stepping vol. 32, no. 1, 2, 3, & 4 to ... - files.eric.ed.govorlando, florida. sydney freeman, jr....

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Stepping to Center StageThe Journal of Educational Foundations, 2019

Devon Jensen is associate dean of the College of Graduate Studies at the University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida. Sydney Freeman, Jr. is an associate professor of higher education leadership and qualitative research in the Collegte of Education at the University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. Their e-mail addresses are: [email protected] & [email protected]

Abstract

HigherEducationasaFieldofStudy ismulti-disciplinary in itsorigin. Given the relative youth of the field, as it was only foundedless than130yearsago, itdoesnotyethave standalone theories orphilosophies as the scholarship in the field frequently borrows fromitsepistemological,methodological,andphilosophicalideasfrommoreestablishedsocialsciencedisciplinesandfields.TheobjectiveofthispaperistouseanhistoricalexplorationofhighereducationinNorthAmericatoarticulatebothhighereducation’sfoundation,purposeandphilosophy.Thisanalysiswillaidincategorizingthetypesofquestionsthepublicandgovernmentaskofhighereducationandhowhighereducationasafieldofscholarshipcanimpactthefutureofthegovernance,pedagogy,thenatureofresearch,anduniversity’ssocietalrole.Thecumulativeeffectofthisworkisultimatelymovingthisfieldofstudytothecenterstageofthediscussionsaroundhighereducation.

Keywords: Higher Education, philosophy of education, foundation ofeducation

Steppingto Center Stage:The Rise of Higher Education as a Fieldof Study

Devon JensenSydney Freeman, Jr.

The Journal of Educational FoundationsVol. 32, No. 1, 2, 3, & 42019, pp. 24-48Copyright 2019 by Caddo Gap Press

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Devon Jensen & Sydney Freeman, Jr,

Introduction

Both the challenges and positive outcomes of higher educationregularlymakeheadlinesacrossthecountry.Headlinessuchasracialtensionsoncampuses,therighttocarryconcealedweaponsoncampus,studentdebt, state fundingcuts tohighereducation, campussexualharassment, and university presidents forced out of their jobs arecommon stories featured in the news. In our current climate, whathappensonuniversitycampusescanbebignewspointingtonationalstoriesaroundcampusfreedomofspeech,conflictsbetweenliberalandconservativevoicesoncampus,andfacultyoradministratorsgettingfiredforcommentstheymakeinthenewsorsocialmedia. Atthesametime,thebenefitsthatHigherEducationcanbringtocommunitiesandthenationisalsopartofthenationaldialogue.Forinstance,recentreportingbytheBayAreaCouncilEconomicInstitutebroughtattentiontothefactthatstartupbusinessesfromtheUniversityofCaliforniasystemgeneratedsome$20billionineconomicactivityforthestate.Manyoftherecentadvancementsaroundcancerdiagnosisandtreatmenthavecomefromuniversity-levelresearch.Therearealsoexcitingadvancesaroundthemicroscopicworldofnanotechnologyandthe large-scaleengineeringof internet infrastructureshappeningonuniversitycampusesacrossthecountry. Boththechallengesandpositiveoutcomesofhighereducationsupporttheneedforacontinuedexplorationoftheempiricalandqualitativerealitiesthatcanexpresshowuniversitiesfunctionasenterprisesofknowledge,artifact,technical,social/cultural,andleadershipproduction.Thisworkisbestframedthroughfacultyandgraduatestudentswhofocussomeorevenalloftheirteaching,learning,andresearchtohighereducationasafieldofstudy.Thisresearchpathisalsolinkedtoensuringinfrastructuresexisttodisseminateandorganizetheknowledgethatisgenerated.Thecurrentrealityisthatmuchofthisworkisbeingdonebybothgraduatestudentsandfacultywhospecializeinhighereducationasafieldofstudy. Withtheincreasingscrutinydirectedatuniversitiesaroundsuchmattersasthevalueoftheendeavor,accountabilityofpublicresources,andtheliberalizationofcollegecampuses,therewillbeongoingsocietalandeconomicinterestinstudyinghighereducation.Asaresultofthis,those involved in higher education inquiry and leadership will playa more significant role in answering the difficult questions posed ofpostsecondary institutions inourday.Sothat thisdiscussioncanbemeaningfulandpurposeful,itiskeytofullyaccesstheknowledgeandresearchderivedfromhighereducationasafieldofstudywithinthis

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Stepping to Center Stage

growingnarrative.Theobjectiveof thispaper is touseanhistoricalexplorationofhighereducationinNorthAmericatoarticulatebothhighereducation’spurposeandphilosophyofhighereducationasafieldofstudy.Thisanalysiswillaidincategorizingthetypesofquestionsthepublicandgovernmentaskofhighereducationandhowhighereducationasafieldofscholarshipcanimpactthefutureofthegovernance,pedagogy,thenatureofresearch,anduniversity’ssocietalrole.Thecumulativeeffectofthisworkisultimatelymovingthisfieldofstudytothecenterstageofthediscussionsaroundhighereducation.

Building the Plot

Academicexplorationsintothephilosophyandpurposeofauniversityaremanyandvaried.ExamplesincludeEmberley(1996)whodebatedthecurrentstateofthefinancial,political,andspiritualcollapseofuniversitiesthroughthecontextualdemandsplacedonthesystembytheculturalleftandthecorporateright.Clarifyingtheuniversity’scloserelationshiptoitssociologicalandintellectualendeavors,Cabal(1993)tookamoreglobalperspective in his dialogue of the relevancy and quality of universityeducation.Fromamorefunctionalistperspective,Minogue(1973)andBok (1982) examined the usefulness that knowledge must serve asuniversitiesfulfilltheirexternalresponsibilitiestosociety.Switchingfocustotheinternalresponsibilitiesofuniversities,Barnett(1990)endeavoredtodevelopatheoryforhighereducationbystudyingthe“fundamentalprinciplesonwhichtheideaofhighereducationhastraditionallystood,andthewayinwhichthoseprinciplesarebeingundermined”(p.3). Thereisalsoliteraturewhichconnectsthehighereducationnarrativetokeyconceptsorthemes.Theyarethesearchforknowledgeandtruth(Leacock, 1934); the dissemination of knowledge from a master to astudent(Brubacher,1977);theneedforinternalautonomy(Pincoffs,1972);theneedforknowledgetoserveausefulpurpose(Jaspers,1965);andtheneedforknowledgetobeanendinitself(Newman,1931;Newman,1952).Theseconceptshavenotjustriseninrecenttimesbutareinsteadfoundedonhistoricalnotionsofwhat“higher”educationshouldbeandhowitisdifferentfromprimaryformsofeducation. Lookingbetweenthelinesintheseworks,thewriterswererespondingtotheinternalandexternalquestionsoftheirtimeaboutauniversity’sconnectiontothepastandhowthatcouldbehinderingorhelpinghighereducation’sprogressinamodernera.Thediscussionswerealsoacallforacademicandpubliccommunitiestobringbackwhatoncewas.Theywereusinghighereducationasafieldofscholarshiptoexpressboththehistoricalandfuturecontextofuniversitiestothelargercommunityofhighereducationstakeholders.Afteranextensivereviewofthehigher

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educationliterature,theauthorsofthisarticlewereabletoclassifythehighereducationnarrativeintofourgeneralconstructs:thepedagogyofhighereducation, theconceptandroleof research inuniversities,university’sconnectionandimpactonsociety,andgovernanceofhighereducation institutions.The discussion will now shift to explore howthese overarching constructs have been shaped and influenced by aphilosophicalconnectiontotheideaofauniversity.

Setting the Scene

Theuniversityasamoderninstitutiondidnotbegintoappearuntilthemedievalagesduetoavarietyofinternalandexternaleducationalneeds(Southern,1984).However,thereisevidencethatvariousformsofhighereducationwereestablishedonthecontinentofAfricaasearlyas331AD(Chambers,2017).WoldegiorgisandDoevenpeck,(2013)wroteintheirhistoricalreflectiononAfrica’scontributiontotheinceptionoftheacademythat,

Abjayietal(1996),forexample,havereportedtheexistenceofonesuchacademyreferredtoastheAlexandrianAcademyortheUniversalMuseumLibraryatAlexandriabetween331and642AD.Itisalsoonrecordthatin859AD, theAl-QuarawiyyinUniversitywasestablishedatFez inMoroccowhiletheAl-AzharUniversityatCairowasestablishedin970ADinEgypt(Lulat,2005).The2,700yearsoldtraditionofeliteeducationofEthiopiawithanAfricanscriptcalledGe’ezcouldalsobetakenasanexampleofahigherformofeducationinpre-colonialAfrica.(p.35)

EuropeancountriessuchasEngland,Normandy,andItalyhadaninternalneedforeducatedpeoplewhocouldassistinthegrowthofanexpandinganddevelopingnation,andtherewasalsotheexternalrespectandrecognitionthatcamewithbeinginvolvedinthehighereducationalenterprise. University education was basically an individual contractestablishedbetweenthestudentsandthemaster.Thelocaltownalsobenefitedbecausethescholarsandstudentsneededtorentoutapartments,spacestostudy,andfoodtoeat.Thisprocessdevelopedintoamutualrelationshipbetweenthetownandthe“university”.Thislooserelationshipbetweenthestudents,masters,andthetownleadshistorianstospeculatethattherewasnospecificadministrativebodyfortheseearlyuniversities(Southern,1984).Therelationshipbetweenthemasters,thestudents,andthelocalcitizenswasoneoftemporaryneed,soanytypeofadministrativestructurewasmostlikelyinformalandindefinite. Asthesehigherscholasticendeavorsincreasedinprominence,thecrownsawhighereducationasaresource forastrongcontingentofeducatedgraduateswhomitcouldusetosupportitsgrowingnationalinfrastructure. Evidence indicates that it was out of this need that

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thestatefirstbecameinvolvedinhighereducation.Similarly,duringthemedievalera,therehadalwaysbeenastrongconnectionbetweenthe churchand learningand this relationshipextended to theearlyuniversities.Theriseofuniversityinstitutionswasalsoenhancedbecausetheofficialsofboththechurchandthestateneededarangeofknowledgeandskillindebatethatwasnotbeingachievedinthegrammarschoolsoftheday.Inthiscontext,medievaluniversitieswereestablishedunderacloseconnectiontoboththestateandthechurchwithbothinstitutionsproposingexternal responsibilitieson theresultsofhighereducation.Theresultwastocreateaneducationalclimatethatwasidealforhigherlearning and scholastic advancement. With these initial frameworks,thereisevidenceofaphilosophyofhighereducationbeingformulated.Itwastobeaplaceofhigherstudieswherethelearningcouldbeusedtobenefitsociety—especiallytheelite—andpoliticaldesigns.Eveninhighereducation’searlyconstruction,thereisevidenceofpedagogicalformations,aconnectiontosociety,andarudimentarygovernancemodel. Some of this advancement then lead to massive changes in theideaofauniversityduringtheEnlightenment.Initssearchfortruthand scholastic advancement, the scientific research paradigm of theEnlightenmentpromisedsociety“freedom,equality,justice,thegoodlife,prosperity,health,stability,peace,higherstandardsofliving,increasedcontrolovernature,society,andtime,andtheeradicationofhunger,crime,andpoverty”(Bloland,1995,p.523).Aprettytallorder.Onedoesnothavetolookveryhardtoseesimilarphilosophicalresponsibilitieswithin current university campuses. This is called progress and inmodernistlanguage,progressisdefinedasincreasingcontrolovernatureandsociety(Giroux,1988). Aspartofthiscontrol,scientistsreliedonpositivisticparadigmsofinquiry,which,inturnaffectedtheirrelationshiptorealityandtruth(Locke,2015;Wood,2002).Inthispositivisticshift,subjectscouldbeobjectified,measured,quantified,andcategorized.AsAugusteComtedevelopedinhisphilosophieswithin“CourseofPositivePhilosophy”, theobjectsofsciencecouldbeputintoproperplaceandpropersequencethroughlogicalpositivism.DrawinguponthephilosophiesofImmanuelKant,wholenewcontextsofresearchwereopenedupastheseresearchersshiftedtheirmoralresponsibilitiestothediscoveryofuniversallaws(Wood,2002). Asmorescientistsbegantoexploretheboundariesoftheirmoralandphysicalfreedom,theirscientificmethodologiesbegantorevealtruths,universalities,andlawsabouttheuniverseandreality.Offascinationwasthatthesetruthsexistedintheuniverse.Truthandthelawsoftheuniversewerenotsomethingthathadtobecreated;theyweresomethingthat could be found and discovered (Comte, 1848).This process wasexpressedinenlighteningfindingslikeNewton’sdiscoveryofgravity,or

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Darwin’s“OriginoftheSpecies”.Fromthisevolvedoneofthegeneralassumptions of the Enlightenment: that truth is not created—it isdiscoveredintheuniverse.Researchactivitythat“stressedthesearchforgenerallaws,formalandapriorihypotheses,neutralitywithregardtomoralissues,standardizedassessmentdevices,thereductionofobservedreality,andadistancebetweenobserverandobserved”(Chesler,1991,p.79)becameanessentialelementofknowledgecreationintheideaof a university. Universities developed into privileged places whereknowledge,truth,andexpressionsofculturebecamelegitimized.Forthefirsttimeinhistory,theuniversityinstitutionbecameacenterwhereresearch was a primary focus.With a dynamic pedagogy in place, amorestructuredgovernancemodel,anincreasedawarenessofasocialrole,andanarticulationofresearchepistemologies,theuniversitywasfunctioningunderaphilosophicaldirectionthathasitsfootprintinourcurrenthighereducationinstitutions. AsacounternarrativetothepracticaldemandsoftheIndustrialrevolution,CardinalJohnNewmanwasoneofthefoundingphilosophersoftheliberalartssystemofhighereducation(Newman,1931;Newman,1952).Inhiswork,hecalledtheacademiccommunitybacktoahighereducationapproachwherethebenefitstosocietywerederivedthroughpedagogiesthatformedandshapedthestudentasalearnerandathinker.Healsoespousedthatresearchshouldalsobeinvolvedinsolvingtheculturalandsocietalchallengesofthedayandnotberedirectedbytheboisterouseconomicagenda. Atthistime,abifurcationinthephilosophiesofhighereducationoccurred and the scholarship of higher education grew to discussthesetwodifferentrealities.Therewasanarrativearoundthemarketinfluenceofhighereducationthatservedverypracticalandshort-termneeds.This was expressed vividly in research that was applied andattemptedtomeettheimmediateneedsofagrowingindustrialsector.Societyalsoneededengineers,accountants,politicians,scientists,anddoctorswhocoulddevelop,support,andcreatethisburgeoningsociety.The governance of universities strove to create infrastructures thatsupportedafunctionalistphilosophyofhighereducation. Conversely, Newman (1931 & 1952) believed that the study ofknowledgeshouldbe itsownend.The liberalartseducativeprocessinvolvedaPlatonicformofphilosophicaldiscourseleadingtoknowledge.Newmanbelievedthatexternalagendaswerealteringthephilosophicalfoundationsofhighereducationandthattheeducationalendeavoroftheuniversityshouldbetopursueknowledgefreefrompoliticalandeconomicagendas.Instructuringthelearningenvironmentthisway,Newmanwasstriving tokeep thedemandsof the industrial societydistantfrominfluencinguniversityeducationanditstraditionalstudy.In

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fact,thispedagogicalapproachformedtheideologyformanyoftheearlyuniversitiesthroughoutNorthAmericaandespeciallyinthemid-west(Nugent,2015).Thereweremanyeducationalleadersandpoliticianswhosawadifferentpurposeforuniversitiesthough.Thisalternativephilosophical voice would speak its loudest following World War II.Althoughnotformalizedasitistoday,thisstrategicchangewasanearlyexpressionofhighereducationasafieldofstudyandscholarship. Inthe1940s,theUnitedStateswasfeelingthecultural,political,andsocialshockofhavingbeeninvolvedinWorldWarII.OneofthegreatestchangesthatwouldaffecttheideaofauniversitycamebecauseofWorldWarIIitself(Cardozier,1993).Forthefirsttime,theUnitedStateshadreallyseenthepotentialthatresearchandsciencecouldhaveontheeconomyandonindustry.Outofapracticalneed,thefederalgovernmenthadturnedtoresearchandsciencetoproduceall thatwasrequiredforthewareffort.Theuniversitiesmetthechallengewithengineers,economists,chemists,biologists,politicalscientists,andphysicists. Asaresultofthesuccessfulrelationshipthathadbeenestablishedbetweenthestateandtheuniversitiesduringthewaryears,thefederalgovernmentrealizedthatitcoulduseuniversitiestoeducateandtrainreturningveteransaspartoftheirreintegrationintoNorthAmericansociety.Jaspers(1965)proposedthathighereducationshouldservetheindividualwhilerespondingtonationalneeds.Hisintentionwasthatabalanceneededtobestruckbetweenliberalnotionswherethesearchfor knowledge was an end in itself and knowledge serving practicalpurposes.Hebelievedthiscouldbeachievedbydevelopingbothliberalandprofessionalpedagogiesoflearning. Writersincreasinglybegantoresearchtheconceptoflearningina university and from this five dominant pedagogies for universityeducationbegantodevelopinthescholarshiparounduniversitiesandlearning:liberal-perennialism,progressivism,essentialism-behaviorism,humanism, and reconstructionism-critical theory (Barrow & Woods,1975;Kneller,1964;Langford,1969;Scottetal.,1994). Throughliberal-perennialistphilosophies—alsoknownasmentaldiscipline—theprimaryteachingpracticewastodisciplinethemindorexerciseitthroughthestudyofabsolutes,oftenarticulatedintheformofprinciples.Inthisphilosophy,theteacherwasanintellectualexpertandhisorherprimaryteachingresponsibilitywastopassthisknowledgetothestudents.Forthestudents,learningwaspassiveandwasassessedthroughdeductive,well-reasoned,andarguedessays. In progressivist philosophies, the learner continually interactedwithhisorherenvironmentandattemptedtointerpretthemeaningofhisorherexperiences.Theroleoftheteacherwastobecomeapartnerorhelperwherethelearnerwasthecenterofthelearningprocessand

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most learning occurred through reflections on their experiencesandthroughproblemsolving. InEssentialist-Behavioristphilosophies,thesubjectmatterwasmostimportantwiththeteacherastheauthority.Theaimofeducationwastopredict,change,andcontrolstudents’actionsbyusingavailableknowledgeaboutthelawsofhumanbehavior.Throughbehaviorism,theteacherwouldelicitdesiredbehaviorsandthenextinguishundesirablebehavior.Skillsweretaughtthroughanextrinsicrewardandpunishmentsystem.Someexamplesofclassroomteachingstrategieswerecompetency-basededucation,mastery learning, self-control, andassertiveness training.Assessment was based on demonstration of a changed behavior inaccordancewithpredeterminedbehavioralobjectives. The teaching philosophy of humanism or self-actualization hadresponsibilitytotheindividualasparamount.Inturn,teachingstrategiesandmethodsevolvingfromthisperspectiveaimedatpromotinggrowthandself-actualizationoftheindividualthroughpositiverelationshipswiththeteacher.Theeducationaltasksweretoassistandrecognizeeachperson’sindividualpotential,creativity,andfreedom.Goalswereachievedincommunityenvironments. Theaimofeducationinreconstructionismorcriticaltheorywastocreateanewsocialorderthatwouldfulfillthebasicvaluesofourculture.Thosebasicvaluesweretobefoundedonagenuinedemocracywhosemajorinstitutionsandresourceswerecontrolledbythepeoplethemselves.Withinthisparadigm,thedynamicsofpowerandempowermentwereintrinsically intertwined. As such, student empowerment dependeduponnegotiating,notavoiding,thepowerdynamics.Critiquebecameanessentialpracticeandskillforthestudentstodevelop.Inessence,critiquecallsforaspecialandsuspiciousinterpretationofthoseideologiesandinstitutionsthatsupportandmaintainrulingpowerstructures.Soasonecriticallyreflectsindialoguewithothersandactsonthatreflection,bothpersonalandsocialtransformationoccurs.Ifoneexploresthequestionsintheliteratureandmediaaboutauniversityeducation,thediscussionwillmostlikelycenterontheweaknessorcredibilityofthesepedagogies.Awarenessofthesehighereducationphilosophiesbringsmeaningandpurposetotheissuesconsideredwithinhighereducationscholarship.Atthesametime,increasedawarenessofthesepedagogiesandmoredynamiccommunicationnetworkshaveexpandedthemediumsthroughwhichhighereducationasafieldofstudycanimpacthighereducationalchangethroughitscorepedagogies. Itisnowimportanttoconcentrateonhowstudiesandquestionsintohighereducationhaveinfluencedthegovernanceofpostsecondaryinstitutions.Inexploringthegovernanceelement,Canadaisagreatcase in how governance aligned with the idea of what a university

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should be. Early Canadian university leaders struggled to definetheirphilosophyandgovernancestructures.Canada’searlyfoundinginstitutionsdevelopedinthelate1700s(Cameron,1991).ThestructureofthesecollegesfollowedinlinewiththeOxfordtraditioninbothitscurriculumand in its theologicalsupport for theChurchofEngland(OntarioDepartmentofEducation,1896). SamuelBaldwin’sgovernmentwasthefirsttoproposeatotalbreakfromreligionineducationandbegantodevelopplansforaprovincially-run,secularuniversity(Wilson,1933).ThisnewuniversitywouldofferaneducationalcurriculumthatpreparedstudentsforthepracticalitiesofcontributingtotheeconomicandindustrialgrowthofayoungCanada.TheBilltocreatetheUniversityofTorontowaspassedin1849(Cameron,1991).Itexistedunderthedirectcontroloftheprovinceandwasopentoallpeoplewhodesiredtoattend.Aspartof itsestablishment,thegovernmentpassedanActthatboundtheUniversityofTorontototheprovince.TheActof1849was“aimedatmakingthestateuniversityacommongroundfortheyouthofthecountryirrespectiveofcreed”(TheLegislativeAssemblyofOntario,p.xiii). The Flavelle Royal Commission Report in 1906 (The LegislativeAssembly of Ontario, 1906) established an internal universityenvironment that more closely matched the needs and concerns ofthe external Canadian environment. The Flavelle report stronglyrecommendedthatuniversities,asinstitutionsofthestate,becloselyalignedwith theneeds of the largerCanadian community. Inherentinthisgovernanceshiftwasaphilosophyaroundthesocialroleoftheuniversityandhowthatsocialrolerequiresadifferentgovernancemodel.Toestablishunitybetweentheinternalneedsoftheuniversityandtheexternalneedsofthepublic,theuniversitywastogovernitselfthroughaBoardofGovernorsandaSenatecalledbi-cameralgovernance.TheBoardofGovernorswastohavethepowersoftheCrownvestedinit,andtheSenatewastodirecttheacademicinterestsoftheUniversity.Assuch,theinternalandexternalregulatingstructuresofthebi-cameralsystemweretoeliminatetheuniversityfrombeingsubjectedtopartypoliticsandinsodoing,provideaneducativeenvironmentconducivetolong-rangestability.Theintentofthe“FlavelleReport”wastosuggestthatthebi-cameralapproachwould impartstrength,continuity,andfreedomofactiontothegoverningbodiesoftheuniversitywhilealsokeepingtheuniversityintouchwithexternalpublicsentiment. EducationalphilosopherssuchasW.E.BDuBoisandBenjaminE.Mayesinthemidandlate20thcenturyadvocatedthattheAmericanhighereducationsystemalsoprovidedopportunitiesforsocialupliftandopportunities(Playfair,2016;Warren,2011;Gaines,2012;Jelks,2012).Collegesanduniversitieshaveservedasthelaboratoriesformanyof

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thesocialmomentsintheUnitedStatesandaroundtheworld.Itcanbesaidthatthebarometeroffuturesocialprogresscanbegaugedandpredictedbasedonsocialcausesthatarebeingfoughtandadvocatedforbystudentsoncollegeanduniversitycampuses. OnecanlooktotheUnitedStatesandrecognizeimportantgovernancemovesthroughimportantframeworkssuchasland-grantuniversitiesandtheMorrillAct,HistoricalBlackColleges&Universities(HBCU’s),andOberlinCollege.Onethingisclearthoughinthisgovernancediscussion,theideaofauniversityistiedtoanarrativearounditsteaching,research,service,andgovernance.

Why Higher Education as a Field of Study Got This Role

Higher education as a field of study links the concept of highereducationtoascience.TheScienceCouncildefineda“science”as“thepursuitandapplicationofknowledgeandunderstandingofthenaturalandsocialworldfollowingasystematicmethodologybasedonevidence”(Science Council, 2009). A scientific methodology is one that usesobservation, data measurement, evidence, data benchmarks, criticalanalysis, repetitionor transferability,andverificationof the testing/analysis.Thisimpliesthat,asrepresentedinthedefinition,ascienceisdrivenbysystematicpracticesthatdescribetheprocessesforacquiringknowledgeaboutthatdiscipline.Fromthere,abodyofknowledgecanbeorganizedaroundthatfieldofstudybasedonwhatisderivedfromsystematicpractices.Aconceptthathasbeendevelopedinthispaper.The compilationof thisknowledge can then lead to“theoreticalandapplied understanding of higher education institutions and systemsandtheirinteractionwithanimpactonsociety”(Hendrickson,2013,p.230).Whatthisdiscussionsuggestsisthattherearecontemporaryepistemologiesandmethodologiesthatareusedinthestudyofhighereducationasresearchersseekunderstandingaroundissuesofpedagogy,research,governance,andhighereducation’sroleinsociety.Manyofthewritersreferencedinthispaperareexamplesofhighereducationscholarshipinitsbeginningformstomorecomplexcurrentanalysis.Thisincludesresearchthatisdrivenbyatheoreticalorphilosophicaldebatetoempirically-basedhypotheses.

Higher Education Scholarship Prepares for the Stage

Whencomparedtosuchancientacademicdisciplinesasmedicine,mathematics,andhistory,theformalstudyofhighereducationusingscientificprinciplesisquitenew.Forthesakeofthisstudywedefineadisciplineasabroadareaofknowledgethatincludesacommonset

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ofresearchproblems,knowledgebase,andsetofcommonlyacceptedresearchmethods(Card,Chambers,&Freeman,2016;Kuhn,1962).Whereasafieldisasmallersubsetandmorefocusedareaofknowledgethatspecificallyaddressesproblemswithinadiscipline.Forinstance,medicine given this definition is a discipline, whereas veterinarymedicine would be a field that is a subset of the broader/largerdisciplineofmedicine.HigherEducationasaFieldofStudy,accordingtoGoodchild(1996),wasfirstconceivedin1893,whenthepresidentofMassachusetts’ClarkUniversity,GranvilleStanleyHall,providedacourseontheproblemsofcollegesanduniversities.Thiscoursewaswell-received by its students; and during the next several decades,Hallcollaboratedwithotherstoproducecourseswithrelatedcontent.Eventually, thiswork led to theorganizationofaClarkUniversitygraduateprograminhighereducation. Jensen(2013)documentedthenextstepsoftheemergingfieldofhighereducation,whichbegantodevelopinthe1930s.SoonaftertheestablishmentoftheJournal of Higher Educationin1930,researchersbegangatheringdatarelatedtohighereducationconcernsandproblems.The data demonstrated the need for further research in this field—Master’sthesesandDoctoraldissertationshadalreadybeendiscussinghighereducationissuesinquantityforthepastdecade. Jensen(2013)reportedthatinthelate1930s,scholarsbegancallingforincreasedresearchinthefieldofhighereducation,asopposedto“trialanderrorpracticesrelatedtoleadershipandcurriculuminhighereducation” (p. 2). Jensen (2013) alsodocumentedproposals formorecourseofferingsintheareaofhighereducationduringthistimeperiod,aswellastheincreasedattentionsuchcoursesreceivedinanattempttomarketthemtowardaspiringprofessors. Overtheremainderofthetwentiethcentury,Jensen(2013)wrote,highereducationscholarsbegantodrawattentiontothegrowthofthisnewfield.Morepublicationsappearedtoexposehighereducationgraduateprogramsandcourseofferings.Whiletheresearchofthe1960sfocusedprimarily on drawing attention to the existence of higher educationprograms,theresearchofthe1970sand1980sbegantoexploresomeofthespecificproblemsofthenewfield(Dressel&Mayhew,1974;Fife&Goodchild,1991).Soon,profilesofhighereducationprofessorsandstudentsappearedintheliterature.Bythe1990sand2000s,researchbecametargetedtowardneedsanalysisofthefieldofadministrationandqualityanalysisofexistinghighereducationprograms. Today, higher education programs are conceptualized differentlythanthe1930smodelthatemphasizedteachertraining.AccordingtoAltbach(2014),thegrowthofuniversitiesasinstitutionshasresultedinchangestotheirauthoritystructures.Modernuniversitiesarenow

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normallygovernedbyfull-timeadministrators,ratherthanprofessorswhodividetheirtimebetweentheperformanceofadministrativeandteaching duties. This change in authority structure has necessarilyresultedinashiftinthefieldofhighereducationtowardthepreparationofadministratorsandawayfromthepreparationofprofessors.

Higher Education Modernizes its Part

AccordingtoAltbach(2014),Americanstudentsofhighereducationtodaycanexpecttopreparethemselvesforcareersascollegeanduniversityadministrators.Thus,inhighereducationprogramsacrossthecountry,courseworkandtrainingaremoreheavilyemphasizedthanresearch.Students of higher education are typically instructed regarding thecomplexitiesoftheinstitutionstheyhopetolead,learningofsuchpracticaltopicsasuniversityhistoryandfinance(Freeman&Kochan,2014). AlthoughthestudyofhighereducationisstillconsideredanemergingfieldintheUnitedStates,inEuropeitisevennewer.AccordingtoScott(asquotedinKehm,2015)theAmericanandEuropeanmodelsofhighereducationstudiesdiffer,perhapsincorrespondencewithculturalandpoliticaldifferences.WhereastheAmericandisciplineofhighereducationisanacademicandpractice-orientedone,focusingon(andresearching)administrationandleadershipconcerns,theEuropeanmodelislessofanacademicdisciplineandmoreofaconsultativeapproach,designedtoassistpolicy-makers(2000).Scott’sviewofAmericanhighereducationstudiescontrastswiththatofBostonCollege’sPhilipAltbach(2014)andAmericanprofessorsPerucciandMcManus(2012)whodescribecurrentAmericanhighereducationstudiesasinterdisciplinary,ratherthananestablished,independentdiscipline. KienleandLoyd(2005)argued,however,thatAmericaninstitutions“cannolongerexist intheivorytower,or intherelativeisolationoftraditional American higher education” because of the increasinglyglobalnatureofhighereducation (p.580).Theyalso contended thathighereducationstudents—thefutureadministratorsofcollegesanduniversities—should learn how to lead others toward interculturaleffectiveness.Thus,itmaybewiseforstudentsinthefieldofhighereducationtobeawareofthevariousviewsofthefieldworldwide.

The Scholarship of Higher Education is Legitimized Through Education

Fromuniversitiesearliestinceptionduringthemedievalera,thisarticlehasdescribedhowreligiousleaders,academics,politicians,andothershavethoughtaboutandaskedquestionsofthehighereducationenterprise.Althoughhighereducationscholarshiphasbeenanecessity

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sincetheinceptionofhighereducationinframingthenarrativearoundtheinstitutionandwhatitistobe,onlyrecentlyhashighereducationbecomeafieldofstudyinitsownright.ForinstanceinCanada,“RobinHarriswasappointedthefirstprofessorofhighereducationinCanadain1964”(Jones,2012,p.3).AsimilarhistoryexistsintheUSwheremostdoctoralprogramsinhighereducationdatefromthe1960s(Crosson&Nelson,1986).Inastudyfrom1974,DresselandMayhewfoundtheretobe74graduateprogramsinhighereducation.Currently,theAssociationfortheStudyofHigherEducation(ASHE)reportsthatthereareover260highereducationprogramsintheUS.ItissowidespreadnowthateverystateexceptonehasatleastoneuniversityofferingagraduateprograminHigherEducationstudies.ThissamegrowthinHEprogramsishappeningwithstudentswhoareinterestedinattainingtheirgraduatedegreesinhighereducationstudiesandresearch.ThefollowingdatawasderivedfromtheDepartmentofEducation’sDigestofEducationalStatistics.

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(Notethatdatawasnotavailablefortheyears1995and1998.)

Itisobviousbythisdatathattherehasbeensubstantialgrowthinthenumberofdegreesawardedinthefieldofhighereducationshowingincreasedinterestinthetopicasafieldofstudy.Italsoshowsmoreandmoreacademicswanttocontributetothescholarshipandpracticeofthisfield.

Overthisdaterange,HigherEducationprogramshaveseenameanpercentagegrowthof6%peryear.Thisiscomparedwiththefieldof

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Educationingeneralwhichsawameanpercentagegrowthof2.8%peryear.Whenfurthercomparedtothefieldofeducationingeneral,therewasa199%increaseinMastersdegrees,a167%increaseinDoctoraldegrees,and196%increaseindegreesoverallfrom1987to2014.HigherEducationasafieldofstudysawincreasesof743%,177%,and482%respectivelywhichwasgreatergrowthineverycategorycomparedwiththefieldofEducationingeneral.Takingthesenumberstoamoreoveralllevel,HigherEducationasafieldofstudysawhigherratesofgrowthduringthistimeperiodthanallofgraduateeducationcombined.ThetotalcombinedgrowthofallgraduateeducationinallfieldsofstudyandwithMastersandDoctoralstudieswas279%comparedwithHigherEducationasafieldofstudyat482%.Anotherindicatorofgrowthinthisfieldwasthatin1987,HEdegreesaccountedfor0.2%ofallgraduatedegreesawarded.In2014,HEaccountedfor0.36%ofallgraduatedegreesawardedintheU.S. Whilehighereducationleadershavehistoricallyacquiredtheskillsandcompetenciesrequisitetotheirsuccessthroughperformingtheirduties (learningon the job), changes in the structureof themodernuniversityhaveledtoincreasinglycomplexdemandsuponadministrators.Inresponsetothesenewdemandsthatwaspresentedinthedatahere,professionalsinthefieldofhighereducationhavedevelopedbroadlyapplicablegraduateprogramsdesignedtotrainupthenextgenerationofeducationadministrators(Freeman,Chambers,&Newton,2016). Optimalgraduateprogramsinhighereducationleadership,accordingtoFreemanandKochan(2012),arebeingdesignedtoprovidestudentswithagroundinginhighereducationhistory,aswellasinthepracticalconsiderationsofinstitutionalbudgetingorfinance.Additionally,theseprogramsarepreparingfutureadministratorsbyallowingthemtolearnabouttheuniquecultureandcontextofhighereducation,wheretheywilleventuallybecomeleaders.Finally,graduateprogramsinhighereducationareprovidingstudentswithopportunitiestocultivateawiderangeofskillsnecessarytotheirsuccessasadministrators,includingmanagement,leadership,andcommunicationskills.Stork,Grant,andDarmo (2015) reported that “The increase in generalist leadershipprogramshascontinuedunabated”(p.34).Whatisimportantisthattheseareallpeoplewhoarepracticing, thinking,andwritingabouthighereducationasafocusoftheirprofessionalactivities.

Student Affairs

A specialized niche within the field of higher education studies,graduateprogramsinstudentaffairsleadershiparedesignedtopreparestudentsforhighlyspecificcareersinstudentaffairsadministration.

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AccordingtotheAmericanCollegePersonnelAssociation(ACPA,2016),there are now over 141 graduate programs at the Master’s level instudentaffairsandhighereducationleadership. AccordingtotheresearchofRennandJessup-Anger(2008),graduatestudentsinthefieldofstudentaffairsandhighereducationleadershipbenefitmostfromprogramsthatallowthemampleopportunitiestogainpracticalexperience.Intheirwords,“experientiallearning[is]criticaltofuturesuccess”inthisfield;it“alsoallowsstudentstoobservemultipleprofessionalperspectivesandwidenthenetofpossiblementorsastheytransitionintothefield”(p.329). Thisisnottoimply,ofcourse,thatfuturestudentaffairsprofessionalscannotordonotbenefitfromactualcourseandprogramcontent.However,futurestudentaffairsprofessionalswouldlikelybeprofitedbyanemphasisonhowtheycanapplywhattheyhavelearnedtotheirfutureprofessions;thisseemsonlyappropriateforadegreeprogramwhosefunctionitistoproducespecializedprofessionals(Renn&Jessup-Anger,2008).

Community College

Inordertopreparethenextgenerationofcommunitycollegepresidentsandadministrators,universitieshaverecentlybegunofferingspecializeddegreesandprogramstargetedtowardfuturecommunitycollegeleaders(Forthun&Freeman,2017a).AccordingtoAmey(2006),someoftheseprogramsareaccreditedgraduatedegrees,whileothersareofferedasunaccreditedprofessionaldevelopmentorcareerpreparationcourses. However,Brown’s(2001)researchindicatedthatitisadvisableforcommunitycollegeadministratorstoholdDoctoratedegrees,preferablyinthefieldofeducationleadership.Brownreportedthat“someleadershipprograms also develop a student’s program of study around specificcommunitycollegeleadershipgoals,i.e.,studentdevelopment,instruction,finance,thepresidency,technology,etc.”(p.150). Interestingly, Hagedorn and Purnamasari (2014) wrote thatcommunitycollegeleadershipprogramstendtoattractgraduatestudentsofaclosermatchtocommunitycollegestudentdemographicsthandoothergraduateprograms;communitycollegeadministratorprogramsareoftenpopulatedbywomenandracial/ethnicminorities.Arguably,thisgraduateprogramdemographicshouldhelptoproducestrongrolemodelsforfuturecommunitycollegestudents.

Internationalization

In an increasingly global society, the study of higher educationleadership cannot be limited to American colleges and universities.

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Although higher education leadership itself is a relatively youngfield, it has already birthed several specialized sub-fields, includinginternationalhighereducationleadership.Whileinternationalhighereducationleadershipisnotacommondegreeoffering,institutionssuchasBostonCollegehaveestablishedaMaster’sprogramdedicated toproducingleadersequippedtoassumeinternational leadershiprolesin “a university, association, or policymaking organization” (BostonCollege,2015).Thisprogramprovidesstudentswithanintroductiontointernationalhighereducationasafield,opportunitiestogainpracticalexperience,comparisonsofregionalandglobaleducationhighersystems,andwithguidancetowardproducingresearchinthefield.

Executive Higher Education Program

ThelateDougTomaintheearly2000sestablishedthefirstexecutivehighereducationdoctoralprogramtopreparethenextgenerationofhighereducationseniorleadership(Selingo,2003).SimilartotheexecutivemastersofbusinessadministrationE-MBA,theseareprogramsthatallowworkingprofessionalstodeveloptheirknowledgeofleadershipwhilesimultaneouslystillengagingintheirfull-timeprofessionalworkobligations.(Forthum&Freeman,2017b)noted,

In the United States, there are twelve universities that offer anexecutivedoctorateinhighereducation.Whiletheseprogramsarealldesignedtotargetoraccommodateworkingprofessionals,theyvaryincost,programduration,numberofgraduatecreditsrequired,andresidencyrequirements.

Grounding Higher Education as a Field of Scholarship

Asacademicsinthefieldofhighereducationandresearchersaswell,theauthorsofthisarticlehavethegreatopportunitytosupervisedoctoralstudentsastheyexplorethecontemporaryproblems,issues,challenges, and positive attributes around higher education. In thisprocessofinquiry,weareresponsibleforpushingourstudentstopositiontheirresearchwithinaparticulartheoreticalframeworkorworldview.Atheoreticalframeworkisthelensthroughwhichtheseresearchersviewtheirtopicandwhichestablishestheconfinesforhowthetopicwillbeexplored(Grant&Osanloo,2014).Atheoreticalframeworkshouldaddressfourconceptsthatlinkandflowtogethertoformaconsistentmessageabouthowtheirtopicofinquirywillbepursued.Thefourelementsare:Philosophy,Ontology,Epistemology,andMethodology.Beingconsciousoftheseconstructs,alignstheirstudyofhighereducationtothesystematicmethodsnecessaryofascienceorafieldofstudymentionedearlierin

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thispaper.Thereisalsoamoredeepenedphilosophicalelementattachedtothetheoryofhighereducationandhighereducationasafieldofstudy.Thisisaxiology.Axiology,whichstemsfromtwoGreekwords—axiosorworth,andlogosorreason,theory—isarelativelynewdiscipline.

Theproblemsandissuesaxiologyinvestigateshavebeenwithusfromthemomentmanbegantoreflectuponconditionsofhislife,thestructureofreality,theorderofnatureandman’splaceinit...Byhisverynaturemanhasbeenprimarilyinterestedinhowthingsandeventsadministertohisbasicandderivativeneeds,howtheysatisfyorfrustratehim,howtopreserveandpromotethegoodthingsoflifeandcurtailanderaseobjectswhichstifflyhiszestforliving.Amereglanceatthehistoryofphilosophyshowshowdeeplymanhasbeenpreoccupiedwiththenatureofvalues...Inquiryintotheclaims,truth,andvalidityofvaluejudgmentsisanecessityoflifeitself.(Hart,1971,p.29)

Highereducationisnotjustathingoraproduct.Highereducationisanemotionallychargedspaceanddecisionsaroundtheideaofauniversityareimpactedbytheseemotionsandvalue.Considertheemotionsaroundthesinglemotherusinghighereducationtoriseoutofpovertycreatinga new economic reality for her family. Consider the researcher whospendsyearsonaprojectleadingtoadiscoverythatpositivelychangesthelivesofpeoplewithAlzheimer’s.Asresearchersconsiderthetheoryofhighereducationasafieldofstudy(Thacker&Freeman,2019)itcannotbedonewithouthavingaphilosophicalconsciousnessaboutthevalueoftheenterprise.We(theauthors)believeashighereducationistthat,“tovalueistosetpriorities.Itistochooseonethingoveranother.Itistothinkaboutthingsinrelationtoeachotheranddecidethatoneisbetterthantheother”(ClearDirection,Inc.,2001,para3). Onamacrolevel,thissimilarideologyisnecessaryinordertoworkwithinthescienceofhighereducationandtoexperienceitwithinthecontextofafieldofstudy.Tothisend,thetheoreticalfoundationofhighereducationistiedtoitsresponsibilityforthedevelopmentoftheindividualstudentwherelearningforlearning’ssakeisthecentraltenet.Highereducationisabouttherefinementofculture.Thesecondresponsibilityisfortheuniversitytoberesponsivetotheneedsofsocietyanddeveloplearnerswhocanrespondtothepracticalitiesoflife.Highereducationisaboutmeetingthefunctionalneedsofsociety.AsBrubacher(1970)statedinhispaperonthetheoryofhighereducation,thereare,itseems,twocurrenttheoriesofauniversity.“Accordingtotheonetheorytheuniversityhasacertainself-authenticatingqualitywhichcausesittostandsomewhatalooffromthesocialmilieu.Accordingtotheothertheuniversityfindsitself,notstandingaloof,butcaughtupinthestressesandstrainsofcontemporaryevents”(p.99). It is from these two overarching theories that researchers have a

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startingphilosophicalpointtoengageinanontological,epistemological,andmethodologicalinquiryintohighereducationandtodevelopaknowledgeabouthighereducationanditscorefunctionsaroundeducation,research,service,andgovernance.Researchersinthefieldofhighereducationcannothave“apreoccupationwithknowledgewithoutanaccompanyingtheoryofthatknowledge”(Brubacher,1970,p.100).Muchofthisknowledgebuildingishappeningwithfacultyandstudentsingraduatehighereducationprogramsacrossthecountrywhoareactivelyworkingtoexpandthenarrativeanddialoguearoundwhatauniversityistobeandhowitfunctions. Thephilosophicalpropositions thatweoutlined in thispaperbyusingascriptasametaphor,(a)establishingapurposeforthefieldofstudy,(b)historicallongevity,and(c)distinctivescholarshipinformedbytheoryandpractice,hasprovidedhighereducationasafieldwiththecredibilitytoassertitsownuniquephilosophicalstandingseparateanddistinctamongstotherfieldsanddisciplines.

What Role Will the Field of Study Play in the Future?

Inthecomplexworldofhighereducation,thefutureofthisfieldofstudywillbedefinedbyitsabilitytoprovideandestablishaknowledgebasewhichdiscussesawidevarietyofissuesaroundthefourconstructsmentioned in thispaper: the educational enterprise, thenatureandpurpose of research, its societal role, and the governance of highereducationinstitutions.Thisisthenarrativethatneedstobeestablished.In creating and establishing this knowledge base, graduate highereducation programs will be essential in bringing a knowledgeableworkforceofleadersandpractitionerswhounderstandthedynamicsofhighereducationanditsvarioustheories.Forinstance,therearemanyeducationalleadershipprogramsacrossthecountrywhoaremembersof the Carnegie Project on the Educational Doctorate.The CarnegieProjectontheEducationDoctorate(CPED)isaConsortiumofover80collegesandschoolsofeducation,whichhavecommittedresourcestoworktogethertoundertakeacriticalexaminationofthedoctorateineducation(EdD)throughdialog,experimentation,criticalfeedbackandevaluation.“Theprofessionaldoctorateineducationprepareseducatorsfortheapplicationofappropriateandspecificpractices,thegenerationofnewknowledge,andforthestewardshipoftheprofession”(CPEDWebsite).Thepracticeofgraduateeducationalleadershipprogramsisthendesignedaroundthefollowingguidingprinciples:

TheProfessionaldoctorateineducation:

•Isframedaroundquestionsofequity,ethics,andsocialjusticetobringaboutsolutionstocomplexproblemsofpractice.

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• Prepares leaders who can construct and apply knowledge to make apositive difference in the lives of individuals, families, organizations, andcommunities.

•Providesopportunitiesforcandidatestodevelopanddemonstratecollaborationand communication skills to work with diverse communities and to buildpartnerships.

•Providesfield-basedopportunitiestoanalyzeproblemsofpracticeandusemultipleframestodevelopmeaningfulsolutions.

•Isgroundedinanddevelopsaprofessionalknowledgebasethatintegratesbothpracticalandresearchknowledge, that links theorywithsystemicandsystematicinquiry.

•Emphasizesthegeneration,transformation,anduseofprofessionalknowledgeandpractice.(CPEDWebsite)

What is evident in these principles is a framework that shapeshighereducationasafieldofstudy.AsGoodchild(2014)shared,“Highereducationisamultidisciplinaryfieldofstudy“(p.16)thatisinformedbyvariousdisciplinarytraditionssuchaspsychology,sociology,andlaw.Asweconclude,thereareafewissuesthatwillimpactthefieldmovingforward.

Higher Education as Both Actor and Director

Inthelastdecade,discussionshaveintensifiedregardingtheroleandimportanceofprovidingguidelinesandbestpracticesforthefield.Forinstance,somesuchasHartandLudwig(2014)andColbeckandSouthworth(2014)arguedthatthereisnoneedforuniversalguidelinesandperceivethatsuchanapproachwouldencroachupontheflexibilityandautonomythattheseprogramshaveenjoyedfromtheirfounding.Whereas,(Freeman&Kochan,2014)andHagedornandPurnamasari(2014)vigorouslybelievethatguidelineswouldenhancethestatusoftheyoungfieldandprotectthesmallerprogramsfromthevicissitudesofpossibleclosure. Thecurrentrealityisthattheaudienceiswatchinghighereducation.Theeyesofaccountabilityandtheeyesofthosewantingtoknowarepayingattention.Wecannolongerexistintheivorytowersandhideonthesidesofthestage.Writers,thinkers,andacademicsarecomingto the front of the stage to tell the story ofhigher education.Thesescholars are informed, educated, and articulate. These individuals,whoareincreasinginnumberseachyear,areusingscientificpracticestowadethroughrhetoricanddirectanarrativethatisderivedfromaphilosophicalunderstandingofatheoryofknowledgeabouthighereducation.Theyareactorswithastoryaboutsociety,aboutlearning,aboutunderstanding,andaboutleadingthatweallshouldsee.

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