encouraging people to learn and acquire more skillsb) research and innovation by creating new products and services that assist growthand improve jobsc) digital society by using technologies to communicate and to gather information

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Sustainable, through an economy which aims to improve energy efficiency andproduction, to protect the environment is more competitive, and provides efficientresources by:a) reducing carbon emissionsb) developing ''green technologies''c) introducing smart electricity gridsd) increasing the competitiveness of manufacturing SMEs through the utilisation of theEU scale networkse) improving the business environmentf) informing consumers in order to make better choicesInclusive, through reduction of poverty and creation of new jobs by:a) creating new and better jobs for women and elderly people, which will increase theemployment rateb) helping people manage the changes by improving their skills and knowledgec) making labour markets and welfare systems more modernd) making sure that growth will reach the whole of EuropeWebsite:http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:2020:FIN:EN:PDF5.2. TargetsIn order to check the progress of the strategy, 5 targets have been set for the whole ofEurope.

TargetCategory Target Values

Employment 75% of the 20-64-year-oldpeople to be employedR&D 3% of the EU's GDP to beinvested in R&DClimate changeand energysustainability

Reducing greenhouse gasemissions by 20% compared tothe 1990’s (or even 30% if theconditions are right)20% of energy fromrenewable energysources 20% increasein energyefficiency

Education Reducing the rates of earlyschool leaving students below10%at least 40% of 30-34–year-oldcompleting thirdlevel education

Fightingpoverty and

Reducing the number of thosewho are in risk of poverty and

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social exclusion social exclusion by 20 millioncapita at leastWebsite:http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:2020:FIN:EN:PDF5.3. Flagship InitiativesEurope has identified 7 initiatives in order to enhance growth and creation of jobs.1. Digital Agenda which aims to help people utilise digital technologies

Website: http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/2. Innovation Union which is beneficial for people through:a) transforming Europe into a world-class science performerb) the removal of the obstacles of innovation (like expensive patenting, marketfragmentation, slow standard-setting) which prevents the ideas from gettingonto the Market quicklyc) revolutionising the way on which public and private sectors work together,notably through Innovation Partnerships among the European institutions,national and regional authorities, and enterprisesWebsite: http://ec.europa.eu/research/innovation-union/index_en.cfm3. Youth on the Move is an integrated package of policy initiatives on educationand employment for young people in Europe and aims to improve youngpeople’s education and employability to reduce the high rate of youthunemployment and to increase the youth-employment rate by:a) making education and training more adequate to young people's needsb) encouraging more of them to take advantage of EU grants to study or to trainin another countryc) encouraging EU countries to take measures in order to simplify the transitionfrom education to workWebsite: http://ec.europa.eu/youthonthemove/index_en.htm4. Resource Efficient Europe provides a long-term framework for actions in plentyof policy areas supporting policy agendas for climate change, energy, transport,industry, raw materials, agriculture, fisheries, biodiversity, and regionaldevelopment. This is to increase certainty for investment and innovation and toensure that all relevant policies factor in resource efficiency in a balancedmanner.Website: http://ec.europa.eu/resource-efficient-europe/index_en.htm5. An industrial policy for the globalisation era in which the concept of nationalsectors and industries is obsolete, coordinated European policy responses areneeded. Europe also needs an approach that looks at the whole value chain, frominfrastructure and raw materials to after-sales service.

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Website: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/industrial-competitiveness/industrial-policy/index_en.htm6. An Agenda for new skills and jobs that presents actions which will help:a) stepping up reforms to improve flexibility and security in the labour marketb) equipping people with the right skills for today’s and tomorrow’s jobsc) improving the quality of jobs and ensuring better working conditionsd) improving the conditions for job creationWebsite: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=en&catId=9587. European platform against poverty has 5 areas of actions:1. Delivering actions across the whole policy spectrum such as the labourmarket, minimum income support, healthcare, education, housing, and accessto basic banking accounts.2. Better use of EU funds to support social inclusion.3. Promoting robust evidence of what does work and does not work in socialpolicy innovations before implementing them more widely.4. Working in partnership with civil society to support the implementation ofsocial policy reforms more effectively. The participation of peopleexperiencing poverty is now acknowledged as a catalyst for inclusionstrategies.5. Enhanced policy coordination among EU countries has been establishedthrough the use of the open method of coordination for social protection andsocial inclusion (Social OMC) and the Social Protection Committee inparticular.Website: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=961&langId=enThe following figure describes the above mentioned initiatives and activities:

S E V E N F L A G S H I P S

Smart Growth SustainableGrowth

InclusiveGrowth

Innovation

Education“Youth on the

Move”

Digital Society

ResourceEfficient Europe

An agenda fornew

Employmentand Skills

“An industrialpolicy for theglobalisation

era”

EuropeanPlatform

Against Poverty

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5.4. Other tools for growth and jobsIn addition, the full range of EU policies and instruments must be used in a moreeffective way to achieve the Europe 2020 goals. This includes cross-cutting policies andtools such as:a) The single market:Growth and job creation depend on healthy, well connected markets where competitionand consumer access stimulate business and innovation. Several obstacles still have tobe addressed which are routed to a large number of countries in the EU, the connectivitynetwork barriers, and the discrepancies in the regulations and rules of those countries.In addition, entrepreneurship needs to be further developed since Europe is furtherbehind than the US.b) The EU budget (including regional development, social and cohesion funds): EUfunding helps support:● More and better jobs● The development of new technologies● Cutting edge research● High-speed internet access● Smart transport and energy infrastructure● Energy efficiency and renewable energies● Business development● Skills and trainingc) External policy tools:The EU also intends to build strategic relationships with emerging economies, todiscuss issues of common concern, to promote cooperation on regulation and othermatters, and to resolve bilateral issues. In this context, the Commission presented itstrade strategy in November 2010.

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European Union Legal Acts6

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6 European Union Legal Acts6.1 RegulationA "regulation" is a binding legislative act. It must be applied in its entirety across the EU.For instance, when the EU wanted to protect the names of agricultural products comingfrom certain areas such as Parma ham, the Council adopted a regulation.6.2 DirectiveA "directive" is a legislative act which sets out a goal that all EU countries must achieve.However, it is up to the individual countries to decide how to achieve it. This was thecase with the working time directive, which stipulates that too much overtime work isillegal. The directive sets out minimum rest periods and a maximum number of workinghours, but it is up to each country to devise its own laws on how to implement this.6.3 DecisionA "decision" is binding on those to whom it is addressed (e.g., an EU country or anindividual company) and is directly applicable. For example, when the Commissionissued a decision fining the software giant Microsoft for abusing its dominant marketposition, the decision applied to Microsoft only.6.4 RecommendationA "recommendation" is not binding. When the Commission issued a recommendationthat pays structures for financial-sector employees should not encourage excessive risktaking, it did not have any legal consequences. A recommendation allows the institutionsto make their views known and to suggest a line of action without imposing any legalobligation on those to whom it is addressed.6.5 OpinionAn "opinion" is an instrument that allows the institutions to make a statement in a non-binding fashion, in other words, without imposing any legal obligation on those to whomit is addressed. An opinion is not binding. It can be issued by the main EU institutions(Commission, Council, Parliament), the Committee of the Regions, and the EuropeanEconomic and Social Committee. While laws are being made, the committees giveopinions from their specific regional or economic and social viewpoints. For example,the Committee of the Regions issued an opinion on how regions contribute to the EU’senergy goals.Website:http://europa.eu/eu-law/decision-making/legal-acts/

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Policy and StrategyDocuments7

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7 Policy and Strategy Documents7.1 Green PapersIn the European Union, the United Kingdom, Commonwealth, Hong Kong, and the UnitedStates, a green paper is a tentative government report and consultation document ofpolicy proposals for debate and discussion, without any commitment to action.Accordingly, the green paper can be considered as a first step in changing the law. Greenpapers may result in the production of a white paper.Green Papers are documents published by the European Commission to stimulatediscussion on given topics at European level. They invite the relevant parties (bodies orindividuals) to participate in a consultation process and debate on the basis of theproposals they put forward. Green Papers may give rise to legislative developments thatare then outlined in White Papers.Green Papers on entrepreneurship in Europe (2003), on demographic change and a newsolidarity between the generations (2005). or more recently on a European strategy forsustainable, competitive, and secure energy (2006) are examples of topics discussed.Thelist on the official website of the EU contains all the Green Papers published since 1993and some from even earlier.References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_paperhttp://ec.europa.eu/green-papers/index_en.htm7.2 White PapersA white paper is an authoritative report or guide helping readers to understand an issue,to solve a problem, or to make a decision. White papers are used in two main spheres:government and business-to-business marketing.Commission White Papers are documents containing proposals for Community action ina specific area. In some cases, they follow a green paper published to launch aconsultation process at European level. When a white paper is favourably received bythe Council, it can lead to an action programme for the Union in the area concerned.Examples are the White Papers on Completion of the Internal Market (1985), on Growth,Competitiveness, Employment (1993), and on European Governance (2001). Morerecently, the White Paper on Services of General Interest (2004) and that on a EuropeanCommunication Policy (2006) have also moulded the development of Communitypolicies.The list on the official website of the EU contains all the White Papers published since1993 - and some from even earlier.

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References: http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/glossary/white_paper_en.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_paper

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Bibliography8

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8 Bibliography

Official webpages of institutions and organisations Agencies and other EU bodieshttp://europa.eu/about-eu/agencies/regulatory_agencies_bodies/index_en.htm Committee of the Regionshttp://cor.europa.eu/en/Pages/home.aspx Council of the European Unionhttp://www.consilium.europa.eu/homepage.aspx?lang=en Court of Justice of the European Unionhttp://curia.europa.eu/jcms/jcms/j_6/ European Central Bankhttp://www.ecb.europa.eu/home/html/index.en.html European Commissionhttp://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htmhttp://ec.europa.eu/about/index_pt.htmhttp://ec.europa.eu/about/ds_en.htm European Councilhttp://www.european-council.europa.eu/home-page?lang=en European Economic and Social Committeehttp://www.eesc.europa.eu/?i=portal.en.home European Parliamenthttp://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/00b3f21266/At-your-service.html European Trade Union Institutehttp://www.etui.org/Acts, directives, initiatives Europe 2020 A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growthhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:2020:FIN:EN:PDF

Flagship Initiatives An Agenda for new skills and jobshttp://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=en&catId=958 An industrial policy for the globalisation era

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http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/industrial-competitiveness/industrial-policy/index_en.htm Digital Agenda for Europehttp://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/ European Platform against Povertyhttp://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=961&langId=en Innovation Unionhttp://ec.europa.eu/research/innovation-union/index_en.cfm Resource Efficient Europehttp://ec.europa.eu/resource-efficient-europe/index_en.htm Youth on the Movehttp://ec.europa.eu/youthonthemove/index_en.htm

Policy and Strategy documents Green Papershttp://ec.europa.eu/green-papers/index_en.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_paper White papershttp://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/glossary/white_paper_en.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_paperOthers European Union Legal Actshttp://europa.eu/eu-law/decision-making/legal-acts/ The EU Single Markethttp://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm The EU Budgethttp://ec.europa.eu/budget/explained/budg_system/index_en.cfm The EU external policy

http://europa.eu/pol/ext/index_en.htm The history of the European Unionhttp://europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/

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Glossary9

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9 Glossary

1. Broad economic policy guidelines (BEPG)2. Budget

3. Charter of Fundamental Rights4. Co-decision procedure

5. Convergence criteria6. EU policies:

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

Common commercial policy

Common fisheries policy

Common foreign and security policy (CFSP)

Common organisation of agriculturalmarkets (COM)

Common Security and Defence Policy(CSDP)

Common transport policy

Monetary policy

7. Europe 2020: a strategy for EuropeanUnion growth (strategy, targets, initiatives)

8. European institutions

9. Economic, social, and territorial cohesion10. Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)

11. European Development Fund12. European Investment Bank (EIB)13. European Union

14. European Union (EU) hierarchy of norms15. European Union agencies:

European Union agencies

Agencies in the field of the common foreignand security policy

Agencies in the field of police and judicialcooperation in criminal matters

Executive agencies

EURATOM Agencies and bodie

16. European Union law17. Free movement of persons (visas, asylum,

immigration, and other policies)

18. Human rights19. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)20. Natura 2000

21. OLAF (European Anti-Fraud Office)22. Ombudsman23. Pillars of the European Union

24. Political and Security Committee (PSC)25. Qualified majority26. Research and development

27. Rural development28. Schengen (Agreement and Convention)

29. Small and medium-sized enterprises30. Stability and Growth Pact31. Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund

32. Subsidiarity33. Tax harmonisation34. Trans-European Networks (TEN)Treaties:

Treaty establishing the European Coal andSteel Community (ECSC)

Treaty establishing the European EconomicCommunity (EEC)

Treaty establishing the European AtomicEnergy Community (Euratom)

Single European Act (SEA)

Treaty on European Union (TEU)

Treaty of Amsterdam

Treaty of Nice

Treaty of Lisbon

35. Vocational training

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DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

1. Broad economic policy guidelines (BEPG)The broad economic policy guidelines (BEPG) are the central link in co-ordination of theMember States' economic policies. They are adopted by the Council in the form of a non-legally binding recommendation. However, they are subject to a multilateralsurveillance mechanism which aims to ensure that Member States comply with them.2. BudgetAll the European Union's revenue and expenditure is entered in the Community budgeton the basis of annual forecasts.The budget is governed by several principles, including: unity: all the revenue and expenditure is brought together in a single document; annuality: budget operations relate to a given budget year; equilibrium: expenditure must not exceed revenue.The European Commission is responsible for submitting an annual preliminary draftbudget to the Council and the European Parliament, which share budgetary authority.The Council adopts and communicates its position on the draft budget to the EuropeanParliament before 1 October of the year preceding implementation of the budget. If theParliament approves the Council's position, the budget is considered to have beenadopted. If, however, the European Parliament adopts amendments to the Council'sposition, the Conciliation Committee is convened in order to find an agreement. ThePresident of Parliament has the role of declaring final adoption of the budget.3. Charter of Fundamental RightsThe Charter of Fundamental Rights consolidates in a single document the fundamentalrights applicable at the European Union level. It establishes ethical principles and rightsfor EU citizens and residents that relate to dignity, liberty, equality, solidarity,citizenship, and justice. While the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) islimited to protecting civil and political rights, the Charter goes further to cover workers'social rights, data protection, bioethics, and the right to good administration.

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4. Co-decision procedureFollowing the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, the co-decision procedure becamethe ordinary legislative procedure of the European Union. This procedure gives theEuropean Parliament the power to adopt instruments jointly with the Council of theEuropean Union. The ordinary legislative procedure also includes qualified majorityvoting in the Council.5. Convergence criteriaIn order to ensure the sustainable convergence required for the achievement ofeconomic and monetary union (EMU), the Treaty sets four convergence criteria whichmust be met by each Member State before it can take part in the third stage of EMU andhence before it can adopt the euro. Compliance is checked on the basis of reportsproduced by the Commission and the European Central Bank (ECB). The criteria are: the ratio of government deficit to gross domestic product must not exceed 3%and the ratio of government debt to gross domestic product must not exceed60%; there must be a sustainable degree of price stability and an average inflation rate,observed over a period of one year before the examination, which does notexceed by more than one and a half percentage points that of the three bestperforming Member States in terms of price stability; there must be a long-term nominal interest rate which does not exceed by morethan two percentage points that of the three best performing Member States interms of price stability; the normal fluctuation margins provided for by the exchange-rate mechanismmust be respected without severe tensions for at least the last two years beforethe examination.The convergence criteria are meant to ensure that economic development within EMU isbalanced and does not give rise to any tensions among the Member States.6. EU policies

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)The CAP is one of the most important EU policies. Policy is decided by qualified majorityvoting in the Council and consultation of the European Parliament.The CAP is an area in which competence is shared between the European Union (EU)and the Member States. Its aims are to ensure reasonable prices for Europe's consumersand fair incomes for farmers, in particular through the common organisation ofagricultural markets and by ensuring compliance with the principles adopted at the

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Stresa Conference in 1958, namely single prices, financial solidarity, and Communitypreference.Common commercial policyThe common commercial policy is one of the main pillars of the European Union'srelations with the rest of the world. The common commercial policy implies uniformconduct of trade relations with third countries, in particular by means of a commoncustoms tariff and common import and export regimes.The Union supports the abolition of trade and customs barriers. To defend the Europeanmarket, it has at its disposal tools such as anti-dumping and anti-subsidy measures, theTrade Barriers Regulation, and safeguard measures.Common fisheries policyThe CFP has the same legal basis as the common agricultural policy (CAP) and shares thesame objectives: to increase productivity, to stabilise markets, and to ensure security ofsupply and reasonable prices to the consumer. Like the CAP, the CFP is an area ofresponsibility that is shared by the European Union and the Member States.Common foreign and security policy (CFSP)The CFSP provides for the eventual framing of a common defence policy which mightlead to a common defence in time.The Lisbon Treaty reiterates the principles which govern the definition of this policy.Furthermore, it increases the effectiveness of the Common Foreign and Security Policyby entrusting the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy with themission to implement the strategies and decisions taken by the European Council andthe Council in matters related to the CFSP. In carrying out their mandate, the HighRepresentative is supported by the European External Action Service and the Politicaland Security Committee (PSC).Common organisation of agricultural markets (COM)The common market organisations (CMOs) cover around 90% of European Unionagricultural production. They govern the production and trade of products or groups ofproducts (cereals, fruit and vegetables, pork meat, eggs, wine, etc.) with the aim ofensuring steady revenue for farmers and a continued supply for European consumers.The CMOs are fundamental instruments in the common agricultural market in that theyeliminate obstacles to intra-Community trade in agricultural products and maintain acommon customs barrier with respect to third countries.Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP)

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The European Union's European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) includes thegradual framing of a common defence policy which might lead to a common defence intime. It aims to allow the Union to develop its civilian and military capacities for crisismanagement and conflict prevention at international level, thus helping to maintainpeace and international security, in accordance with the United Nations Charter. TheESDP, which does not involve the creation of a European army, is developing in amanner that is compatible and co-ordinated with NATO.Common transport policyThe goal of the common transport policy is to remove obstacles at the borders amongMember States so as to facilitate the free movement of persons and goods.To that end its prime objectives are to complete the internal market for transport,ensure sustainable development, manage funding programmes and spatial planning,improve safety and develop international cooperation. It is also concerned with layingdown the conditions under which non-resident carriers may operate transport serviceswithin a Member State.Since the Amsterdam Treaty entered into force, decisions have been taken under the co-decision procedure, following consultation of the European Economic and SocialCommittee and the Committee of the Regions.Monetary policyIt is fundamental to economic and monetary union (EMU). Decision-making proceduresvary according to the topics in hand:

for the issue of coins by the Member States, the cooperation procedure applies,after consultation of the European Central Bank (ECB); for the formulation of exchange-rate policy guidelines, the Council decides by aqualified majority on a recommendation from the ECB or from the Commissionafter consulting the ECB; for the implementing measures referred to in the Statute of the European Systemof Central Banks (ESCB) and the limits and conditions under which the ECB isentitled to impose fines, the Council decides by a qualified majority on arecommendation from the ECB and after consulting the European Parliament andthe Commission; for technical adjustments to the Statute of the ESCB, the Council decides by aqualified majority on a recommendation from the ECB and after consulting theCommission and obtaining the assent of the European Parliament; for the exchange rate of the euro against non-Community currencies, the Councildecides unanimously on a recommendation from the ECB or the Commission,after consulting the European Parliament.The institutional provisions and transitional provisions have their own special decision-making procedures which are separate from those identified here.

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7. Europe 2020: a strategy for the European Union’s growthThe Europe 2020 was written to support employment, productivity, and social cohesionin Europe. The European Union (EU) currently faces a moment of transformation,resulting mainly from globalisation, climate change, and demographic ageing.Strategy: smart, through the development of knowledge and innovation; sustainable, based on a greener, more resource efficient and more competitiveeconomy; inclusive, aimed at strengthening employment and social and territorialcohesion.Targets: increasing the employment rate of the population aged 20-64 to 75 %; investing 3 % of gross domestic product (GDP) in research and development; reducing carbon emissions by 20 % (and by 30 % if conditions permit),increasing the share of renewable energies by 20 %, and increasing energyefficiency by 20 %; reducing the school drop out rate to less than 10 % and increasing the proportionof tertiary degrees to 40 %; reducing the number of people threatened by poverty by 20 million.

Initiatives: the Innovation Union, the Youth on the move, the Digital Agenda for Europe, the Resource-efficient Europe, the industrial policy for the globalisation era, the agenda for new skills and jobs, the European Platform against Poverty.

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8. European institutionsThe Union has an institutional framework aimed at defending its values, objectives,interests, and the interests of its citizens and those of its Member States. This frameworkalso contributes to ensure the coherency, effectiveness, and continuity of Communitypolicies and actions.Main EU institutions: European Parliament European Council Council of the European Union (“the Council”) European Commission Court of Justice of the European Union European Central Bank (ECB) Court of Auditors European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) Committee of the Regions9. Economic, social, and territorial cohesionEconomic and social cohesion is an expression of solidarity among the Member Statesand regions of the European Union. The aim is balanced development throughout theEU, reducing structural disparities among regions and promoting equal opportunitiesfor all. In practical terms, this is achieved by means of a variety of financing operations,principally through the Structural Funds and the Cohesion Fund. Every three years theEuropean Commission presents a report on progress made in achieving economic andsocial cohesion and on how Community policies have contributed to it.10. Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) is the result of the process of harmonising theeconomic and monetary policies of the Member States of the Union with a view to theintroduction of a single currency, the euro. It was the subject of an IntergovernmentalConference (IGC), which concluded its deliberations in Maastricht in December 1991.EMU was achieved in three stages: First stage (1 July 1990 to 31 December 1993): free movement of capital amongMember States, closer co-ordination of economic policies and closer cooperationamong central banks.

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Second stage (1 January 1994 to 31 December 1998): convergence of theeconomic and monetary policies of the Member States (to ensure stability ofprices and sound public finances) and the establishment of the EuropeanMonetary Institute (EMI) and, in 1998, the European Central Bank (ECB). Third stage (from 1 January 1999): irrevocable fixing of exchange rates andintroduction of the single currency on the foreign-exchange markets and forelectronic payments. Introduction of euro notes and coins.Three Member States did not adopt the single currency: the United Kingdom andDenmark, both of which have an opt-out clause, and Sweden, following a referendum inSeptember 2003.11. European Development FundThe European Development Fund (EDF) is the main instrument providing Communityaid for development cooperation with the countries of Africa, the Caribbean and thePacific (ACP countries), and with the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs).The EDF finances any projects or programmes which contribute to the economic, social,or cultural development of the countries in question. It consists of several instruments,including grants, risk capital, and loans to the private sector.The EDF is funded by the Member States and has not come under the generalCommunity budget yet.12. European Investment Bank (EIB)Its task is to contribute to the economic, social, and territorial cohesion through thebalanced development of the EU territory.The EIB's shareholders are the 28 Member States of the European Union. The bank issupervised by the Board of Governors which comprises the 28 Finance Ministers. It haslegal personality and is financially independent. It provides long-term financing forpractical projects, the economic, technical, environmental, and financial viability ofwhich is guaranteed. It grants loans essentially from resources borrowed on capitalmarkets to which is added shareholders' equity. Between 1994 and 1999 the transport,telecommunications, energy, water, education and training sectors were the mainbeneficiaries.Outside the European Union the EIB supports the pre-accession strategies of thecandidate countries and of the Western Balkans. It also manages the financial dimensionof the agreements concluded under the European development aid and cooperationpolicies. In this connection, it is active in the Mediterranean countries and in the African,Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries.

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13. European UnionThe European Union (EU) was established by the Maastricht Treaty, signed in 1992. Theproject of creating a Union has a long history, and was first mooted at the Europeansummit of 1972.The Union is both a political project and a form of legal organisation.It is a political project in that its mission is to create an ever closer union among thepeoples of Europe, in which decisions are taken as openly as possible and as closely aspossible to the citizen (Article 1 of the Treaty on European Union).14. European Union (EU) hierarchy of normsEuropean Union law is based on primary legislation and secondary legislation. Primarylegislation is made of the Treaties, general principles established by the Court of Justiceof the European Union (CJEU) and international agreements. Secondary legislation ismade up of all the acts which enable the Union to exercise its powers.Hierarchy of norms within the secondary legislation: legislative acts (Article 289 TFEU). These are legal acts adopted by an ordinary orspecial legislative procedure; delegated acts (Article 290 TFEU). These are non-legislative acts of generalapplication which supplement or amend certain non-essential elements of thelegislative act. The power to adopt this type of act may be delegated to theCommission by the European Parliament or the Council; implementing acts (Article 291 TFEU). These acts are generally adopted by theCommission, which is conferred with implementing powers; in certain cases theCouncil may also be called upon to adopt implementing acts.15. European Union agenciesThe agencies of the European Union are bodies set up by the European Union (EU) tocarry out a specific technical, scientific, or administrative task.Currently 29 bodies meet the definition of a Community agency, though referred to byvarious names (centre, foundation, agency, office, monitoring centre, etc.).As autonomous organisations, the agencies are a heterogeneous group, with a commonorganisational model. They can be divided into three sub-groups according to theirareas of activity, to which the executive agencies have been added recently.

European Union agencies:

OHIM – Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market (Trade Marks andDesigns), with its headquarters in Alicante (Spain); CPVO – Community Plant Variety Office, Angers (France);

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ERA – European Reconstruction Agency, Thessaloniki (Greece); EMEA – European Medicines Agency, London (United Kingdom); EFSA – European Food Safety Authority, Parma (Italy); EMSA – European Maritime Safety Agency, Lisbon (Portugal); EASA – European Aviation Safety Agency, Cologne (Germany); ENISA – European Network and Information Security Agency, Heraklion(Greece); EU-OSHA – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, Bilbao (Spain); ECDC – European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm(Sweden); CEDEFOP – European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training,Thessaloniki (Greece); EEA – European Environment Agency, Copenhagen (Denmark); EUROFOUND – European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and WorkingConditions, Dublin (Ireland); EMCDDA – European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon(Portugal); EFRA - European Fundamental Rights Agency, Vienna (Austria); ERA – European Railway Agency, Valenciennes and Lille (France); ETF – European Training Foundation, Turin (Italy); CdT – Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union, Luxembourg(Luxemburg); CFCA – Community Fisheries Control Agency, Vigo (Spain); FRONTEX – European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation atthe External Borders of the Member States of the European Union, Warsaw(Poland); ECHA – European Chemicals Agency, Helsinki (Finland); European Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Supervisory Authority,Brussels (Belgium); EIGE - European Institute for Gender Equality, Vilnius (Lithuania).

Agencies in the field of the common foreign and security policy:

EDA – European Defence Agency, Brussels (Belgium), headed by the HighRepresentative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy; EUISS – European Union Institute for Security Studies, Paris (France);

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EUSC – European Union Satellite Centre, Madrid (Spain).Agencies in the field of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters:

Eurojust – The European Union's Judicial Cooperation Unit, the Hague(Netherlands); Europol – European Police Office, the Hague (Netherlands); CEPOL – European Police College, Bramshill (United Kingdom).

Executive agencies:Executive agencies are organisations established under the Council Regulation (EC) n°58/2003. They are entrusted with the management of one or more Communityprogrammes. These agencies are set up for a fixed period. They are located at the seat ofthe European Commission. Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, Brussels (Belgium); Executive Agency for Health and Consumers (EAHC), Luxembourg(Luxembourg); Executive Agency for Competitiveness and Innovation (EACI), Brussels(Belgium); European Research Council Executive Agency (ERC), Brussels (Belgium); Research Executive Agency (REA), Brussels (Belgium); Trans-European Transport Network Executive Agency (TEN-T EA), Brussels(Belgium).

EURATOM Agencies and bodies:

Fusion for Energy (European Joint Undertaking for ITER and the Development ofFusion Energy), Barcelona (Spain).16. European Union lawStrictly speaking, European Union law consists of the founding Treaties (primarylegislation) and the provisions of instruments enacted by the European institutions byvirtue of them (secondary legislation - regulations, directives, etc.).In a broader sense, European Union law encompasses all the rules of the EuropeanUnion legal order, including general principles of law, the case law of the Court of Justice,law flowing from the European Union external relations, and supplementary lawcontained in conventions and similar agreements concluded among the Member Statesto give effect to Treaty provisions.

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17. Free movement of persons (visas, asylum, immigration,and other policies)Title IV of the Treaty establishing the European Community (EC Treaty) set out theEuropean Union's policy on "visas, asylum, immigration and other policies related tofree movement of persons". These areas of action were linked to the progressiveinstitution of an area of freedom, security, and justice and covered the following:

free movement of persons; external border controls; asylum, immigration, and safeguarding of the rights of third-country nationals; judicial cooperation in civil matters.18. Human rightsRespect for human rights and dignity is one of the core values of the European Union(EU) enshrined in the Treaties. Together with the principles of freedom, democracy,equality, and rule of law, it guides EU action inside as well as outside the EU’s borders. Inparticular, action in this field focuses on combating discrimination, racism, andxenophobia as well as on protecting vulnerable groups such as children, women, andminorities.19. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO or the Atlantic Alliance) was founded bythe North Atlantic Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Washington, signed on 4 April1949, and has its headquarters in Brussels. The EU's policy respects the NATOobligations of the Member States concerned and is compatible with the commonsecurity and defence policy, is determined within this framework.20. Natura 2000Natura 2000 is a set of areas in the Member States in which plant and animal species andtheir habitats must be protected. Protection arrangements are laid down by the "BirdsDirective" (1979) and the "Habitats Directive" (1992).21. OLAF (European Anti-Fraud Office)The European Anti-Fraud Office has been responsible since 1 June 1999 for combatingfraud against the European Union budget.The Office investigates the management and financing of all the Union's institutions andbodies with absolute operational independence. This independence is guaranteed by:

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the Director of OLAF: appointed in agreement with the European Parliament, theCommission and the Council, he/she is able to appeal before the Court of Justiceof the European Union to protect his/her independence. Moreover, he/she canlaunch an investigation not only at the request of the institution, body, orMember State concerned, but also on his/her own initiative; OLAF's Supervisory Committee: responsible for monitoring the investigativefunction, it comprises five independent outside persons appointed jointly by theEuropean Parliament, the Commission, and the Council.22. OmbudsmanThe position of Ombudsman was established by the Treaty on European Union(Maastricht, 1992) to ensure sound administration and administrative transparency atEU institutional level.He/She is empowered to receive complaints from any citizen of the Union or any naturalor legal person residing in a Member State concerning instances of maladministration inthe activities of the Union institutions, bodies, or entities (with the exception of theCourt of Justice of the European Union).23. Pillars of the European UnionThe Treaty of Maastricht (1992) introduced a new institutional structure whichremained until the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon. This institutional structurewas composed of three “pillars”:1. the Community pillar which corresponded to the three Communities: theEuropean Community, the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), andthe former European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC);2. the pillar devoted to the common foreign and security policy, which came underTitle V of the Treaty on European Union;3. the pillar devoted to police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, whichcame under Title VI of the Treaty on European Union.24. Political and Security Committee (PSC)The Political and Security Committee (COPS) is the permanent body in the field ofcommon foreign and security policy.It is made up of Ambassadors from the 28 Member States. Its remit is: to monitor the international situation in the areas covered by the commonforeign and security policy (CFSP); to contribute to the definition of policies;

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to monitor implementation of the decisions taken under the responsibility of theHigh Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.25. Qualified majorityA qualified majority (QM) is the number of votes required in the Council for a decision tobe adopted when issues are being debated on the basis of Article 16 of the Treaty onEuropean Union and Article 238 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.Under the ordinary legislative procedure, the Council acts by qualified majority, in co-decision with the European Parliament.After 1 January 2007 and following enlargement of the Union, the qualified majorityincreased to 255 votes out of a total of 345, representing a majority of the MemberStates. Moreover, a Member State may request verification that the QM represents atleast 62% of the total population of the Union. If this is not the case, the decision is notadopted.With the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon a new system known as “doublemajority” was introduced. It will enter into force on 1 November 2014. In accordancewith the Treaty, the new qualified majority corresponds to at least 55% of the membersof the Council, comprising at least 15 of them and representing at least 65% of theEuropean population. A blocking minority may be formed comprising at least fourmembers of the Council.26. Research and developmentResearch and development policy is one of the European Union's priorities. Research,with education and innovation, forms the "knowledge triangle" which it is hoped willallow Europe to maintain its economic dynamism and social model.Co-ordination of research and development initiatives within the Union is based onvarious instruments: The framework programmes for research and technological development. Thesemulti-annual programmes, introduced in 1984, encompass more specificprogrammes covering fields as varied as information and communicationtechnologies, the environment, biotechnology, energy (including nuclear power),transport, and mobility of researchers. The Joint Research Centre (JRC), the research body which supports the action ofthe Union, is made up of eight research establishments distributed in theEuropean Union which meet the specific needs of the various policies of theEuropean Commission. It is at the forefront of research in nuclear energy(especially safety) and it is diversified into sectors such as materials, theenvironment, industrial risks, and satellites. It is funded through the EU

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framework programmes for research and by its own earnings from commercialcontracts.27. Rural developmentRural development is the second pillar of the common agricultural policy (CAP). Itfocuses on four fundamental areas: the competitiveness of agriculture, food products, and forestry; land management and the environment; quality of life and diversification in rural areas; the Leader Community initiative.28. Schengen (Agreement and Convention)By the Schengen Agreement signed on 14 June 1985, Belgium, France, Germany,Luxembourg, and the Netherlands agreed to gradually remove controls at their commonborders and to introduce freedom of movement for all nationals of the signatoryMember States, other Member States, or third countries.The Schengen Convention supplements the Agreement, lays down the arrangements,and safeguards for implementing freedom of movement. It was signed by the same fiveMember States on 19 June 1990 but did not enter into force until 1995.The Agreement and the Convention as well as the related agreements and rules togetherform the "Schengen acquis". Since 1999, this has formed part of the institutional andlegal framework of the European Union by virtue of a protocol to the Treaties.The Schengen agreements have been extended over time by countries: Italy, Spain,Portugal, Greece, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, the Czech Republic, Estonia,Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia. Ireland and the UnitedKingdom are only partial participants in the Schengen acquis, since their border controlshave been maintained.Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Romania also apply only parts of the Schengen acquis, as adecision of the Council of the European Union is still required before controls at theirborders can be lifted.Four non-Community countries also belong to the Schengen area: Iceland, Norway,Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.Countries that are candidates for Union membership must have accepted the whole ofthe Schengen acquis at the time of accession.

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29. Small and medium-sized enterprisesAt Community level, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are defined by a set ofcriteria concerning the workforce, turnover, and independence of the business. In termsof the workforce alone, a micro-enterprise has fewer than 10 employees, a smallenterprise fewer than 50 and a medium-sized enterprise fewer than 250. The EuropeanUnion has specifically defined SMEs so that the benefits introduced for their support arereserved for those businesses which genuinely have the characteristics of such firms.30. Stability and Growth PactThe Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) pertains to the third stage of economic andmonetary union, which began on 1 January 1999. It is intended to ensure that theMember States maintain budgetary discipline after the single currency has beenintroduced.The Stability and Growth Pact establishes two main monitoring procedures: A multilateral surveillance procedure intends to prevent the occurrence of anexcessive deficit and to promote the coordination of economic policies. When theeconomic policy of a Member State does not comply with the broad economicguidelines set out by the Council or may result in an excessive deficit, theCommission may address an "early warning" to the Member State concerned. TheCouncil, on the basis of a Commission recommendation, may then addressrecommendations to the Member State; The "excessive deficit procedure" is laid down by article 126 TFEU. If theCommission considers that a Member State's deficit breaches the 3% of GDPthreshold of the Treaty, it should address an opinion to the Member Stateconcerned. Where the existence of an excessive deficit is established, the Councilshould then issue recommendations to the Member State so that it corrects thedeficit within a given period. If the Member State fails to take appropriatemeasures to end an excessive deficit, the Council may then decide to imposesanctions.31. Structural Funds and Cohesion FundThe Structural Funds and the Cohesion Fund are the financial instruments of EuropeanUnion (EU) regional policy which is intended to narrow the development disparitiesamong regions and Member States. The Funds participate fully, therefore, in pursuingthe goal of economic, social, and territorial cohesion.There are two Structural Funds: the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) is currently the largest. Since1975 it has provided support for the creation of infrastructure and productivejob-creating investments, mainly for businesses;

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the European Social Fund (ESF), set up in 1958, contributes to the integration intoworking life of the unemployed and disadvantaged sections of the population,mainly by funding training measures.In order to speed up economic, social, and territorial convergence, the European Unionset up the Cohesion Fund in 1994. It is intended for countries whose GDP per capita isbelow 90% of the Community average. The purpose of the Cohesion Fund is to grantfinancing to environment and transport infrastructure projects. However, aid under theCohesion Fund is subject to certain conditions. If the public deficit of a beneficiaryMember State exceeds 3% of national GDP (EMU convergence criteria), no new projectwill be approved until the deficit has been brought under control.These Funds are used to finance regional policy in the framework of the objectives: the "Convergence" objective to accelerate the convergence of the least developedEU Member States and regions by improving growth and employment conditions.This objective is financed by the ERDF, the ESF, and the Cohesion Fund; the "Regional Competitiveness and Employment" objective to anticipate economicand social change, to promote innovation, entrepreneurship, environmentalprotection, and the development of labour markets which include regions notcovered by the Convergence objective. It is financed by the ERDF and the ESF; the "European Territorial Cooperation" objective to strengthen cooperation atcross-border, transnational, and interregional levels in the fields of urban, rural,and coastal development and foster the development of economic relations andnetworking among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). This objective isfinanced by the ERDF.32. SubsidiarityIt ensures that decisions are taken as closely as possible to the citizen and that constantchecks are made to verify that action at Union level is justified in light of the possibilitiesavailable at national, regional, or local level. Specifically, it is the principle whereby theUnion does not take action (except in the areas that fall within its exclusivecompetence), unless it is more effective than action taken at national, regional, or locallevel. It is closely bound up with the principle of proportionality, which requires that anyaction by the Union should not go beyond what is necessary to achieve the objectives ofthe Treaties.33. Tax harmonisationTax harmonisation consists in coordinating the taxation systems of the Europeancountries to avoid non-concerted and competing changes in national fiscal policies,which could have an adverse effect on the internal market.With the "fiscal package" to combat harmful tax competition, the Council adopted:

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a code of conduct for business taxation (December 1997); an instrument to reduce distortions in the effective taxation of savings income inthe form of interest payments (Savings Taxation Directive, June 2003); an instrument to eliminate withholding taxes on cross-border interest androyalty payments made between associated companies (Interest and RoyaltyPayments Directive, June 2003).34. Trans-European Networks (TEN)The function of Trans-European Networks is to create a modern and effectiveinfrastructure to link the European regions and the national networks. They areessential to proper operation of the common market, since they ensure free movementof goods, persons, and services.Trans-European Networks: Trans-European Transport Networks (TEN-T) cover road and intermodaltransport, waterways and seaports, and the European high-speed railwaynetwork. Intelligent transport management systems also fall into this category, asdoes Galileo, Europe's satellite radio navigation system. Trans-European Energy Networks (TEN-E) cover the electricity and natural gassectors. They help to create a single energy market and to contribute to thesecurity of supply. Trans-European Telecommunications Networks (eTEN) have as their aim thedeployment of telecommunication networks based services. They focus stronglyon public services and are at the very heart of the initiative "eEurope - AnInformation Society for All".35. TreatiesThe creation of the first “Community”, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC),was the starting point for over 50 years of the European treaty-making. Between 1951(ECSC Treaty) and 2001 (Treaty of Nice), no fewer than 16 treaties were signed. Theprincipal treaties are as follows:

Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)

Signed: 18 April 1951 in ParisEntered into force: 23 July 1952Expired: 23 July 2002Purpose: to create interdependence in coal and steel, so that one country could nolonger mobilise its armed forces without others knowing. This eased distrust andtensions after the WWII. The ECSC treaty expired in 2002.

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Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC)

Signed: 25 March 1957 in RomeEntered into force: 1 January 1958Purpose: to set up the European Economic Community (EEC).Main changes: extension of the European integration to include the general economiccooperation.Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)

Signed: 25 March 1957 in RomeEntered into force: 1 January 1958Purpose: to set the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).Main changes: extension of the European integration to include the general economiccooperation.Single European Act (SEA)

Signed: 17 February 1986 (Luxembourg) / 28 February 1986 (The Hague)Entered into force: 1 July 1987Purpose: to reform the institutions in preparation for Portugal and Spain's membershipand speed up decision-making in preparation for the single market.Main changes: extension of qualified majority voting in the Council (making it harderfor a single country to veto proposed legislation), creation of the cooperation and assentprocedures giving Parliament more influence.Treaty on European Union (TEU)

Signed: 7 February 1992 in MaastrichtEntered into force: 1 November 1993Purpose: to prepare for European Monetary Union and to introduce elements of apolitical union (citizenship, common foreign and internal affairs policy).Main changes: establishment of the European Union and introduction of the co-decisionprocedure giving Parliament more say in decision-making. New forms of cooperationamong EU governments – for example on defence and justice and home affairs.Treaty of Amsterdam

Signed: 2 October 1997 in AmsterdamEntered into force: 1 May 1999Purpose: To reform the EU institutions in preparation for the arrival of future membercountries.

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Main changes: amendment, renumbering, and consolidation of the EU and EEC treaties.More transparent decision-making (increased use of the co-decision).Treaty of Nice

Signed: 26 February 2001 in NiceEntered into force: 1 February 2003Purpose: to reform the institutions so that the EU could function effectively afterreaching 25 member countries.Main changes: methods for changing the composition of the Commission and redefiningthe voting system in the Council.Treaty of Lisbon

Signed: 13 December 2007Entered into force: 1 December 2009Purpose: to amend the Maastricht Treaty (1993) and the Treaty of Rome (1958).Main changes: a) move from unanimity to qualified majority voting in at least 45 policyareas in the Council of Ministers; and b) announced the Charter of Fundamental Rights -the Union's bill of rights, legally binding.

36. Vocational training"The Union shall implement a vocational training policy which shall support andsupplement the action of the Member States, while fully respecting the responsibility ofthe Member States for the content and organisation of vocational training". (Article 166of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union)The Copenhagen Declaration (2002) and the Maastricht Communiqué (2004) reassertedthe priorities of transparency, recognition, and training quality and set out priorities atnational level.Two important schemes were devised: Europass-Training (1998) which described skillsacquired by training abroad, and Europass (2004) which combines five documentsaimed at providing a clear and simple picture of the qualifications and skills of citizensthroughout Europe.The Leonardo da Vinci sectoral programme, as part of the action programme foreducation and life-long learning, is the funding vehicle for training activities. It seeks tosupport and supplement the action taken by the Member States, by promotingtransnational partnership and mobility, innovation, and quality of training and also theEuropean dimension of training systems and practice.The European agencies and bodies active in the field of training are: the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) withits headquarters in Thessaloniki, established in 1975;

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the European Training Foundation, Turin, established in 1994; the Advisory Committee on Vocational Training, set up in 2004 to assist theCommission in carrying out its policy.