stereotypes in written job references -...

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Systematic Distortions and Stereotypes in Written Job References

An exploration and analysis in connection with the question if and to which extent systematic distortions and stereotypes are recognizable in written job references.

The analysis is based on the evaluation of written job references of unqualified workers,

professional specialists and executives, mainly in small and middle-sized companies in Switzerland.

Dissertation on behalf of University of Applied Sciences Nordwestschweiz

Submitted to achieve the degree of “Master of Business Administration –

International Management Consulting (MBA-IMC)”

September 2007

Student Peter Studerus An der Aare 4 CH-4663 Aarburg Student Enrolment Number 05-180-948 Phone: ++41 62 832 30 80 E-Mail: [email protected] Dissertation Supervisor Prof. Dr. rer. pol. Thomas Schwarb University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz)

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Abstract Written Job References (WJR) are of great importance in the recruiting process in the

German-speaking countries (Germany, Austria, Switzerland). In these countries, they

represent a legal duty and are considered among the most important documents in the

pre-selection process of applicants. In all other countries, they are rather insignificant.

Written job references are, together with personal references, one of the only possibilities,

which allow getting information from a former professional practise situation of an

employee, newly to be recruited. Even if the former environment cannot be transferred

simply to the new situation, WJR permit statements about former behaviour and

achievement orientation and also personality-related traits.

In my professional work concerning the recruiting of professional specialists and

executives, I ascertain a big uncertainty and different opinions in using WJR for recruiting

decisions. Many employers hardly take note of them, because they do not really trust to

the content of these reports. Others search the " hair in the soup” and would like to

eliminate candidates whose achievements were not judged with superlatives at former

work places. However, uncertainty also leads to refusal – this can not be in the interest of

the responsible Human Resource Managers.

Also the partial use of so named “not coded reports” has not defused the mentioned

problems – rather on the contrary. Now reports are loaded with an additional "norm" which

enjoys, nevertheless, only low spreading, knowledge and acceptance.

Today, in times of assessments, the value of written job references is judged very

differently. Different interpretations of the same text content are very frequently to

ascertain. Nevertheless, 67 per cent of the persons, responsible for the recruitment attach

a great importance to WJR as a decision instrument, according to a Survey in 2003

(Schweiz. Nachdiplomstudium SNP 22, Diplom-Projektarbeit, Fachhochschule

Nordwestschweiz).

Distortions and the use of stereotypes can contribute to wrong considerations and

interpretations and through this to wrong judgements within the recruiting process.The

financial “damages” can be enourmously.

The present work shows that distortions and the use of stereotypes are very often to

ascertain, primarily in the WJR of women and, concerning the age, rather often in the WJR

of youg employees (primarily distortions). Reasons therefore are, among others, social role

models or expectations, missing individualised procedure and conscious over emphasis.

Despite all reservations, the WJR can and shall be regarded as an important information

source furthermore. But it is strict to warn, to make recruiting decisions, based on the

contents of a WJR. As mentioned, the financial consequences of a missing recruitment

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could be very painful. The study points where the danger of distortions and stereotypes

can lie and how the WJR analyst can recognize them better by a systematic procedure.

My analysis and work wants to offer a help for the pre-valuation within the recruiting

process and a basis for more objectivity and sensitivity in discussion and corporation with

the responsible person of the recruiting company. If this succeeds, also my consultation

becomes a clear qualitative revaluation, concerning an important item of the service

delivery.

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Table of Contents Page 1. Introduction_____________________________________________________________ 12

1.1. Presentation of the Problem______________________________________________ 12

1.2. Literature Review_________________________________________________________ 12

1.3. Structure and Aims of the Dissertation______________________________________ 12

1.4 Methodology_____________________________________________________________ 13

1.5. Limitations_________________________________________________________________ 14

2. The Economic Importance of Recruiting Decisions___________________________ 15

2.1. Operational Performance__________________________________________________ 15

2.2. Restricted Competitiveness by Inadequate Use of Human Resources ________ 15

2.3. Tasks of the “modern” HRM _______________________________________________ 15

2.4. The partial Functions of HRM_______________________________________________ 16

2.5. Obtaining of Human Capital as an Investment Decision_____________________ 16

2.6. Experiences of my own____________________________________________________ 18

2.7. The Written Job Reference as an essential Decision Source__________________ 18

2.8. Diversity Management as a Strategic Success Factor _______________________ 20

3. Cultural and Social Framework Conditions__________________________________ 21

3.1. Traditional Role Expectations_______________________________________________ 21

3.2. Social Change of the Requirements________________________________________ 23

3.3. Today’s Requirements in Job Advertisements________________________________ 24

3.3.1. New Conception of Man?_________________________________________________ 25

3.4. The Topic of Discrimination_________________________________________________ 26

3.4.1. Discrimination in Swiss Firms_________________________________________________ 27

3.5. Distortion Danger in Staff Appraisal_________________________________________ 27

3.5.1. Possible Distortions by the Judging Person___________________________________ 28

3.5.2. Possible Distortions by the Judged Person___________________________________ 29

3.5.3. Possible Distortions by the Interaction_______________________________________ 29

3.5.4. Possible Distortions by the Society__________________________________________ 29

4. The Written Job Reference_________________________________________________ 32

4.1. The Importance of the Written Job Reference yesterday and today__________ 32

4.2. The different Forms of the Written Job Reference____________________________ 33

4.3. Form and Content of the Written Job Reference____________________________ 33

4.3.1. The Full Written Job Reference______________________________________________ 34

4.3.2. The Work Confirmation_____________________________________________________ 34

4.4. The most important Written Job References Concepts_______________________ 34

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4.5. The Legal Situation_______________________________________________________ 35

4.5.1. The four most important Principles for the Written Job References Contents 35

4.5.1.1. The Principle of Truth_____________________________________________________ 35

4.5.1.2. The Principle of Completeness___________________________________________ 35

4.5.1.3. The Principle of Clarity___________________________________________________ 35

4.5.1.4. The Principle of Goodwill_________________________________________________ 36

4.6. The Written Job Reference Draw up_______________________________________ 36

4.6.1. Written Job Reference Draw up is a Process of Communication_____________ 36

4.6.2. Error Sources at the Written Job Reference Draw up________________________ 37

4.6.2.1. Observation Error_________________________________________________________ 37

4.6.2.2. Psychological Faults______________________________________________________ 37

4.6.3. Faults at the Written Specification_________________________________________ 38

4.6.4. Error Sources at the Written Job Reference Interpretation___________________ 38

4.6.4.1. Psychological Faults______________________________________________________ 38

4.6.4.2. Interpretation Faults______________________________________________________ 38

4.6.5. Error Sources at the Written Job Reference Language______________________ 38

4.7. “Hidden” Codes_________________________________________________________ 39

4.8. Aid for the Written Job Reference Draw up________________________________ 40

5. Analysis by Text Interpretation____________________________________________ 41

5.1. Introduction to the Text Interpretation_____________________________________ 41

5.2. Choice Decisions________________________________________________________ 42

5.2.1. Fixing of the Sample Structure_____________________________________________ 42

5.2.2. Limitations of the Chosen Method_________________________________________ 42

5.2.3. From Text to Theory_______________________________________________________ 43

5.3. Different Methods of Text Interpretation (Digression)________________________ 43

5.3.1. The Method of Coding and Categorisation________________________________ 43

5.3.1.1. Overview about the Individual Methods___________________________________ 44

5.3.2. The Characteristics of Encoding___________________________________________ 44

5.3.2.1. Encoding openly_________________________________________________________ 45

5.3.2.2. Axial Encoding___________________________________________________________ 45

5.3.2.3. Encoding selectively_____________________________________________________ 45

5.4. Limitations of Text Interpretation___________________________________________ 45

5.5. The Practical Putting into Action___________________________________________ 46

5.5.1. The Analysis Object_______________________________________________________ 46

5.5.2. The Chosen Examination Areas____________________________________________ 46

5.5.3. The Examined Groups and Categories / Limitations_________________________ 46

5.5.4. The Chosen Age Structure_________________________________________________ 47

5.5.5. The Chosen Method______________________________________________________ 48

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5.6. The Analysis Model_______________________________________________________ 48

5.6.1. The Work Steps in Particular_______________________________________________ 50

5.6.1.1. Processing of the Documents_____________________________________________ 50

5.6.1.2. Working out the Passages and Categorisation_____________________________ 50

5.6.1.3. The First Base List_________________________________________________________ 51

5.6.1.4. Completeness Check____________________________________________________ 51

5.6.1.5. The Second Base List / First Compression___________________________________ 51

5.6.1.6. Check Synonymous / Herrmeneutical Meaning____________________________ 52

5.6.1.7. The Third Base List / Second Compression and Description Occurrences_____ 52

5.6.1.8. Fourth and def. List / Comparison of Distortions and Stereotypes____________ 53

Validity Check / Validation____________________________________________ 53

Reliability Check______________________________________________________ 53

5.7. Description Distortion_____________________________________________________ 54

5.8. Description Stereotype___________________________________________________ 54

5.9. Further Evaluations_______________________________________________________ 54

6. Results of the Analysis____________________________________________________ 55

Introduction: The Difficulties of Translation_________________________________________ 55

6.1. Distortions and Stereotypes_______________________________________________ 55

6.1.1. – 6.1.8. Various Evaluations and Lists_______________________________________ 55

6.2. The Compliance with the Principles of the Written Job Reference Draw up__ 65

6.3. Distortions and Stereotypes to Written Job References Areas________________ 66

6.4. Distortions by Diversity Topic_______________________________________________ 67

6.5. Reliability________________________________________________________________ 67

6.6. Validity__________________________________________________________________ 69

6.6.1. Example of the Effect of a Validity Improvement___________________________ 69

7. Conclusions and Knowledge______________________________________________ 71

7.1. Are Distortions and Stereotypes recognizable?_____________________________ 71

7.2. The most extreme Distortions______________________________________________ 71

7.2.1. Distortions with the highest Mention_______________________________________ 72

7.2.2. The „Exotics“ (Rare Expressions)___________________________________________ 72

7.2.3. The Compliance with the Written Job Reference Principles: Further Distortion

Danger__________________________________________________________________ 72

7.2.4. Distortions to Written Job Reference Areas_________________________________ 7 2

7.2.5. Distortions in the Complete Judgement____________________________________ 73

7.2.6. Distortions in the End Wordings____________________________________________ 73

7.2.7. Distortions by Over Emphasis______________________________________________ 73

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7.3. Where do the Distortions come from?_____________________________________ 73

7.4. Consequences from Written Job References Distortions____________________ 74

7.5. The „Sample Written Job Reference“_____________________________________ 74

7.6. Job Advertisements and Written Job References__________________________ 76

7.7. Personal Knowledge_____________________________________________________ 77

8. Recommendations_______________________________________________________ 78

8.1. Recommendations for Written Job Reference Analysts_____________________ 78

8.2. The Swiss Written Job Reference in the International Environment___________ 79

8.3. Quo Vadis Written Job Reference ?_______________________________________ 79

8.3.1. Biographical Written Job Reference, a Way out?__________________________ 79

Bibliography___________________________________________________81

Appendix

1: Determination of Distortions and Stereotypes

2 a-c: Check Reliability by HR Managers

3: Further Statistical Evaluations

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Table of Figures

Figure 2-1: Meta Function Strategical HR-Management / HR Politic________________ 16

Figure 4-1: Process of the Draw Up of Written Job References_____________________ 37

Figure 5-1: Understanding between Draw up and Interpretation__________________ 42

Figure 5-2: Decisions and Selections within the Research Process__________________ 42

Figure 5-3: The three Phases of Data Fixation_____________________________________ 43

Index of Tables

Table 3-1: : : : Female and male Behaviour Patterns________________________________ 22

Table 3-2: Personal Characteristic for an Executive______________________________ 22

Table 3-3: Distortion Phenomena_______________________________________________ 29

Table 3-4: Judgement Faults and their Consequences__________________________ 30

Table 4-1: Importance of Written Job References for Recruiting Decisions________ 33

Table 4-2: Require for Changes of Written Job References by Employees________ 36

Table 4-3: “Hidden Codes” in Written Job References Language________________ 39

Table 4-4: Use of Aids for the Written Job Reports Development__________________ 40

Table 5-1: Overview Methods of Text Interpretation_____________________________ 44

Table 5-2: Average Age of employed Persons between 15 - 64 Years in 2005_____ 47

Table 5-3: Scheme Analysis Model_____________________________________________ 48

Table 5-4: Form of Data Gathering_____________________________________________ 49

Table 5-5: Segments, Groups and Abbreviations________________________________ 50

Table 7-1: Elements of a (theoretical) Written Job Reference____________________ 75

List of Abbreviations

Abbreviation Explanation HR Human Resources

HRM Human Resources Management

HCCF Human Capital Cost Factor

HCVA Human Capital Value Added

HCROI Human Capital Return on Investment

MJL Men, unskilled/unqualified Workers < 33 Years

MOL Men, unskilled/unqualified Workers > 40 Years

WJL Women, unskilled/unqualified Workers < 33 Years

WOL Women, unskilled/unqualified Workers > 40 Years

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MJS Men, Specialists < 33 Years

MOS Men, Specialists > 40 Years

WJS Women, Specialists < 33 Years

WOS Women, Specialists > 40 Years

MJE Men, Executives < 33 Years

MOE Men, Executives > 40 Years

WJE Women, Executives < 33 Years

WOE Women, Executives > 40 Years

OR Swiss Law of Obligations

ZGB Code of Civil Law

ASU Association of independent Businessmen, Bonn

L Unskilled/unqualified Workers (men and women)

S Specialists

E Executives

WJR Written Job Reference (WJR used for singular and plural)

Definition of Functions and Statuses

For similar functions the same names were used. For example:

HR Manager For all people, working in the personnel department

Employee For all employed people

Specialist For all qualified, skilled employees

Author Used also for the person who “draws up” the WJR

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1. Introduction 1.1. Presentation of the Problem

"The Written Job Reference is for the two parties of a contract of employment of great

importance (...). A great uncertainty however also exists, which is reflected by a high tide

of contributions and advisers to the difficulties of the Written Job Reference wording and

particularly the Written Job Reference special language."1

Notwithstanding the considerable uncertainty concerning the judgement of WJR

contents, nobody has examined the topic of distortions and stereotypes formation in WJR

till now, the way it does the work in hand. Namely proving against distortions with

concrete examples, looking for the cause and reason of these distortions and giving the

reader and user a helpful instrument which can point out certain danger passages in the

text.

1.2. Literature Review

The bibliography contains mainly books from German authors. The reason is primarily, that

WRJ have such a high importance only in the German-speaking area (Germany, Austria,

Switzerland).

The structure of the literature reflects the different aspects of the topic. On the one hand,

the scientific method of the text analysis is a part of the qualitative social research; on the

other hand the staff recruitment is an important part of the Human Resources

Management (HRM) and for this reason an essential business management aspect.

Furthermore, the topic of discrimination and diversity play an import role in this context,

and last but not least, the central issue of the Written Job Reference draw up itself.

The mentioned books of the bibliography have been checked and partly analysed. The list

of the most important books, which have been used intensively, finally included six titles

(Flick, Fried, Weuster, Schwarb, Raschke, Schlessmann).

1.2. Structure and Aims of the Dissertation

Structure

First, the thesis explains the embedding of the production factor work and with it, the

importance of the HRM into the whole economic context of the company activity. An

appreciation of the social framework conditions which influences the WJR draw up then

follows, and finally the central topic of WJR itself is the fourth chapter of the basis.

1 Zitat: „Das Arbeitszeugnis ist für beide Parteien eines Arbeitsvertrages von grosser Bedeutung. (...)Es exisitert jedoch auch eine grosse Versunsicherung, die sich in einer Flut von Beiträgen und Ratgebern zur Problematik der Zeugnisformulierung und insbesondere der Zeugnissprache widerspiegelt.“ (Schwarb/Mücke, 2005, 7)

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The analysis carried out of 60 WJR, the won results, findings and recommendations form

the main item and the second part of the thesis.

Aims

The aims of the work could be formulated as follows:

� To analyse if there are systematic distortions to ascertain in certain categories,

profiles and parts of written job references.

� To examine, where the differences come from and to search for explanations and

causes for these differences.

� To investigate how and where distortions can influence decisions in the recruiting

process.

� To document the consequences of false decisions in employee recruitment,

regarding to financial and business management.

� To examine, if advices can be given for the assessment of written job references in

the chosen and analysed special categories and also in general.

1.4. Methodology

For this examination in the context of the qualitative social research, the inductive method

was chosen. Regarding the analysis by text interpretation, I have mainly chosen the

method of the thematic encoding. The reason therefore is that this procedure is based on

groups / samples which are clearly defined in advance. Besides, the research object is,

according to Flick (2005), the social distribution of perspectives on a phenomenon or a

process. The supposition is that in different social worlds or social teams of differing

perceptions, different views are to find. The sampling is oriented in the chosen groups. The

method of thematic encoding was completed or added by other elements of the

qualitative content analysis according to Mayring (2003) and particularly also by self

developed elements.

The central statements were found by repeated analysis of the text passages, a

judgement of the hermeneutical and synonymous meaning and by compression. By these

work steps, the partly sober text started suddenly “to live” .

The text analysis contained totally 60 WJR in the categories unqualified workers (20),

specialists (20) and executives (20). Within these three functional categories the share

women and men was 50% each, and within this share I divided up into young (until 33

years) and old as of 40 years. Chapter 5 gives a good overlook at methodology, different

methods and work steps, therefore I renounce to give a more detailed description here.

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1.5. Limitations

This study can not and will not be representative according to statistical requirements. It

shall primarily provide knowledge, represent points of view and be a help for practitioners,

primarily WJR analysts.

The knowledge and results obtained are representative only for the analysed 60 WJR. The

WJR came mainly from rather smaller and middle-sized companies in the German-

speaking part of Switzerland. The knowledge shows trends, however, can not be

understood as obligatory measure and set of rules. The topic of the discrimination is, of

course, diversified much more broadly than it could be taken into account here. At the

WJR analysis, the areas of performance (work quality and work quantity) as well as the

area of behaviour were mainly analysed. It happened that similar expressions were used in

the part of work quality in one WJR, and, in another WJR, in the part of behaviour or even

work quantity. In such a case, I took the decision of classification related to the context of

the relevant expression.

The complete judgement and the part concluding the finally remarks (end wordings) are

only integrated within the further statistical evaluations. The reason therefore is, that for the

finally remarks very often standardized phrases are or were used which would not have

allowed the desired subtly differentiated point of view, or that these specific information

were scattered in the whole text of the WJR.

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2. The economic Importance of Recruiting Decisions 2.1. Operational Performance

The Business Management distinguishes the following production factors. (Ochsenbein,

2007):

Natural resources (raw materials)

Fixed assets (infrastructure, equipment)

Work

Human resources

Capital / Knowledge

Activities which are connected with the factor of production work are marked by the

concepts human resources and personnel management /HRM. Both concepts describe

principally the same activity, the importance of the „staff work“ however, has changed

dramatically within the last few years. In this context, employees can be described as the

„suppliers“ of the production factor „work“.

2.2. Restricted Competitiveness by inadequate use of Human Resources

If the potential success factor "employee" is not used optimally, the company throws away

the chance of a real competitive advantage. One also could say, the human resources or

human capital are not used, or even reduced or destroyed. Recruitment and

development are investive activities which use considerable financial resources of the

enterprise. Early dismissals usually only have consequences on the cost side, a deduction

of the investment “employee” is not carried out. As a rule, it is examined also not

sufficiently at strategy changes, which alternative strategies could be driven with the

available staff promisingly. In turn wrong use, i.e. unused potential mean very often, not

taken chances for the increase of the creation of value and often frustration and

resignation for the collaborating.

At this consideration, the employees cannot be primarily seen as a cost factor but as an

investment. This viewpoint has serious effects on the role of the HRM at which staff

recruitment is one of the central and most decisive tasks.

2.3. Tasks of the „modern“ HRM

The concept human resource management shall underline the importance of the staff

work. The human resource management is a task of the enterprise as a whole, as a

function. It describes an operational function which concerns not only the management,

or the HRM department, but also line supervisors and the collaborating themselves.

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HRM covers the conception and control of all aims, strategies, instruments and activities,

which influence the performance delivery of all current and future employees.2

HRM can be subdivided into tree areas: employee’s leadership, human resource

management and organisational development.

2.4. The Partial Functions of HRM

According to the different functions we distinguish two areas:

Crosscut functions (e.g. staff controlling, staff marketing) and

Process functions (e.g. staff recruiting, staff development)

Figure 2-1: Meta Function strategically HR-Management / HR Politic

(Ochsenbein, 2007)

In connection with the topic of the work in hand we are primarily interested in the areas of

staff recruiting. The quality of the recruitment has a direct effect on the staff cost

accounting and with that on the human capital of the enterprise.

2.5. Obtaining of Human Capital as an Investment Decision

According to Weuster (1994, 1) the employment of a person has to be considered as

obtaining of human capital, therefore as an investment act. At this consideration an

employee represents, by DM 100'000 annual salary and customization by 5%, within 5

years, an investment of DM 552'563. It is pointed out, that for the investment of a machine,

often considerably more time is invested in examination and decision finding with the

same net cash outflow.

In principle, I can support this statement personally. It often astonishes, with which

superficiality, recruiting decisions are taken by line managers or CEO’s, regarding to the

related possible long-term economic consequences.

According to the Humankapital Club Deutschland, in future, "...managers shall not be only

measured at the traditional business success, but at the increase of the human capital".

2 Zitat: „Das HRM umfasst die Konzipierung und Steuerung sämtlicher Ziele, Strategien, Instrumente und Aktivitäten, welche die Leistungserbringung aller aktuellen und künftigen Mitarbeitenden prägen“. (Ochsenbein, 2007)

Crosscut Functions Staff Controlling Staff Marketing Staff Information Organisation of the Human Resource Management

Process Functions Manpower Requirements

Staff Recruiting Staff Development Deploym. of Personnel Staff Retention Staff Exemption

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Human capital shall get the same place value in the enterprise as the traditional finance

capital.

There already are concrete approaches and recommendations for the business

management determination of the human capital, e.g. the methods of Fitz-enz (2000, 33).

This examples document that costs and expenditure in the HR sector should also be

considered as investments. The businessman, who evaluates a new machine for his

production business, will take into account all appropriate deciding factors for his decision,

especially those ones which can make statements, concerning the economicalness of the

investment.

Related to the topic of recruiting, based on WJR, this decision can be compared a little bit

with a specification for a machine. In both cases, the responsible person expects an

essential decision support and useful information, also from written documents. As

explained in the following chapter 3, 67 % of the persons, responsible for the recruiting,

attach a great importance to the WJR for their decision. It can be deduced, that a wrong

decision, e.g. due to misinterpretations and assumptions, based on distorted information in

the WJR, may not only cause direct costs by a necessary replacement, but also the

expected creation of value by this employee in question is not possible.

Let’s make a very simple example, concerning the recruiting of a salesman, according to

the explications of Fitz-enz:

Base data

Average revenue by the “average” salesman $ 300’000

Expenses $ 100’000

Salary $ 100’000

HC Human Capital

ROI Return on Investment

Non human expenses have been taken out in this example

HC ROI = Revenue – Expenses Salary

HCROI = $ 300'000 – $ 100’000 = $ 200’000 = ROI $ 2.0 100’000’000 $ 100’000 In this case, the ratio is $1: $2, which means a positive investment. For 1 invested dollar, the return (ROI) is 2 dollars. If we need for our business a new hardseller and the candidate is described erroneously

as such (“hunter”), indeed is rather somebody for building up long-term relationships

(“farmer”), and we base our recruiting decision mainly on this remarks in the former WJR,

the new salesman would probably only reach a turnover of $ 120’000 than of $ 300’000

within the first years. Such an “investment” would be negative, as the following figures

show:

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HCROI = $ 120'000 – $ 40’000 = $ 80’000 = ROI $ 0.80 100’000 $ 100’000

In this case, the ratio is $1: $0.80, which means a failed investment. For 1 invested dollar,

the return (ROI) is only 0.80 Dollar, instead of minimum 1 dollar.

2.6. Experiences of my own

I have, in a simplified cost consideration, analysed the direct internal personnel

expenditures within the recruitment process. This analysis showed an amount of

approximately 10’000 Swiss Francs for internal pay and job social costs. If the third party

costs for the recruitment and for external assessments etc., are added, this sum might

double or triple fast, without costs of the implementation phase of the new employee.

Even such examples and statements contain a very large span, they clarify that erroneous

decisions in the recruitment cause considerable direct and indirect costs by increased

fluctuation which have a corresponding effect on the results of the enterprise.

2.7. The Written Job Reference as an essential Decision Source

As already mentioned the WRJ is an important document for recruiting decisions and

therefore is partly the source for errors. With regard to performance and behaviours of the

person to be recruited, such faults can have financial consequences.

The opinions related to these economic consequences differ very strong. It is necessary to

distinguish between direct external costs (e.g. use of appropriate recruitment media,

external advice etc.) and internal costs (recruitment process, training process etc.).

Frequently, the sum of an annual salary shall be the consequence of an erroneous

decision. In a television programme from May 29th, 2007 to SF DRS, the managing director

of Roche AG, Basel, even spoke about two annual salaries for these recruitment and

training costs.

Weuster (1994, 1) mentions the following fluctuation costs, valued by Grassl (1982, 23)

which arise from an erroneous decision:

• Unqualified worker DM 9'500

• Skilled worker DM 12'000

• Qualified employee DM 21'500

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In the same context, Weuster also refers to a consideration of Streim (1982, 139) with the

following indications:

• Qualified skilled worker DM 34'500

• Executive DM 261'700

Training costs are partly also included in these numbers, inferior performances during the

training period, reduction of turnover and profit etc.

Torsten J. Gerpott (1989a) has dealt with this topic according to a comparison of the

consequences of systematic staff recruiting procedures with regard to a cost-benefit

analysis.

Gerpott values the validity difference of the traditional interview to the structured on

approx. 0.15 (0.14 = traditional, 0.29 = structured). It refers to Hunter/Hunter (1984, 90), who

have calculated the middle validity of the traditional interview in a meta analysis on 0.14.

The value of 0.29 for the structured interview is based on a meta analysis from Wright et al.

(1986) as well as on the study of Champion et al. (1988).

Gerpott presents an example for the recruitment of 50 salesmen of an insurance

company. The standard deviation of the performance improvement, measured in money,

units, has been estimated with a third of the annual salary, based on the structured

interview.

The success effects on a rise of the validity by the structured interview were calculated

with the following formula:

Success effects = 50 x (0.29 - 0.14) x 20’200 DM x 1. 55 x 3.17 - (470’910 –333’670) Result = Total DM 607 000 success improvement per year. Remarks to the used values:

• Number of employees = 50

• Validity difference structured/traditional interview 0.15 (0.29 - 0.14)

• DM 20’200 = standard deviation performance improvement per annum

• 1.55 = spread of the performances of the employees

• 3.17 = value assessment concept for individual job performances (CREPID

approach)

• (470’910 – 333’670) = total cost difference construction costs structured interview /

traditional interview (by 50 recruitments)

I assume that the validity improvement of approx. 0.15 found out in this example is also

possible in the WJR analysis. That means that by a better consideration of the knowledge

concerning distortions and stereotypes in WJR, a similar improvement in the recruitment

decision seems possible. A corresponding example is represented in chapter 6 (6.6.1.).

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2.8. Diversity-Management as a Strategic Success Factor

The demographic development as well as increasing immigration instalments and a higher

life expectancy bring an always bigger variety of employees. Diversity management deals

with the question, how this variety can actively be used for the success of the enterprise.

The importance of diversity management, as a quality characteristic of enterprise

concepts, has increased significantly since the end of 1990s. The diversity concept

contains as aims

• Creating of a productive atmosphere

• Avoidance of discrimination of minorities and

• Improvement in the equal opportunities.

The diversity approach does not only contain demographic features (age, sex, ethnic

origin, religion, educational level) but also invisible features like cultural moral concepts

and experiences.

The strategic target of diversity management can contain the rise of the adaptability of

changing trading conditions and the promotion of difficult imitable human capital.

Through these, economic aims like also individual aims are both pursued.

For the work in hand, the aspect of the behaviour-related diversity is of some interest: the

question about the behaviour of somebody in a certain situation, as a result of its cultural

and social background. Diversity can be only used positively when a favourable

environment is created for this in the enterprise. Indeed, in the practice, we find very often

stereotyped behaviour instead the use of the individual potentials of employees. So

statements can be often heard such as "people from southern countries are rather lazy", or

"we can not cooperate with this department, people are not open to new ideas."

Often fixed thinking schemes are in the way to see or recognize the chances of diversity in

a working team. Situations from earlier jobs, or even self-experiences with former similar

situations will be transferred 1:1 to the new job environment, despite of a probably not

comparable situation. To use diversity opens great chances for the employee as also for

the employer.

Often stereotypes are confirmed by the reality according to a self-fulfilling prophecy. The

consequences can be seen in fluctuation rates and in work assessment reports and in the

end also in WRJ.

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3. Cultural and Social Framework Conditions

3.1. Traditional Role Expectations

Role behaviours and role understanding could play an important role in connection with

the judgement of WJR. First of all in the wording and weighting of statements in the area of

performance and behaviour, they can express predefined samples and ways of thinking.

In the following, we will have a look at some of these role expectations.

Among other things, the social norms with respect to the value of a work activity are still

marked by a tendentious undervaluation of typical female abilities and skills. This is also

true for the common job evaluation systems: Requirements which are important for typical

male professions are very often judged as superior to requirements in typically female

professions. Example: Nursing abilities and empathy (important e.g. in the nursing) have a

considerably lower place value than competition behaviours.

Besides different other causes, such different weightings of the different requirements are

the reason that typical careers for women are frequently classified in relatively low pay

classes (Katz, 1997, 10).

What is masculine role behaviour?

According to an article (Muck, 2006, www.familienhandbuch.de), the American

psychotherapist Herb Goldberg describes the basis of really masculine behaviour as the

"seven masculine imperative forms":

1. "The fewer sleep I need,

2. the more pain I can bear,

3. the more alcohol I stand,

4. the less I care about what I eat,

5. the less I ask somebody for help and am dependent on somebody,

6. the more I check and suppress my feelings,

7. the less I pay attention to my body,

the more masculine I am."

In the same article, Muck mentions the explanations of Man Researcher Walter Hollstein

and explains, that the manliness ideal of hardness demands, performance, playing poker

face and competition, permanent efforts, stress and constant self-assertion. Men would

not like to secure only existence, but also make a career. Required by employees and

managers in leading positions are being always available, if necessary, to bring up

discipline, punctuality, efforts, performance, hardness, forcefulness, rationality and

competition behaviours. These role expectations are already "instilled into" in the

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childhood. Girls may be weak and cry, be kind, be soft, be vigorous. Boys, however, are

subject to rigorous role expectations, which they may seldom throw them "to heaps". The

tolerance of the environment, when boys do not behave "typically", always decreases

with an advancing age.

These stereotypes or mechanisms have an effect also in the judgement of performance.

The following expectation patterns are distinguished with regard to behaviours: (Fried et

al., 2000, 32):

Typically female Typically male Career Interrupted, finite Continuous

Career interest Low High

Conflict behaviour Consensus-oriented Conflict capable

Emotional capacity Related to work deep Related to work high

Communication behaviour Consensus-oriented In-your-face

Cognitive styles Intuition Rationality

Competences Natural social compet. Tend. toward leadership

Self attribution Pejorative tendency Tend. overestimation,

Politics behaviour Rather soft tactics Rather hard tactics

Autonomy need Needing loving care Tend. dominant

Table 3-1: : : : Female and manly Behaviour Patterns (Fried et al., 2000, 32))

If we compare the typical features and role expectations 20 years ago with today's

statements in the WJR, then many of these statements are still valid anyway or still are

used. Raschke/Knebel (1983, 135) mentioned the following qualities and prerequisites at

the candidate judgement (qualification profile):

Personal Characteristic for an Executive: Way of Thinking Importance today* Ability to think abstractly Ability to think abstractly Tolerance of ambivalence Open to diversity Intelligence Intelligence Discernment Discernment Feelings and Relations Authority Authority, respect Activity Activity, energy Performance consciousness Performance consciousness Sensibility Sensibility, sensitivity Engagement Engagement, performance will Personal maturity Personality Interdependence Interdependence Articulation ability Abilities to communicate Staying power Staying power Adaptability Adaptability Sense of humour Sense of humour

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Behaviours Importance today* Vision and imagination Strategic way of thinking Persistence Persistence, staying power Systematics Systematics, methodology Integrity Integrity Social responsibility Social responsibility, social competence

Table 3-2: Personal Characteristic for an Executive (Raschke/Knebel 1983, 135) (*Personal judgement and synonymous dictionary Duden, 2006) The statements can not be unconditionally transferred to Swiss companies, but the

conclusion is, that also in the analysis of WJR these idea pictures and role expectations

can play a certain role in form of a “comparison”.

3.2. Social Change of the Requirements

If one looks at the important personal characteristics mentioned from Raschke's point of

view, then some of them can be assigned to the keyword social competence. However,

this topic did not have the same importance this time as today. A little more than 20 years

later, the area of the social competence is of much bigger importance . Indeed, the role

of the social competence is overestimated today, according to a study of the University of

Kassel (Frieling et al. 2001).

From my personal experience by conversations with HR and line managers, a share of

more than 50% is attached today to the social competence at the recruiting and

judgement of employees, in comparison to hard skills.

In connection with the “Bolognareform”, also the universities are stimulated to redesign

fundamentally the studies. Today, one very often speaks about the following competence

fields (Christen, 2004):

• Self competence

• Social competence

• Special competence/knowledge competence

• Method competence

Competences are part of the concept social competence, for example in the area of

communication, conflict processing, building of relations, role design etc. Social

competence is regarded as an important success factor for a successful action in all areas

of the economic and social life today. The meeting of the Technological High schools

(KFH) in Switzerland stipulates the education of social competence mandatory also in all

courses of studies.

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In the context of the work in hand, it has to be underlined, that for the judgement of

statements to the topic social competence, primarily the part of behaviour offers its

services. Within this part is enough space available for qualitative and textual

individualising statements.

3.3. Today’s Requirements in Job Advertisements

A research project (Buchmann/Sacchi, 2007), established at the Sociological Institute of

the University of Zurich, examines the job offers of the enterprises in Swiss newspapers and,

since 2001 also on the internet pages. The Labour Market Monitor 2006 which refers to the

empirical material of the Sociological Institute of the University of Zurich, does not provide

revolutionarily new knowledge, is, however, able to show that the soft skills are weighted

increasingly more strongly among others into job advertisements. The empirical analysis is

based on a representative sample of about 600 job advertisements in newspapers in the

German-speaking part of Switzerland. It is carried out since 1950. Since 2001 place

advertisements are also included on internet pages for approx. 1000 companies. The

labour market monitor mentions the following soft kills, which are weighted most strongly

today:

• Motivation (use will, dynamics)

• Innovation

Besides that, however, cognitive and methodical qualities are strongly in the focus, e.g.

• Studying readiness

And as cooperation and abilities to communicate are mentioned

• Team spirit and

• Negotiation skill

The authors point out, that the requirements on these soft skills have practically increased

parallel considerably with the requirements on the hard skills (education).

Related to the tasks and functions, the followings results have been found as requirements

on less demanding places (e.g. unqualified workers):

• Kindness

• Readiness for use

• Affability

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More demanding activities however, apply to:

• Cooperation

• Communication

• Methodical and cognitive abilities.

3.3.1. New Conception of Man?

According to Buchmann/Sacchi (uni magazine 2/98), the change of the requirements for

work qualifications in job advertisements for the period 1950 – 1995, have manifested itself

as follows:

These in the Puritan Ethic justified character traits, such as

• Effort (for the last time 1973 in advertisements)

• Honest (1988)

• Faithful

• Capable (1990)

• Serious (1973)

• Faultless character (1980)

were very often seen in the job advertisements of the 50s. They disappeared increasingly

in the advertisements of the 60s and 70s.

The study points to the profound movings in the occupations for the eighties (growth of the

service industries), which require new, extra functional work qualifications. These primarily

concern the level of the personality. The authors speak even about "new conceptions of

man and conducting ideals".

Since about the middle of the seventies, the below listed competences gain to

importance. The breakthrough is seen by the authors at the end of the eighties.

• Flexibility (for the first time 1974 in advertisements)

• Ability for reflection

• Independent (end of 60s)

• Initiative (end of 60s)

• Communication (1984, reasons: High abilities to communicate require a complex

information processing in the explanation of the results, however also in the

abstraction of the work)

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• Creativity (1996)

• Analytical abilities

This is connected, according to my own experience, that regarding the importance a

change of personal characteristics work-related has taken a more important place within

the last few years.

3.4. The Topic of Discrimination

A great importance in connection with the examination of role models play the topic of

discrimination. The following explanations can and want not explain the topic of

discrimination completely, but would like to document the influence possibilities with

regard to the draw up and wording of WJR.

The topic of the discrimination is frequently reduced on the Gender issue in the public

discussion, however it goes on fundamentally. If one types "Discrimination at work" in the

search engine Google, almost 57 million contributions to this topic are announced (level

January 2007).

Discrimination is an uncertain legal concept (Epiney, 2004, 28), i.e. that the discrimination is

seldom defined even in a general way in the law. E.g. the claim of women and men to the

same pay at equal work is defined in the federal constitution, however not put into effect,

in the working world yet, although the equality law is in operation already since July 1st,

1996. But what is equal work? The value of a work activity is unobjectively measurable in

the end. Job evaluation instruments are availably principle for the fulfilment of the pay

equality principle. However, they are not sex independently and by its complexity only

usable by experts.

Bigler (1997) e.g. defines discrimination, as „Any discrimination which is carried out without

a relevant justification” . This definition was not respected however in the law. According

to Henneberger et al. (1997, 27) discrimination is defined "by the preferences and

tendencies of single people or whole enterprises to enter with individuals of other race,

other religion or other sex into physical or social contact".

At the labour market, Becker (1998) distinguishes groups of protagonists, a discrimination

inclination can appear with these in the area of sex: Discrimination by employers (they are

only ready to employ women, if they can pay these a lower pay at the same

performance), discrimination by the employees, (masculine role ideas could be hurt by

the cooperation of women, or a status reduction of their professional situation is feared.)

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According to Henneberger, only the combination of job evaluation and employee

judgement is able to give a reliable statement about a potential discrimination.

3.4.1. Discrimination in Swiss Firms

An international analysis of the recruiter Kelly Services (published in various Swiss

newspapers in autumn 2006) showed that 38 per cent of the employees feel discriminated

at work! More women feel badly treated as men. And the worst feel the over 55-year.

Discriminated feel especially people, working in the area of home care and secret service.

But only 6 per cent complained to the supervisors.

At the job search it is not easier: 2500 people interviewed in Switzerland (n. N.) said they

would have undergone discrimination within the last five years because of their age, the

sex or the origin. Switzerland is located in the midfield in comparison with 28 other

examined countries in Europe.

Age is found as biggest barrier at the job search in all countries. This was indicated of 24

per cent of the people asked in Switzerland. 10 per cent of the women felt put at a

disadvantage because of the sex. Even if the work in hand has a look at the situation in

Switzerland, a look at other countries is appropriate to see the problem in a greater

geographical context briefly.

The topic of the age discrimination also was examined in many other countries.

In the book “Age Discrimination” of John MacNicol (2006, 19 ff), the following is quoted:

(…) „However, there is little empirical research documenting the prevalence or impact of

age discrimination in the labour market“.

Indeed MacNicol mentioned also a number of studies and surveys concerning age

discrimination in Great Britain and in the USA.

3.5. Distortion Danger in Staff Appraisal

Stereotypes are examples of categories which make statements concerning the effect of

concrete features (Fried et al., 2000). These are assumptions spread generally, taken habits

in the course of the socialization about important qualities of a person group. They have

the tendency toward generalisation and turn away of the concrete individual case. An

example is, that in typically masculine professions, men are usually judged better than

women, while in typical female professions there are hardly any differences between men

and women.

In the forming of a judgement, people steer their perceptions so, that their internalized

schemes (category, stereotype) are confirmed if possible. Information which confirms the

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scheme are discovered faster and regarded as more important as not corresponding

information. So the usual and approved judgements are confirmed.

This would mean, that these role models and schemes could influence in more or less

distinctive form also the judging in the staff work and in consequence also in the wording

of the WJR. A person who wants to judge another person, must select information, process,

store and form a judgement on the basis of these information. In this process, certain

mechanisms play a role. But not only the judging person is subject to the distortion danger.

The judged persons themselves, the interaction, the organisation culture and the society

are elements, influencing in addition in the context of the complete judgement.

In the judgement situation, stereotypes are important for different reasons. They structure

the action course, and the more abstract a stereotype is, the stronger it influences at the

level of the unconscious. Particularly sex roles frequently appear at the unconscious level.

According to Schmid Mast (2007), the use of stereotypes is characteristically for the human

intellect and probably also inborn. The contents of the stereotypes however are learned

and cultural very different. Schmid Mast describes stereotypes as “oversubscribed copies

of a social reality".

Below, some of the known and important distortion phenomena are mentioned in a short

and simplified form from the view of my own and on basis of the explications of Fried et al.

(2000).

3.5.1. Possible Distortions by the Judging Person:

Situation Consequence / Weighting Attention and information choice Perception filter Processing and storage of information Simplific., generalization (stereotype) Verdict formation Agree with the stored information

Distortion by ignorance Causes on person instead on thing Wrong agreement assumption Behaviours differ from the personal idea Conditional expectations Primarily sex-specific Hedonistic distortion Behaviours which are of use for the judging Distortion by on-due date Well observable performance results are dominantly judged Distortion by liking Failures rather are described to the conditions, successes to the person Emotions, values, social norms Atmospheres and emotions influence

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the perception Self-perception of the judging person Performance behaviour of others are

judged, due to criteria of one’s own.

3.5.2. Possible Distortions by the Judged Person:

Self-attribution Perception of the behaviour of one’s

own

Impression management Conscious control of the impression on the judging by the judged person. 3.5.3. Possible Distortions by Interaction Interpersonal attraction Consequences of liking and antipathy Social desirability Expectation in conformity with the role through fulfilling corresponding

behaviour

Self-fulfilling prophecy Confirmation of explicit expectations. 3.5.4. Possible Distortions by the Society

Stereotypes as social produced schemes Social conviction, public opinion Use in the judgement situation Stabilization by stereotypes in

unsafe/unknown situation.

Table 3-3: Distortion Phenomena (Fried et al, 12-22, and self interpretation)

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The organisation culture of the business itself influences the perception and assessment process in addition. The influence of the listed variables can lead to consequences in the judgement: Statements of some points which could have a strong influence on the Written Job Reference draw up:

Faults by the Judging Consequence /Description Incorporation into the Model of the Staff Appraisal

Halo (correlation trend) Over emphasis of single personal characteristics on others personal characteristic

Information choice, expectation conditio-nal attribution distortion

Projection Unpleasant qualities of one's own are transferred on the employee

Self-perception, expectation conditional attribution distortion, reaching a verdict

Hierarchy effect The higher the position, the better the judgement

Emotions, values, social norms, social desirability, corporate culture

Department effect The judgement results are different after the affiliation to certain departments

Emotions, values, social norms, social desirability, corporate culture

Adhesive effect Underestimating of since a long time not promoted employees

Expectation conditional attribution distortion

Way praises, malicious gossip Conscious of wrong assessment to the use of the judging person

Hedonistic distortion, micro politics

Faults of Judging and Judged

Contact and communication effect

The pleasant and attractive, the better the judgement

Impression management, interpersonal attraction, social desirability

Repentance effect Faults are judged more mildly if they are admitted of employees

Impression management, corporate culture

Faults caused by the Judged themselves

Orientation of the judged on target groups

Orientation at the working group, department, organisation

Information choice, expectation conditional attribution distortion social norms, impression management, corporate culture

Nikolaus effect The employee makes an effort particularly before an appraisal meeting

Impression management

Pygmalion effect A judged person behaves according to his judgement

Social desirability, self-fulfilling prophecy

Table 3-4: Judgement Faults and their Consequences (Fried et al. 2000, 34)

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Becker (1998, 302) has developed a partly similar list into the topic "Knowledge and willing

problems of assessors" with possible judgement faults. Sex-specific distortions still add to

these general distortions in perception and verdict formation.

Wick (2005, 26-30) speaks, in connection with the recruitment about implicit personality

theories and means thus personal expectations, assumptions and convictions in

connection with different personality qualities. These steer the attention of judging people

on certain dimensions, from which specific expectations which show a certain refutation

resistance. The reference to a certain refutation resistance would mean, that this "lack of

objectivity" can play a role related to distortion danger for performance and behaviour

judgement and for the draw up and preparation of WRJ.

Becker (1998, 245, 340) mentions in the context of his explanations to the topic "Micro

political distortions", that the judgement always contains performances of the judging

himself and says, that also the language ability (or inability) cause a distortion danger.

Schwarb (1999) in principle distinguishes between error sources in the draw up and in the

analysis of WRJ, namely "technical error sources" and rather "psychological error sources" .

In the WRJ draw up, observation errors are typical, at the WRJ analysis indeed, errors of

interpretation are more often to ascertain.

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4. The Written Job Reference 4.1. The Importance of the Written Job Reference yesterday and today

WJR have a great importance in the recruiting process of Swiss firms and organisations.

They are considered among the most important documents in connection with the pre-

selection of applicants. This is however only valid for the German-speaking countries

Germany, Austria, Switzerland. Internationally seen, WJR are rather insignificant.

The WJR is a document, for working people a performance card, which allows them, to

testify their professional experience and their abilities (Schwarb/Mücke, 2005, 7,42). For

employers the WRJ is an important information source about the applicant. WRJ are

consulted at the recruiting decision together with different other aids for the decision

making.

If one looks for appropriate literature dealing with the topic of WJR, there is, according to

Schwarb (1999), not a big choice. With regard to the importance to WJR, he mentions

different earlier publications from 1978 - 1989 (Bisani 1986, 147, Münsterberg 1983, 147,

Sehringer 1989, 104, Stopp 1978, 63) which presume that the biggest importance of the

WJR has to be attached in the first analysis, and Schreiber (1989, 492), who comes to the

end, that by the analysis of WJR much better forecast results can be obtained, than by

only use of the interview. Schwarb mentioned, that there is no publication concerning the

reliability of application documents, like WJR, in the German-speaking area. The literature

analysis shows, that the theory does not give attention to the WJR as an instrument in the

recruiting process. There are only few methods represented, and concrete examinations

to the reliability of the WJR are missed.

In the context of a Diploma Project (Schweiz. Nachdiplomstudium SNP 22, 2002,

publication 2003), 2800 HR managers in Swiss firms had to answer the following question:

„Which significance do you admit to Written Job References for the recruitment of

personnel?".

Statements: More than 67% attach a great importance to this instrument for the

recruitment of qualified employees and executives.

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Table 4-1: Importance of Written Job References for Recruiting Decisions (Nachdiplomstudium SNP 22, Survey 2002) This analysis found neither significant differences between industry and service companies

nor regarding to the number of employees of the companies. The comparable result of

the survey, carried out a second time, in autumn 2006 (considerably lower return, 177

instead of 1192 answering persons), was even at 71%.

In the following, we will have a look on the most essential formal and legal requirements

and conditions for the draw up of the WJR.

4.2. The different Forms of Written Job Reference

In Switzerland, the WJR must fulfil the quality requirements of a document. Fakes are

therefore falsifications of a document and can be punished even with prison. Furthermore,

the WJR is regulated in OR 330a. One distinguishes two forms of WJR:

1. The full Written Job Reference - also called qualified Written Job Reference, and

2. The work confirmation.

4.3. Form and Content of the Written Job Reference

According to Schwarb (1999), the WJR has to be in writing (OR Art. 13, Abs. 1 and OR 14)

and must be signed personally by the author. It must be described as a WJR clearly,

written on a neutral paper in a "usual format". The employee has a right to a cleanly, fault-

free and not corrected WJR. No additions, which do not have any direct reference to the

contents, may be contained in the document.

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The WJR has to represent the following facts:

4.3.1. The Full Written Job Reference

• Type and duration of the occupation

• Performance and behaviour

• Completion reason for the employee-employer relationship.

4.3.2. The Work Confirmation

• Type and duration of the occupation

The two WRJ forms are different. The simple WRJ or the work confirmation reflects only

facts, without judgement of performance and behaviours. Otherwise the requirements are

exactly the same as for the full WJR, regarding contents and form.

Activities, special knowledge, functions and the responsibility of the employee have to be

described in the simple WJR like in the full WJR. Professional improvement also have to be

mentioned and at a deterioration, the reasons for it have to be explained. The principle is,

that the description of the performed functions has to be more exact, the more qualified

the position of the employee is and the longer the duration of the employee-employer

relationship were.

Each employee has any time the right, to require an intermediate WJR which has to be

indicated as such and corresponds in principle to the WJR, regarding to contents and

form. Instead of the wording in connection with the completion of the employee-

employer relationship, the reason for an intermediate WJR is then very often mentioned

(e.g. supervisor change) and wishes for the continuation of the employee-employer

relationship are formulated.

As additional specific forms, the WJR in the probationary period and the WJR for

apprentice can be distinguished. These forms are not relevant for the work in hand.

4.4. The most important Written Job Reference Concepts

Schwarb/Mücke (2005) judge the four most common WJR concepts:

1. Classic WJR with text modules (predefined wordings)

2. New report form (note report, comparable to the systematic staff appraisal)

3. Clear text WJR (uncoded, no overqualifications. Sincere opinions are written), and

4. Biographical WJR.

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4.5. The Legal Situation

As mentioned already, the WJR has the quality requirements of a document in Switzerland

and has to fulfil the appropriate law articles (OR and ZGB).

According to Schwarb, the content is subdivided in the legal practice in facts and

verdicts. Facts are paraphrased as

„in der Vergangenheit liegende raumzeitliche oder auch nur zeitlich

bestimmte Ereignisse, Zustände, Verhältnisse, Gegenstände und Beschaffen-

heiten, die der äusseren und inneren Wahrnehmungswelt zugehören und naturgesetzlich geordnet sind“. (Translation makes no sense, due to the special and very sensible definition.)

The verdict has to be understood as “form of the connection of several concepts by

closing sentence" (Bernold, 1983, 61).

4.5.1. The four most important Principles for the Written Job Reference Contents

In addition to the mentioned legal and formal requirements, the following principles for the

WJR draw up are important, with the following priority (Schwarb/Mücke, 2005, 18):

4.5.1.1. The Principle of Truth

The WJR has primarily to be true. This truth duty stands clearly above the principle of

goodwill. No essential facts may be left out.

Remark: Indications about performance and behaviour, without any direct influence on

performance and behaviours on the judged or future job, may not be mentioned.

4.5.1.2. The Principle of Completeness

The WJR has to contain all details, which are necessary for the appreciation of the overall

picture of the employee-employer relationship and the personality of the employed

person. The length shall be adequate in proportion to the length of employment. In

principle, the contents of the WJR depend on whether it is a qualified WJR (full WRJ), or

only a work confirmation. The WJR must contain statements concerning performance and

behaviours and also shall contain the reason for leaving the company and a closing

sentence. The last two points, however, are not obligatory.

4.5.1.3. The Principle of Clarity

The WRJ has to be benevolent. This circumstance already makes the wording difficult very

much. The majority of the employers want to avoid a possible conflict with the employee,

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due to a bad judgement. For this reason, willingness to compromises regarding the

wording is very often seen in the practice. .

According to the mentioned Diploma Project, 77% of the people asked, are ready for

partial concessions, if an employee requires such in his WJR. Only 21% from the employers

are against any concessions.

How do companies react to the desire for corrections of the WJR?

Table 4-2: Require after changes of Written Job References by Employees (Nachdiplomstudium SNP 22, Survey 2002)

4.5.1.4. The Principle of Goodwill

The WJR shall be formulated benevolently, according to the purpose, to protect the future

professional career of the employee. This goodwill mustn't, however, put in question the

principles of truth, clarity and completeness.

In the mentioned Diploma Project in 2002 (like also in the following in 2006), the principle of

truth is in first place, followed by the principle of completeness. Goodwill is, with a clear

distance, only in a fourth and last place of the explained principles.

4.6. The Written Job Reference Draw up

4.6.1. Written Job Reference Draw up is a Process of Communication

The WJR draw up and interpretation is a process of communication. The author of the WJR

is the transmitter, the WJR itself is the message and the new employer, as responsible

person for the recruitment, is the receiver and analyst of the contents of the WJR. As a rule,

it is a two way communication by the judging. He, the receiver, does not only read, but

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also interprets the contents of the WJR. Misunderstandings and with that error sources

already can, however, happen on the side of the author of the WJR (example: between

the line manager and the personnel department), and then in the same way on the

receiver side. The danger of the (mis-)interpretation is considerably higher, if no direct

reference information is sought by the receiver of the WJR.

Personnel Reference (Error Source)

Figure: 4-1: Process of the Draw up of Written Job References (Schwarb/Mücke, 2005, 11)

4.6.2. Error Sources at the Written Job Reference Draw up

At the WJR draw up, first the employee has to be judged, for whom the WJR shall be

prepared. Then this judgement must be taken to paper. Depending on who is involved at

the WJR draw up, an agreement between these parties (very often line supervisor and

personnel department) is necessary.

From this the following error sources may result (see also chapter 3):

4.6.2.1. Observation Errors

• The WJR author knew the judged not good enough

• The WJR author knew environmental conditions not good enough

• The observation was not representative or wrong

4.6.2.2. Psychological Faults

• Events of the immediate past are more strongly in the memory than longer

(recency error)

• Dominance of the first impression or a single event (dramatic incident)

• Impression formation is according to the own expectations, needs, experiences

and ideology of the WJR author

• Perception selection, attribution process

• The cooperation between the WJR author and the employee was not smooth

• Generally tendency toward one-sided verdicts (e.g. always too strict or too lenient)

WJR Author (Former Employer) Superv. /Line Exec. (Error Source)

Personnel Departm.

Written Job Re-ference

.................

.................

.................

.........

WRJ Receiver (New Employer) Personnel Department (Error Source) Supervisor / Line Exec.

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4.6.3. Faults at the Written Specification

• Linguistic competence of the WJR authors (different definitions of the same

wordings, spelling mistakes, grammar faults etc.)

• Representation and normality (corrections, unusual paper, colour, format etc.)

4.6.4. Error Sources at the Written Job Reference Interpretation

4.6.4.1. Psychological Faults

• Implicit personality theories, ideology

• Emotional condition

• Selective perception, stereotypes

4.6.4.2. Interpretation Faults

• Linguistic competence

• Wrong interpretation of external conditions (example: WJR creased due to mail

shipping )

• Impression formation, due to other information (example: applicant’s photo)

4.6.5. Error Sources at the Written Job Reference Language

The linguistic competence play an important role in the WJR draw up like also at the WJR

interpretation.

According to Schwarb's examinations (1999, 13), a common WJR language does not exist

in the WJR literature. The legal practice passes the demand of the benevolent but true

judgement. To avoid possible conflicts, plain text is seldom written in the WJR. If authors

and readers of WJR must translate the text contents first, it is imperative that everyone uses

the same language. Instructions to this homogeneity do not take place and no one offers

alone the literature a general valuable practice. Although, the topic of the WJR language

or the WJR code is very frequently discussed: Schwarb (1999) mentions different opinions

about a really existing coding and points at the opinions of different authors, which spread

of denying (Friedrichs, 1975, 170ff), about rejection (List, 1981, 212, Schlessmann, 1988, 78)

up to a specific wording scale (ASU, 1978).

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4.7. „Hidden” Codes

The discussion is interesting around so-called hidden codes in WJR language again and

again. Here are some examples of expressions in use (Class 2000):

In the Area of Performance Text Interpretation No remarks It is to assume, that the performances did not suffice He is a conscientious employee He worked conscientiously, but the job performance

can not convince

He showed understanding f.his work He was not ready for use, but comfortable

We valued his great enthusiasm He did not meet the requirements He tried to get good suggestions He knew everything better without the business could profit from it In the Area of Behaviour Text Interpretation No remarks It is possible, that the behaviour was unsatisfactory He always tried to get good He was an adapter relations to supervisors Opposite to his colleagues he He sought contact to the different one sex showed empathy Remarks on leaving reason are It is possible that he had to go missing The dealing with supervisors and The employee behave correct, without, however, collegeoues was correct to be wishes Table 4-3: “Hidden Codes” in Written Job References Language (Class, 2000, 58 ff)

Caution: Corresponding to the experiences of my own, it is possible, that for example the

performances of an outgoing employee are described as: “We were content with his

performances... " With this sentence, the WJR author wants to express, that the employee

met his expectations full and completely. This wording would, however, be weighted and

interpreted by line managers or HR managers in the most cases completely different

(insufficient performances).

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4.8. Aids for the Written Job Reference Draw up

On which process of communication can the WJR draw up be based? Based on a not

representative online-survey (autumn 2006, 323 participants, useable results 172) in the

German-speaking part in Switzerland, the tendency is the following:

FHNW, 12. Februar 2006 10

How often do you use the following aids at the WJR draw up for

executives and other employees?

38.553.87.739.453.07.6Other w ording he lps

23.344.032.723.244.232.6Former WJR

9.331.159.610.629.859.6Earlie r judgements / personal deve lopm . talks

73.618.67.972.919.57.5External tex t m odul system

36.217.446.337.124.338.6Text m odule system e of one ‘s ow n

48.320.031.747.821.630.6WJR judgement sheet w ithout tex t m odules

70.728.60.754.743.12.2Draft/propositio n em ployee

34.247.917.835.648.116.3Collection of sam ple WJR

30.342.826.930.440.728.9Indiv idual, w ithout aids

12.548.738.814.553.631.9WJR of com parable em ployees

NeverFrom time

to timeConstantNever

From time

to timeConstant

EmployeesExecutiv es

Angaben in Prozent; n=177

Table 4-4: Use of Aids for the Written Job Reports Development (Survey 2006 among HR managers in the German-speaking part of Switzerland, Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz)

Earlier appraisal interviews (personal development talks) are most frequently consulted for

the preparation of WJR, and, to be more precise, for WJR for executives and for other

employees. The conclusion of this fact is, that the greatest part of the persons responsible,

take earlier judgements into account, and consider therefore probably quite a longer

observation time.

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5. Analysis by Text Interpretation 5.1. Introduction to the Text Interpretation

The method of text interpretation is part of the qualitative social research, which belongs

to the social sciences and psychology. It deals with the examination of social relations and

connections. If we try to derive secondary ends at the analysis from the data and

knowledge we won, we have to take the general limitations of social research into

account. Therefore two statements of Coffee/Atkinson (1996, 15 ff) shall be quoted:

“Those analytic procedures and their outcomes do not necessarily converge on one single conclusion ", and (...) "The data that we use, like any data, are incomplete or partial version".

In the qualitative research process, texts have three functions (Flick, 2005, 53 ff): They are

within the qualitative social research:

• The essential data on which the knowledge is founded

• The base for interpretations, and

• They are the central medium of the representation and arrangement of such

findings

This does not only apply to the objective hermeneutics3, but also in general for the

common methods of the qualitative social research. The basis can be in interviews, whose

data are changed into texts, remarks, notes or papers of different origin. Texts are always

the result of every data collection and instrument of the interpretation. The question is,

what happens to the reality at the translation / transformation into text and equivalent of

text in the retranslation into the reality. Text is not a simple and comprehensive illustration

of the reality but a representation which can not always reflect all facets of the original

situation absolutely objectively. Every text draw up of social realities is subject of a

technical structuring and of limitations which make the text accessible in a certain way. By

the personal style of noting down and draw up of text and the degree to precision of the

transcription, the event or situation is resolved in a variety of trenchant details. The text

being made this way designs the examined reality in a special way and converts it to

empirical material for interpretations.

A process of construction of reality takes place, namely at the examination and analysis,

at the elevation, processing and interpretation of data, as well as at the representation of

results.

3 Schreiber J., (1988), p. 249, in an essay of Wolf A. Hermeneutik – Wahrheit und Verstehen. Text als

Welterzeugung, Erzeugung der Realität durch Text. According to Schreiber, hermeneutic is described as an explanation art. It explains, how to understand and explain signs and ideas of other people.

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Draw up

Experience Interpretation Natural and social Understanding, ascription of environment, occurrences, activities importance Figure 5-1: Understanding between Draw up and Interpretation (Flick, 2005, 58) In these draw ups connections which are accepted as a reality are translated. The same

applies for everyday experiences in knowledge at the examined, reports of such

experiences or events and behaviours.

5.2. Choice Decisions

With regard to the research process, in principle, the following choice decisions have to

be taken:

Choice Decisions in the Research Process

At the data gathering • Case choice • Case group choice

At the interpretation of the data • Choice material • Choice within the material

At the representation of the results • Presentation choice

Figure 5-2: Decisions and Selections within the Research Process (Flick, 2005, 98)

5.2.1. Fixing of the Sample Structure

For the work in hand the sample structure was fixed in advance, because it should be

examined, whether in determined, defined groups, certain textual representations were to

find. This choice is described as an abstract method since it starts from a certain idea of

type and distribution of qualities. In this case, the choice of cases orientates itself at a

consistent occupation of the cells of the sampling structure. This concerns particularly the

number of WJR per chosen group (sex, function, age).

5.2.2. Limitations of the Chosen Method

At this procedure, the structure of the chosen groups is fixed already before the data

collection. For this reason, it limits the variation breadth of the comparison possibilities.

Such a procedure is according to Flick (2005) suitable for the further analysis, distinction

and check of already suspected common aspects and differences between the chosen

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groups. This statement is particularly important in connection with the examination on

hand. Because I will examine if (suspected) distortions and role behaviours also really can

be proved in the analysis.

5.2.3. From Text to Theory

My analysis is based on text material from different sources, which was drawn up from

different HR managers, line managers etc. Sources and persons are known by name,

however not personally. The work starts there, where a construction or a "new reality" was

already developed.

Figure 5-3: The three Phases of Data Fixation (Flick, 2005) Start work

5.3. Different Methods of Text Interpretation (digression)

Texts in the qualitative research are practically always the base for interpretative work to

obtain conclusions of empirical material (Flick, 2005, 308 ff).

In principle, the text interpretation distinguishes two main methods, namely:

• The method of coding and categorisation and

• The method of sequential analyses. (We do not discuss this method more detailed

with regard to the targets of the work in hand)

5.3.1. The method of Coding and Categorisation

The following methods are used in this group:

• Encoding theoretically

• Encoding thematically

• Qualitative contents analysis

• Global evaluation / analysis

Compilation Preparation Draw up Analysis

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5.3.1.1. Overview about the Individual Methods

The following overview characterizes the essential differences of the individual methods

Coding and Categorisation

Method Criteria

Encoding theoretically

Encoding thematically

Qualitative contents analysis

Global- Evaluation

Openness for the respective text through:

Encode open Principle of the case analysis. Short case cha-rakterization

Explicational contents analysis

Case-related processing of texts

Structuring, deepening through:

Encode axial selective encoding W-questions constant comparison

Development of a thematic structure for case analysis. Social distribution of positions

Summarised contents analysis, structuring contents analysis

Openness makes orien-tation easier at the search for additional pieces of evidence

Contribution to the general development of the method of inter-pretation

Combination of induction and deductive reasoning. Connection of openness and structuring

Related to the object group comparison, after case analysis

Strong rule guided method to the reduction of amounts of data

Supplementary suggestion to the orientation in texts at encoding interpretation

Application area

Theory formation in all possible contents areas

Groups compare Large amounts of data in different contents areas

Preparation for other methods

Problems of the application

Blurred criteria for the completion of codings

Effortful by case analysis as an intermediate step

Application for scheme tables rules is frequently difficult

Fast overview via the text mustn't replace or hinder fine analysis

Limitations of the method

Flexibility of the methodical rules, primarily by practical experience communicable

Limits on studies with comparison groups, fixed first of all

Strongly orien-tated to quantitative methodology

Compatibility with sequential analyses is questionable

Literature Strauss & Corbin 1990/1996; Strauss 1991

Flick 1996 Mayring 1983, 2000

Legewie 1994

Table 5-1: Overview Methods of Text Interpretation (Flick, 2005, 310)

5.3.2. The Characteristics of Encoding

According to Strauss (1996), the activity of encoding describes the real evaluation and

text interpretation process which not only means transaction in another notation, but an

analytical process by the system of the encoding being first built up systematically and

creatively.

Three types of encoding are distinguished:

• Encoding openly

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• Encoding axial

• Encoding selectively

5.3.2.1. Encoding openly

Characteristics: The text interpretation starts in the Grounded Theory (Strauss/Corbin, 1996),

in which the data are processed analytically. "Concepts" are developed from the text,

which are used as constituents for a model. For a piece of original text, a different lot of

interpretation text is added. Mostly, encoding openly refers on single text passages and is

a fine analysis of sentences and phrases. The encoded element is regarded as an

indicator for the phenomenon to be examined. By some "W questions" it is tried, to look

"behind the text". The Grounded Theory recommends to ask the question of the

phenomena which stands in the centre, during the analysis again and again, and to build

up corresponding “Memo theories.”

5.3.2.2. Axial encoding

This method serves primarily the improvement and distinction of already existing concepts.

A defined category is in the centre and relations are built up around this category. This

analysis frequently bases on a theory already existing and derives its questions from it.

5.3.2.3. Encoding selectively

Sorting available code lists often serves as a starting point for encoding selectively. A

weighting of categories, qualities etc. seems to be necessary for the build up of the

construction of the theory. The central phenomenon is described as a central category.

The name of the central category can be fixed already in advance.

5.4. Limitations of Text Interpretation

How does it make sense to declare text as actions or actions as texts? To this fundamental

question there are also critical opinions. For example the remarks of Schreiber (1988, 409)

where he quotes Luckmann who states that borders can become blurred if a relation is

tried to construct in the text analysis. Primarily, if a direct relation from text to action is

carried out.

On the other hand, the knowledge is anyway, that text is the most subtly differentiated

and most complex form to give information of the phenomenon action, which is much

harder to win at more elementary forms of behaviour.

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5.5. The Practial Putting into Action

5.5.1. The Analysis Object

For the work in hand, 60 (full) WJR from different sources were analysed. These WJR were

written between 1981 to 2006, 48 of them in the period 2000 – 2006, 11 between 1993 -

1999 and only one earlier (1981). Authors were HR managers, executives, managing

directors and management members of medium-sized enterprises in the German-

speaking part of Switzerland. The sources of delivery were from own inventory (appprox.

40%), with help of HR managers in different firms and partly also via regional employment

offices. To preservate the anonymity, names and addresses of the judged persons were

made unrecognizable. The person (and partly either function) of the different WJR authors

was not known and also not relevant for the analysis purpose.

5.5.2. The Chosen Examination Areas / Limitations

Regarding the aims of the work, the analysis was concentrated primarily on statements

concerning performance and behaviour, for executives additionally on the area of

leadership.

Statemements in the closing sentences or end wordings were also examined, but not

treated as an independent examination area. Further a rather summary judgement of the

compliance with the WJR principles of clarity and goodwill was carried out. The most

important principle of truth however could not be judged, due to the concept of the

analysis. In the end, the completeness could not be judged exactly, too.

5.5.3. The examined Groups and Categories

The first criteria was the differentiation of the function steps:

• Unqualified workers (20 WJR)

• Specialists (20 WJR)

• Executives (20 WJR)

These three function steps were subdivided in:

A) Sex: Men (total 30 WJR) and women (total 30 WJR)

B) Age groups: Young, until 33 years, (total 30 WJR)and old as of 40

years, (total 30 WJR)

The age limits refer to the date of the WJR draw up.

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5.5.4. The Chosen Age Structure

To be able to recognize an age specific distinction in the analysis, the mentioned age

limits were chosen. Sufficient distance should be given by the gap between below 33

years and above 40 years.

The distinction between young and older employees is based on the average age of the

employed population in the group from 15 to 64 years in Switzerland. According to the

statistics in 2005, the average age of a collaborating was 40.2 years (men) and 39.5 years

(women), for both groups together at 39.9 years. Therefore we count all over 40-year-old

than above the average, and in our definition as "old".

Employed Persons between 15 and 64 Years

Canton Zurich and Switzerland, average age 2005

Men Women Both

Kt. Zurich 39.9 39.7 39.8

Switzerland 40.2 39.5 39.9

Source: BFS, SAKE

Calculation: Statistical office of the canton Zurich

Table 5-2: Average Age of employed Persons between 15 - 64 years in 2005

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5.5.5. The Chosen Method

The analysis procedure was based on different methods. Central importance was

attached to the thematic encoding, because these procedures support the requirements

and targets (structuring possibilities, limitation on groups fixed first of all, group

comparisons). Different elements of other methods of the text interpretation were used,

however, supplementarily. For example also the qualitative contents analysis by the search

for formal structures in the text material. These methods were completed by a self

developed model of the analysis according to the research question and also in the

interest of the extraction of additional information of the text material. Figure 5-3 gives a

short overview of the individual methods.

5.6. The Analysis-Model

Under consideration of the criteria, mentioned in Table 5-1, the chosen procedure can be

assigned as follows:

Work step Method

Describe of relevant Open encoding text information Content analysis Hermeneutical aspects Formation first Model of one’s own category Encoding selectively Weighting of WJR language statements Building up main Encoding selectively categories / compressions Model of one’s own Comparison within Group comparison main categories Reply of the Analyse of the results research- question

Table 5-3: Scheme Analysis Model Below the chosen analysis form for the extraction and structuring of the base information.

For space reasons, only some few statements were used as fictitious examples.

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Written Job Reference / Detail analysis

Sex: Women WJR no. WJS 1

Age group: < 33 years WJR size / lines: 29

Function: Specialist Length of employment / months: 16

Assessment scale: *Intensity 1-3 (= normal, strong very strong), **Weighted value = Frequency x Intensity.

Statements concerning performance Location Category formation Frequnc. Intens.* W.Value

Work quantity

...shows extraordinary big deployment of labour Line 8 Deployment of labour 1 3 3

Work quality ..... ...

..worked independently, competently and reliably Line 17 Independence, .... 1 1 1

Total statements concerning performance 7 9

Number of the lines with performance notes Share of total lines of WJR. 24%

Statements concerning behaviour Location Category formation Frequenc. Intens.* W.Value

Behaviours opposite...

...behaved always helpfully, anticipating... Line 22 Helpfulliy... 1 1 1

Total statements concerning behaviour ........ 5 8

Number of lines with behaviour notes Share of total lines of WJR. 17%

End words Statements in the text Frequenc. Intens.* W.Value

Thanks formulation Gratitude for high commitment… 1 1 1

Regrets Dismissal related to restruct. 1 1 1

Wishes / recommendations Much success and all the best 1 1 1

Total values 3

Complete judgement Work to full satisfaction 1 2 2

Compliance with WJR principles Yes No Remarks

Left out x Perfor-mance

Goodwill x

Clarity x See… .

WJR codes No details / indications

Table 5-4: Form of Data Gathering

The intensity of the statements were judged and weighted by a scale of 1-3. The results

were evaluated only for the statistics (see appendix 3)

The procedure included in the first phase the gathering of the base material. This

procedure was pre-structured, allowed however the required flexibility for the following

analysis and evaluation.

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Selected Groups and Descriptions

Groups Segment / Abbreviation

Unqualified Workers Men until 33 years MJL Men as of 40 years MOL Women until 33 years WJL Women as of 40 years WOL Specialists Men until 33 years MJS Men as of 40 years MOS Women until 33 years WJS Women as of 40 years WOS Executives Men until 33 years MJE Men as of 40 years MOE Women until 33 years WJE Women as of 40 years WOE

Table 5-5: Segments, Groups and Abbreviations

5.6.1. The Work Steps in Particular

The complete process of the chosen procedure can be subdivided into the following work

steps:

5.6.1.1 Processing of the Documents

• Determination of the size of the WJR (text size in lines, excl. titles and signatures)

• Determination of the length of employment within months (not completed months

were rounded off)

• Identification of all statements of the categories performance, behaviour and

leadership

5.6.1.2. Working out the Passages and Categorisation

• Processing of the recording, according to group and WJR number

• Gathering relevant statements, most in the wording 1:1

• Formation of a first category/assignment

• Distinction of the respective intensity of the statement by weighting with judging

1,2,3 (normal, strong, very strong)

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At uncertainty of the assignment of the relevant statements (performance or

behaviour), I decided, accordingly to the context.

• All statements in the area of performance and behaviour were put into relation to

the length of the WJR

• Assessment of the end wordings, the compliance with the testimonial principles

and the complete judgement

• The distinction "coded" WJR = applied WJR language and "not coded" WJR was

carried out, only where explicitly described as "noncoded". This means theoretically

in the inversion, that all not described WJR were coded. This distinction indeed is

not correct and too simple, because there is no uniform handling (see particularly

remarks in chapter 4 and in the appendix 3).

5.6.1.3. The First Base List

The first categories (statements, expressions) were distributed on the 12 formed subgroups

with the corresponding WJR number now. Altogether, a base list was made with 423

statements.

5.6.1.4. Completeness Check

All WJR were checked in a second work step with regard to completeness of the

statements to be analysed and judged. This work could also be seen as an internal quality

assurance / check. (Due to the large amount of data, single faults cannot totally be

excluded.)

By this work step, the degree of the already developed construction process was checked

additionally (first interpretation and category formation of text statements). The objective

here was to keep this degree of interpretation in a narrow frame, to follow the text original

document as far as possible, to not influence the following analysis steps in this phase

already too strongly.

5.6.1.5. The Second Base List /First Compression

The further processing of the base list was carried out the way that statements similar /

identical in importance were brought together into a main category. The result was a first

compression and concentration. This process also can be described as encoding

selectively from my point of view. From originally 423 statements 210 remained. The other

ones were either multiple mentions, identical or similar in importance or irrelevant.

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5.6.1.6. Check Synonymous / Hermeneutical Meaning

As a further step, these compressed statements were checked with regard to synonymous

meaning (Duden, 2006) and to the possible hermeneutical sense, as well as partly to the

considerations of Schlessmann (1988, 74 ff).

As a hermeneutical check, I tried to put the statements and expressions into the supposed

context of the text. To this point, the opinion of Coffee (1996, 16): „In examining our own

data, it will make sense, to think not only in terms of the thematic content of our interviews,

but also in terms of their narrative forms". I am conscious, that my "translation" could

contain a further distortion.

5.6.1.7. The Third Base List / Second Compression and Description of Occurrences

At the further process of the compression, some expressions and names with similar

contents/meaning were discontinued. 137 expressions effectively remained in the main

category.

The different expressions and statements were now checked with regard to the case

numbers. It was to state the frequency / occurrences in the relevant categories, groups

and functions.

Phase 1

Criterion for the following analysis were the number of the found cases:

At least 3 cases within the same segment = Occurrence

At least 4 cases within the same function group: = Occurrence

At least 6 cases per sex: = Occurrence

Phase 2 (base for the judgement of distortions)

Further, the absolute mentions at the expressions appeared as conspicuous were

established after the following criteria:

• Total cases, subdivided in men and women

• Total cases, subdivided in functions

• Within the functions, total cases subdivided in age groups (young/old) and

• Total cases regarding age groups about over all functions

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5.6.1.8. Fourth and Definite List / Comparison of Distortions and Stereotypes

Measured in terms of the necessary case numbers for reaching an occurrence, the list

reduced itself to 32 expressions, which were further analysed with regard to distortions and

stereotypes.

Validity Check / Validation

Two of the decisive control criterions according to Weuster (1994, 2), Schwarb (1996, 111)

and Mayring (2003, 109) in the sociological methodology are the validity and the

reliability4. Valid is a method, which really measures what it pretends to measure. This was

made by the comparison with the defined role expectations, a kind of internal form.

At the qualitative research methods, the validity has, according to Flick (2005, 322-330), a

higher attention than the reliability. Among others, the question of the validity is also

depending on “if the researches sees, (…) what he thinks to see”. Three faults can appear:

1. Seeing a connection or a principle where no-one is. 2. To reject a real existing

connection or a principle, and 3. Asking the wrong questions.

A basic problem at the judgement of the validity is also the regulation of the relationship

between the examined connections and the version which the researcher of it delivers.

Meant with that is the already mentioned construction of a reality. In principle, the validity

cannot be determined by knowledge certainly.

Communicative validation in connection with text interpretation was discussed for a while.

Due to ethical problems which can appear by interpretation, the understanding of

communicative validation has lost of importance.

Reliability Check

The measuring stability was carried out by three external HR managers. These received the

definite list with the 32 remained expressions and had to assign these expressions to the 12

segments, related to their personnel experience. Multiple mentions were allowed.

For the work at hand, the comparison of the paraphrases found followed now as further

step, with regard to distortions and stereotypes.

4 The objectivity, as a third instrument has to ensure the same results, independent ot the judging person. The objectivity can not really be judged in the case in hand, since all results were lifted up by myself.

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5.7. Description Distortion

Distortion = Clear overweight in the analysed case numbers. I put the following criteria

as measuring for a distortion.

Sex: If one of the two groups occupies at least 2/3 of the case numbers

Functions: If one of three functions occupies at least 50% of the case numbers

Age: If one of the two groups occupies at least 2/3 of the case numbers

5.8. Description Stereotype

A stereotype or expected role behaviour is principally oriented at the relevant social role

expectations. These are documented by the mentioned publications (see chapter 3) and

examinations. Where no typical roles were defined, I defined stereotypes from my own

experience.

5.9. Further Evaluations

Since at the primary evaluation of the data material, all sorts of values and ratios were co-

lifted up, additional statements could be made, which were not directly object of the

aims, for example (details see appendix 3):

• Proportional share of the areas of performance and behaviour in the complete

length / size of the WJR

• Intensity and weighting of statements

• Comparison of these shares within and outside of the formed groups

• Check of the relation between these shares, with regard to the length of

employment

• Remarks of the complete judgement

• Remarks of regrets, wishes

• Handling of the WJR coding

• Personal impression of the WJR draw up

• Company classification (so far as possible)

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6. Results

Introduction: The Difficulties of Translation

The translation of statements, names, expressions of German into English contains a further

"technical" distortion danger. For this reason, the German original expressions are listed in

brackets in some of the following lists.

6.1. Distortions and Stereotypes

The listing below contains different evaluations of the expressions found in the area of

distortions and stereotypes.

6.1.1. Distortions (see 5.7.) Also Stereotype?

Sex

Men

Readiness for use (Einsatzbereitschaft Yes

Efficiency (Leistungsfähigkeit) Yes

Method competence (Methodenkompetenz) Yes

Networked intellect (Vernetztes Denken) Yes

Sense of duty (Pflichtbewusstsein) Yes

High work quality (Hohe Arbeitsqualität)

Creativity (Kreativität)

A typical example concerning “Networked intellect” from an analysed WJR (MJE 2):

“He has an excellent ability of understanding, and his way of thinking is networked and

strategic.” (Er hat ein ausgezeichnetes Auffassungsvermögen, und seine Denkweise ist

vernetzt und strategisch.)

Especially the second part of the sentence is typical for male executives and hardly to find

in WJR for women.

Women Also Stereotype?

Care (Sorgfalt) Yes

Politeness (Höflichkeit) Yes

Helpfulness (Hilfsbereitschaft) Yes

Leading by conviction (Führte durch Ueberzeugung) Yes

Distinctive ability of understanding (Ausgepr. Auffassungs-

vermögen)

Self-initiative (Eigeninitiative)

Speditive mode of operation (Speditive Arbeitsweise)

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Staying power (Ausdauer)

Sense of responsibility (Verantwortungsbewusstsein)

Reliability (Zuverlässigkeit)

Motivation ability (Motivationsfähigkeit)

A typical example concerning “Politeness” from an analysed WJR (WOS 4):

“Her relations to supervisors, employees and third parties were polite, courteous and

correct any time.” (Ihr Verhältnis zu Vorgesetzten, Mitarbeitern und Dritten war jederzeit

höflich, zuvorkommend und korrekt.)

The expression “polite” is considerably more frequently used for women. At a WJR for a

man, it would have probably been absent.

Functions

Executives Also Stereotype?

Self-initiative (Eigeninitiative) Yes

Networked intellect (Vernetztes Denken) Yes

Good ability of understanding (Gute Auffassungsgabe) Yes

Distinctive ability of understanding (Ausgepr. Auffassungs-

vermögen) Yes

Honesty (Ehrlichkeit) Yes

Conscientiousness (Gewissenhaftigkeit)


Efficiency (Leistungsfähigkeit)

A typical example concerning “Self initiative” from an analysed WJR (MJE 3):

”He took all required measures and carried them out determinedly.” (Er ergriff dazu alle

erforderlichen Massnahmen und führte sie entschlossen durch.)

Self initiative as expression, or the ability to be self initiative, is an expression or behaviour,

which can appear in the part of work quantity and work quality, as also in the behaviour.

Within most of the analysed WJR, the work quantity was rather meant. The expression was

not only used to the executives, but also for specialists, and rather seldom for unqualified

workers.

Specialists Also Stereotype?

Team ability (Teamfähigkeit) Yes

Staying power (Ausdauer)

Loyalty (Loyalität)

Sense of responsibility (Verantwortungsbewusstsein)

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A typical example concerning “Team ability” from an analysed WJR (WJS 4):

”She was everywhere of great popularity by her team ability and open-mindedness…”

(Durch ihre Teamfähigkeit und Aufgeschlossenheit war sie überall sehr beliebt…)

„Team ability“ is an expression, used very often for specialists. Although this ability is

important to unqualified workers, indeed, there it is very seldom to read.

Unqualified workers

No distortions

Age

Old Also Stereotype?

Sense of responsibility (Verantwortungsbewusstsein) Yes

Kindness (Freundlichkeit) Yes

Helpfulness (Hilfsbereitschaft) Yes


Method competence (Methodenkompetenz)

Conscientiousness (Gewissenhaftigkeit)

A typical example concerning “Sense of responsibility” from an analysed WJR (WOS 2):

”Her abilities and her sense of responsibility induced us, to …” (Ihre Fähigkeiten und ihr

Verantwortungsbewusstsein veranlassten uns, ihr per 3. Dezember die Handlungsvollmacht

zu erteilen.)

“Sense of responsibility” ist used in connection with older people. This is a typical

stereotype, because in principle, this quality is not a question of the age.

Young Also Stereotype?

Creativity (Kreativität) Yes

Team ability (Teamfähigkeit) Yes

Distinctive ability of understanding (Ausgepr.

Auffassungsvermögen) Yes

Efficiency (Leistungsfähigkeit) Yes

Honesty (Ehrlichkeit)

Sense of duty (Pflichtbewusstsein)

Self-initiative (Eigeninitiative)

A typical example concerning “Creativity” from an analysed WJR (MJS 3):

”He handled the problems with system and much creativity.” (Er packte die anstehenden

Probleme mit System und viel Kreativität an.)

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“Creativity” is an ability, which is ascribed to young people primarily. It happened only

once with a WJR for an older employee, within the analysed WJR.

Short comment whole group:

Approximately half of the distortions reflects also stereotypes and expected social role

behaviour. This share is a little bit higher with the group of men. There where distortions and

stereotypes appear at the same time, the danger of misinterpretation of the WJR is

particularly high, since socially marked stereotypes can aggravate the objective

judgement in addition.

6.1.2. Stereotypes (no Distortions according to 5.8.)

Sex (general)

Ability to work under pressure (Belastbarkeit): No essential difference at the sex

Special competence (Fachkompetenz): No essential difference at the sex

Flexibility (Flexibilität): No essential difference at the sex

Obligingness (Zuvorkommenheit): No essential difference at the sex

Comment: The expectation for the expression “Ability to work under pressure” was clear

higher, concerning the case numbers with the men, based on the stereotype of masculine

imperative (Hollstein, Goldberg). In fact in the analysis they were very balanced between

men and women.

Men

--

Women

--

Functions (general)

Readiness for use (Einsatzbereitschaft): All functions

Ability to work under pressure (Belastbarkeit): All functions

Flexibility (Flexibilität): All functions

Obligingness (Zuvorkommenheit): All functions

Comment: “Flexibility” is primarily a behaviour expression. The expression is partly used,

however, also in connection with the description of the work quality. On the one hand it is

a stereotype, on the other hand a set phrase. This is also documented in the analysed

cases by a rather balanced distribution.

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Executives

Independence (Selbständigkeit)


Aim orientation (Zielorientiertheit)

Motivation ability (Motivationsfähigkeit)

Special competence (Fachkompetenz)

Comment: “Aim orientation” seems to be a typical paraphrase for an executive (Raschke)

and in addition a stereotype. This quality is expected from an executive. No distortions are

ascertainable at the examined cases, though, i.e. the mentions at specialists are almost

just as high at the executives. Not a clear confirmation of a stereotype only for executives.

Specialists

Independence (Selbständigkeit)


Aim orientation (Zielorientiertheit)

Special competence (Fachkompetenz)

Comment: The expression “Special competence” is, concerning the distribution,

comparable to the expression aim orientation (for executives), just mentioned before.

Special competence is a prerequisite for a qualified employee and therefore a set phrase.

The distribution indeed, is similarly high with the executives.

Unqualified workers

--

Age (general)

Obligingness (Zuvorkommenheit): No essential difference between old and young

Flexibility (Flexibilität): No essential difference between old and young

Old

--

Young

--

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Short comment whole group:

Stereotypes without distortions were found in large numbers with the specialists and

executives. They are rather seldom used at unqualified workers. The reason for it could be

the less subtly differentiated paraphrases and the shorter WJR.

6.1.3. Stereotypes at the Sex (with and without Distortions)

Men Women

Readiness for use Lower value (= less cases)

Ability to work under pressure Ability to work under pressure

Efficiency Missing

Method competence Missing

Networked intellect Networked intellect

Flexibility Flexibility

Obligingness Obligingness

Politeness Politeness

Helpfulness Helpfulness

Sense of duty Sense of duty

Lower value Motivation ability

Lower value Leading by conviction

Lower value Care

Comment:

Only the group of men contains expressions, which are missing at the group of women.

Example (MOS 4): “Mr XY has a good technical knowledge and a good working

technique.” (Herr XY verfügt über gute Fachkenntnisse und eine gute Arbeitstechnik.)

6.1.4. Stereotypes at the Age (with and without Distortions)

Young Old

Ability to work under pressure Lower value

Efficiency Lower value

Creativity Lower value

Flexibility Flexibility

Distinctive ability of understanding Missing

Team ability Lower value

Lower value Kindness

Lower value Helpfulness

Lower value Sense of responsibility

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Comment:

The expression „Distinctive ability of understanding“ was mentioned only with young

employees. Young, used as a stereotype means faster, more dynamically etc.

Example (WJE 3): “Mrs XY has a very fast ability of understanding, also in the administrative

area …” (Auch im administrativen Bereich hat Frau XY eine sehr schnelle

Auffassungsgabe…)

6.1.5. Delta List (strongest Distortions)

Mentions Mentions

Men Women

Motivation ability 1 7

Method competence 6 0

Self-initiative 2 8

Speditive mode of operation 6 11

Helpfulness 5 10

Efficiency 4 0

Old Young

Kindness 24 14

Team ability 1 11

Distinctive ability of understanding 0 6

Capacity 3 8

Creativity 1 6

Functions

Unq. workers Specialists Executives

Distinctive ability of understanding 1 0 5

Motivation ability 0 0 8

Comment:

The reason for the strong mention of the expressions “Motivation ability” and “Self-

initiative” could be connected with the fact, that these values even today are regarded

as unusual or an exception among the expectations of the professional performances of

women, and through this, was mentioned at all. Team ability, creativity or distinctive ability

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of understanding, however can be seen as values which are more typical or more

expected for young employees (stereotypes).

6.1.6. List of Highest Case Number absolutely

Area of Work Quantity No. Distortion Stereotype

Readiness for use 24 Men Yes

Speditive mode of operating 17 Women No

Ability to work under pressure 11 Young No

Area of Work Quality Distortion Stereotype

Independence 26 No No

Special competence 21 No No

Reliability 16 Women No

Area of Behaviour Distortion Stereotype

Kindness 38 Old Yes

Correctness 36 No No

Helpfulness 15 Women Yes

Old Yes

Comment:

The area of behaviour expels considerably the highest values, what is not astonishing. The

behaviour part contains rather simpler and less differentiated information within the WJR.

This part is also for the unpractised WJR author easier to fulfil.

The three mentioned expressions must be classified as set phrases and are usually

stereotypes.

6.1.7. List with rare and particularly typical Expressions (“Exotics”)

6.1.7.1. Women (29)

Rare and unusual Expressions

Orderliness (Ordentlichkeit)

Cleanness (Sauberkeit)

Solid way of life (Solider Lebenswandel)

Typical Female Role Behaviour

Procedure differentiated (Differenzierte Vorgehensweise)

Was popular (War beliebt)

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Cheerfulness (Fröhlichkeit)

Naturalness (Natürlichkeit)

Affability (Umgänglichkeit)

Patience (Geduldigkeit)

Diplomatic dexterity (Diplomatisches Geschick)

Sensitive (Einfühlsam)

Humorously (Humorvoll)

Spontaneity (Spontaneität)

Indispensable supporter (Unverzichtbare Stütze)

Formulating talent (Formuliertalent)

Tact (Fingerspitzengefühl)

Discretion (Verschwiegenheit)

Pleasant nature (Sympathisches Wesen)

Indifferent Expressions

Quiet manner (Ruhige Art)

Leading dynamic (Dynamisches Führen)

Constructive suggestions (Konstruktive Vorschläge)

Obliging manner (Entgegenkommende Art)

Dedicated leading (Engagiertes Führen)

Extra stressed Expressions (Standard for men)

Energy (Tatkraft)

Assertiveness (Durchsetzugsfähigkeit)

Pragmatic intellect (Pragmatisches Denken)

Determination (Entschlossenheit)

Economic mode of operation (Oekonomische Arbeitsweise)

Convincing appearance (Ueberzeugendes Auftreten)

Comment:

The number of rare expressions is very high with the women. Besides rare and unusual

expressions like “solid way of life”, the typical female role expectations are very numerous

(e.g. sensitive, tact). Unlike to WJR for men, expressions are mentioned which are not to

found in WJR for men, because they are standard and normal and therefore can hardly

be found in WJR (e.g. energy, determination). In general "soft" expressions and

paraphrases, which concern the person, the character, the manners and the behaviour

are dominant at the women.

Example (WJE 3): „She took care of the tasks with much tact, neutrality and discretion.”

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(Die sensiblen Aufgaben erledigte sie mit viel Fingerspitzengefühl, Neutralität und

Verschwiegenheit.)

6.1.7.2. Men (13)

Typical Male Role Behaviour

Relevant argumentation (Sachliche Argumentation)

Contributed to the success (Trug zum Erfolg bei)

Resistance (Beständigkeit)

Self-confidence (Selbstbewusstsein)

Logical intellectual capacity (Logisches Denkvermögen)

Good power of imagination (Gutes Vorstellungsvermögen)

Good abstraction ability (Gutes Abstraktionsvermögen)

Deductive abilities (Kombinatorische Fähigkeiten)

Collegiality (Kollegialität)

Indifferent Expressions

Circumspect (Umsichtigkeit)

Clean mode of operation (Saubere Arbeitsweise)

Reputation of the supervisors enjoyed (Genoss Ansehen der Vorgesetzten)

Sense of justice (Gerechtigkeitssinn)

Comment:

Unusal expressions are missing here. The paraphrases for men are more restricted

fundamentally and primarily concentrated on expressions in the area of performance,

success, self-confidence, objectivity. Also here, we find the typical manly stereotypes and

pictures as in the case of the women. A rather sharp parting line of the used concepts and

the origin can be drawn between the two groups men and women.

Example (MJE 1): „Thanks to a logical intellectual capacity and (...), Mr XY coped with his

task area on schedule in hectic times, too.” (Dank logischem Denkvermögen

und.......bewältigte Herr XY sein Aufgabengebiet auch in hektischen Zeiten termingerecht.)

6.1.8. Structure of companies, using these rare expressions

Smaller companies: 7

Middle-sized companies: 11

Big companies: 3

Not defining: 2

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Comment:

Expressions more seldom used are more frequently to find in smaller and middle-sized

companies. Remark: The determination of the size of some companies was not always

clear, based on the available documents.

Weuster (1994, 275) assumes that the WJR authors of larger companies, as a rule, have

better knowledge of the WJR technology and the WJR language than the authors in

smaller companies. He points out, that the danger exists that the WJR authors in smaller

companies make perhaps worse judgements than intended. The judgement itself, indeed,

often expresses what is really meant.

6.2. The Compliance with the Principles of the Written Job Reference Draw up

Due to the conception of the analysis, only the principles of clarity and goodwill could be

judged. The non-compliance of one or both of these principles includes a further distortion

danger.

Clarity Principle adhered? Share of Uncertainty (=No)

Yes No %

Unq. workers MJL 2 3 60%

MOL 3 2 40%

WJL 5 0 0

WOL 4 1 20%

Specialists MJS 2 3 60%

MOS 1 4 80%

WJS 2 3 60%

WOS 3 2 40%

Executives MJE 4 1 20%

MOE 3 2 40%

WJE 4 1 20%

WOE 3 2 40%

Average 36 24 40%

Goodwill Principle adhered Share of Uncertainty

Yes No %

Unq. workers MJL 4 1 20%

MOL 3 2 40%

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WJL 4 1 20%

WOL 4 1 20%

Specialists MJS 5 0 0

MOS 5 0 0

WJS 4 1 20%

WOS 4 1 20%

Executives MJE 4 1 20%

MOE 4 1 20%

WJE 5 0 0

WOE 3 2 40%

Average 49 11 18%

Comment:

At the principle of the clarity the analysed WJR have serious deficits and for this reason

contain an increased distortion danger. Somebody, who relies only on the information on

hand, often gets an incomplete and/or misleading picture of the judgement of the

employee from the WJR content.

Regarding to clarity, the WJR draw up makes heavier demands than regarding to

goodwill. Therefore the difference does not astonish.

6.3. Distortions and Stereotypes to Written Job Reference Areas

Work Quantity Mentions

Expressions with higher case numbers: 6

Of this distortions 11 multiple mentions

Of this stereotypes 9 multiple mentions

Work Quality Mentions




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Behaviour Mentions




Comment:

Distortions and the use of stereotypes in related WJR areas are relatively seen, most

frequent in the area of work quantity.

6.4. Distortions by Diversity Topic

Foreign employees come from other cultures with other role expectations, not only in

connection with the gender topic. Differences based on diversity, contain a further

distortion danger. To which extent this has had an effect at the analysed WJR, can not be

judged, because the origin of the judged persons was not known.

6.5. Reliability

The 32 remained expressions were submitted for a reliability check to three HR managers in

typical Swiss small and middle-sized companies. They had to assign these expressions to

the functions, they use for the draw up of WJR. Interestingly, with one exception, these

persons did not make a difference between men and women and between old and

young. The distinction was made at the functions. This is comprehensible, since otherwise

the question of discrimination could immediately rise.

The reliability check was carried out only with respect to the use of stereotypes, because

the judgement of the distortion is based on differences of the relevant case numbers.

Altogether, I found totally 25 stereotypes (within the final list) in the area of sex, age or

function.

Hereinafter, those stereotypes are listed, which are not used from the view of the HR

managers in their WJR for the corresponding function.

HR Manager 1 (AN)

Readiness for use

Speditive mode of operation

Special competence

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Good ability of understanding

Result: Total 16% difference to the analysed results (4 of 25). Reliability = 0.84.

HR Manager 2 (UB)

Readiness for use


Self initiative

Independence (not at all)

Flexibility


Obligingness

Honesty


HR Manager 3 (DB)

Readiness for use


Independence

Flexibility


Obligingness

Honesty

Lead by convincing


Comment:

The measuring conformity (reliability) overall is approx. 0.73 (55 of 75 possibilities were

identical, 20 were not). Differences are primarily ascertainable with the executives.

Especially the expressions “Readiness fur use”, “Good ability of understanding” and

“Speditive mode of operation” are not used by these three HR managers in the WJR for

executives. Also “Obligingness” and “Honesty” are rather not used. The expressions with

the specialists, however, agreed most strongly.

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If one analyses in detail within the individual functions stereotypes are seldom used with

the unqualified workers.

The reliability is given, if the same results come of repeated judgement of the same

situation (Schwarb 1996, 111). The high value of 0.73 reliability means, that in the case on

hand, the statements found within the WJR are really often used by the three HR managers

in their WJR language.

6.6. Validity

If the reliability or the objectivity is not given, the validity is also automatically influenced

negatively. The procedure at the validity check and its limitations was already described in

chapter 5 (5.6.1.8.). It is clear, that the chosen form of the validity check contains a part of

uncertainty, since e.g. the stereotype judgement was carried out very strongly at

(subjective) criteria of my own, and also the examples and opinions, found in the literature

are weighted differently.

6.6.1. Example of the Effect of a Validity Improvement

Let’s now return to the example of Gerpott (1989a) in chapter 2 (2.7.). As mentioned there,

the validity of the WJR analysis also can be improved regarding the influence of distortions

and stereotypes, similar to the difference of traditional to the structured interview

(improvement validity of 0.15).

We transmit the example of Gerpott to a possible case. We assume that a company is

looking for four salesmen for the sale of a new product in Switzerland. By the recessed WJR

analysis, possible distortions and stereotypes are uncovered and analysed with examples

in the applicants conversation. Through this, the responsible HR manager obtain a better

judgement of the candidates and thus better recruitment decisions which can be

represented as follows:

Formula Success Effects = 4 x (0.29 - 0.14) x CHF 35’000 x 1. 55 x 3.17 Result = Total CHF 103’0000 of success improvement per year.

Remarks to the used values:

• Number of salesmen to be recruited = 4

• Validity difference similar to traditional / structured interview = 0.15

• CHF 35’000 = standard deviation performance improvement per annum (=30% of the annual salary costs)

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• 1.55 = spread of the performance of the employees

• 3.17 = value assessment concept for individual job performance (CREPID approach)

Unlike the example of Gerpott, we do not take in account the additional costs for the

development of a special questionnaire for the structured interview. The CHF 103’000 won

can e.g. be invested in further training and development measures, which contribute to

an increase of the Human Capital of the company.

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7. Conclusions and Knowledge 7.1. Are Distortions and Stereotypes recognizable?

I made the following observations within the 32 remained expressions and paraphrases

(under reservation of the remarks concerning the reliability and the validity):

Examples of distortions and stereotypes were often to ascertain. Regarding the women,

they often concerned expressions which had to be found rather seldom. Example: Lead

by conviction (Führte durch Ueberzeugung). The assumption is, that qualities and

behaviours shall be stressed consciously which perhaps, among men seems not worth

mentioning, because they are classified as normal or natural. These expressions often did

not correspond to stereotypes what still supports the thesis. Concerning the use of

stereotypes, there is not really an essential difference between men and women.

The typical behaviour expressions like politeness, helpfulness etc. showed increased case

numbers (distortions) with women. The "expected" expressions like method competence,

networked intellect, efficiency rather to be found among men, confirmed the well known

stereotypes concerning the sex.

At the functions, the executives showed most distortions, with the unqualified workers such

were hardly to be found. It must be remarked, that WJR of specialists and executives are

considerably more extensive than those of unqualified workers.

Concerning the age, distortions are a little bit more often at young employees than at old.

About 50% in both groups can additionally also be described as stereotypes

The combination distortion plus stereotype can be a dangerous mix, because in these

cases an objective judgement of the WJR is aggravated in addition (stereotype =

expected role).

7.2. The most extreme Distortions

The most extreme distortions (described as biggest difference between the comparison

groups) concern expressions, which are connected to strong stereotypes or which are e.g.

not mentioned among men, however among women. Examples: Method competence

(men) and motivation ability and self-initiative (women).

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7.2.1. Distortions with the Highest Mentions

If one analyses only the case numbers (number of mentions), the distortions were highest in

the area of behaviour and concerned the expressions kindness and correctness, and with

a clear distance in the area of work quality the expression independence.

7.2.2. The “Exotics”(rare Expressions)

Special paraphrases and rare expressions are rather more frequently found at WJR of small

and middle-sized companies. This statement can be supported by a control in detail,

carried out at five expressions, chosen by chance.

Expressions like “Solid way of life, cleanness, discretion, sense of justice, humorously” are

rare or unusual or concern partly female role behaviour. In principle, they match not really

to today's form of WJR wording. Three of these five expressions were used in small and two

in middle-sized enterprises. In four cases, these WJR were signed by the line manager and

in one case by the line manager and HR manager together. They all appeared to have

been written rather individually.

With women, also the number of the unusual expressions is considerably higher. Moreover,

expressions are to be found in this group, as mentioned already repeatedly, which are

hardly used with men.

7.2.3. The Compliance with the Written Job Reference Principles: Further Distortion Danger

The important principle of clarity is very often not followed at the WJR draw up. This is

increasingly the case for specialists and unqualified workers. About 40% of the analysed

WJR must be described as not clear enough. There is a considerable share of uncertainty,

which can lead to misinterpretations.

At the principle of goodwill, the share of uncertainty is much lower with about 18% of all

analysed WJR. It is also simpler to fulfil this request in the practice, since there are more

possibilities to use set phrases and commonplaces and less demand for facts and clear

statements.

7.2.4. Distortions to Written Job Reference Areas

The relative share of distortions and stereotypes is highest in the area of work quantity, 11

distortions and 9 stereotypes resulted of 6 main expressions, by the different multiple

mentions.

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7.2.5. Distortions in the Complete Judgement

An analysis of the “complete judgement”, as an independent part of the WJR, was not

possible, because there was not enough constancy in a lot of the analysed documents. A

real complete judgement was often missing, since single remarks and statements were

already contained in the areas of job performance and behaviour (summary see

appendix 3)

7.2.6. Distortions in the End Wordings

Here, I summarize, that in the analysed WJR, the share of the WJR with end wording is

higher in the categories of specialists and executives, than in those of unqualified workers.

This does not astonish. As mentioned, this WJR are usually longer as those for unqualified

workers.

7.2.7. Distortions by Over Emphasis

For the case in hand, an over emphasis is a remark related to performance and/or

behaviour, which is noticed by the fact that it is mentioned at all. Such over emphasis

were primarily found with women. If expressions like politeness, helpfulness, motivation

ability, leading by conviction are mentioned in WJR of women, this does not mean

unconditionally, that these are outstanding performances. It can be assumed just as well,

that the author of the WJR has or has just consciously not formulated in a stereotyped

fashion. Additional examples could be given also for other categories.

Out-dated or “old fashioned” role expectations are still expressed in WJR, and it still might

last for a while, until the new skills and pictures, found by Buchmann/Sacchi in the job

advertisements, are more often reflected also in the WJR.

7.3. Where do the Distortions come from?

The answer to this question is in principle to be found in the statements concerning the

individual examination areas.

An essential reason for the distortions are undoubtedly the social role expectations (see

chapter 3 and appendix 1), which find their expression in different WJR texts. Another

reason also can be missing professionalism and individualism of WJR authors. The line

supervisor often formulates the WJR texts in these companies, what means probably a little

less systematic and more exoticism in certain WJR.

According to my own experience WJR of “comparable” employees are often used as a

text and contents presentation and also WJR from former employers (documents in the

personal files).

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7.4. Consequences from Distortions and Stereotypes in Written Job References

The WJR is still of high importance at the recruiting decision for 67% of the responsible

persons in small and middle-sized companies in the German-speaking part in Switzerland.

Distortions and the use of stereotypes, indeed, can contribute to wrong considerations,

interpretations and to wrong judgements. The financial "damages" from a missing

recruitment can be enormously, as seen in chapter 2. The WJR also may and shall be

regarded as an important information source. However, it has always to be taken into

account that this source can contain statements weighted, distorted, formalized and

wrong. It is strict to warn, to make recruiting decisions, based on the contents of a WJR.

Although the WJR, seen from a legal perspective, must correspond to the claims of a

document, it is not a source of absolutely truth and objectivity. On the others’ side, the

success effects can be increase by an improvement of the validity by consideration of the

effects of distortions and stereotypes (see example 6.6.1.).

7.5. The "Sample Written Job Reference"

Due to the analysis, the following expressions can be considered as components of a

“Sample Written Job Reference” in the relevant categories. Per WJR area, max. three

expressions with

a) the biggest difference of the case numbers to the comparable category (e.g. M/W) or

b) with the absolutely highest case number were used.

(There where higher case numbers were available in the relevant subgroups, the deeper

values of the category to be judged, were not taken into account.)

The expressions found were compared to the recommendations by Weuster (1994,15).

They were judged concerning distortion danger and stereotypes at the same time. This

example shall give some indications to the analysts of WJR, when judging the wording of

the text. To avoid language distortions the expressions are listed in German.

Begriffsverwendung "Musterzeugnis"

V = Verzerrung, S = Stereotyp

Männer Arbeitsquantität Arbeitsqualität Verhalten

Analyse Einsatzbereitschaft (V/S) Kreativität (V) Freundlichkeit

Weuster Arbeitsbereitschaft Kreativität Freundlichkeit

Analyse Leistungsfähigkeit (V/S) Methodenkompetenz (V/S) Korrektheit

Weuster Verwertbarkeit Methodik Einwandfreiheit

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Analyse (keine verwendbare) Vernetztes Denken (V/S) Pflichtbewusstsein (V/S)

Weuster -- Denkvermögen Integrität

Frauen

Analyse Speditive Arbeitsweise (V) Sorgfalt (V/S) Höflichkeit (V/S)

Weuster Arbeitseffizienz Sorgfalt Freundlichkeit

Analyse Ausdauer (V) Ausgepr.Auffassungverm. (V) Hilfsbereitschaft (V/S)

Weuster Ausdauer Auffassungsgabe Hilfsbereitschaft

Analyse Eigeninitiative (V) Fachkompetenz Verantwortungsbew. (V)

Weuster Initiative Fachwissen Eigenverantwortlichkeit

Hilfskräfte

Analyse Einsatzbereitschaft Zuverlässigkeit Freundlickeit

Weuster Arbeitsbereitschaft Zuverlässigkeit Freundlichkeit

Analyse Belastbarkeit Flexibilität Korrektheit

Weuster Belastbarkeit Flexibilität Einwandfreiheit

Analyse Eigeninitiative Sorgfalt Hilfsbereitschaft

Weuster Initiative Sorgfalt Hilfsbereitschaft

Fachkräfte

Analyse Belastbarkeit Fachkompetenz Verantwortungsbew. (V)

Weuster Belastbarkeit Fachwissen Eigenverantwortlichkeit

Analyse Speditive Arbeitsw. Selbständigkeit Loyalität (V)

Weuster Arbeitseffizienz Selbständigkeit Loyalität

Analyse Ausdauer (V) Zuverlässigkeit Teamfähigkeit (V/S)

Weuster Ausdauer Zuverlässigkeit Teamfähigkeit

Führungskräfte

Analyse Einsatzbereitschaft Vernetztes Denken (V/S) Ehrlichkeit (V/S)

Weuster Arbeitsbereitschaft Denkvermögen Ehrlichkeit

Analyse Belastbarkeit Ausgepr. Auffassungsverm. Freundlichkeit

Weuster Belastbarkeit Auffassungsgabe Freundlichkeit

Analyse Leistungsfähigkeit (V) Hohe Arbeitsqualität (V) Zuverlässigkeit

Weuster Verwertbarkeit Arbeitsqualität Zuverlässigkeit

Aeltere

Analyse Einsatzbereitschaft Methodenkompetenz (V) Freundlichkeit (V/S)

Weuster Arbeitsbereitschaft Methodik Freundlichkeit

Analyse Speditive Arbeitsweise Gewissenhaftigkeit (V) Hilfsbereitschaft (V/S)

Weuster Arbeitseffizienz Eigenverantwortllichkeit Hilfsbereitschaft

Analyse Ausdauer Hohe Arbeitsqualität (V) Verantwortungsbew. (V/S)

Weuster Ausdauer Arbeitsqualität Eigenverantwortlichkeit

Jüngere

Analyse Belastbarkeit (V) Selbständigkeit Teamfähigkeit (V/S)

Weuster Belastbarkeit Selbständigkeit Teamfähigkeit

Analyse Leistungsfähigkeit (V) Kreativität (V/S) Ehrlichkeit (V)

Weuster Verwertbarkeit Kreativität Ehrlichkeit

Analyse Eigeninitiative (V) Ausgep. Auffassungsvem.(V/S) Pflichtbewusstsein (V)

Weuster Initiative Auffassungsgabe Integrität

Table 7-1: Elements of a (theoretical) Written Job Reference (Basis: Weuster, 1994, 15, and analyse results of the thesis)

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Comment:

It ist remarkable that the danger of distortions and the use of stereotypes are according to

tendency a little bit higher for women than for men. Concerning the functions, there is

hardly any distortion danger at the unqualified workers With the specialists and executives

it is approximately equally. With the group of old and young there are only low differences.

Of course this sample WJR is full of reservation. Due to the exclusion method mentioned

above, different expressions have not been taken into consideration which were to be

found more frequently, absolutely seen. Indeed into the comparable categories, they

were even more numerous still and therefore could not be described as typical.

7.6. Job Advertisements and Written Job References

In chapter 3 some today's qualification profiles in job advertisements were mentioned

(Buchmann/Sacchi) and it was also noted which abilities are asked increasingly.

According to the examination aims, the question is not how far these “new work

qualifications” are to be found in the WJR expressions. The question is, how far these

expressions in advertisements and job offers comprise the danger of distortions, according

to the analysed results.

The following Skills were mentioned by Buchmann/Sacchi:

Distortion Danger Stereotype at… accord. to analysis accord. to analysis

Use will (Einsatzwille) No mention No mention

Dynamics (Dynamik) No mention No mention

Innovation (Innovation) No mention No mention

Studying readiness (Lernbereitsch.) 1 mention ---

Team spirit (Teamgeist) Specialist / Young Specalists / Young

Negot. skill (Verhandlungsgeschick) 1 mention ---

Kindness (Freundlichkeit) Old Old

Readiness for use (Einsatzbereitsch.) Men / all functions Men

Affability (Umgänglichkeit) 1 mention ---

Cooperation (Kooperation) No mention No mention

Cooperation (Kooperation) No mention No mention

Communication (Kommunikation) 5 mentions ---

Methodology (Methodik) Men / Old Yes / No

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Comment / Result:

8 of 12 expressions which appear in the today’s job advertisements increasingly are found

again also in the analysed WJR, 4 of them were identified as stereotypes. A distortion and /

or stereotype were found in 4 of these expressions.

Remark: The analysed WJR concern by the majority the period of 1993 – 2006. The job

monitor is based on current data from the year 2006. Therefore the comparison

corresponds not exactly in every regard.

7.7. Personal Knowledge

Regarding the importance still attached in Switzerland, the WJR have to be integrated as

essential also in future for the recruiting decision. This is a little bit astonishing anyway,

because I meet also HR managers and managing directors, who put the WJR as important

information source generally in question. The fact, however, that WJR still has a high

importance, requires an intensive occupation with the contents of it. The contents, indeed,

may not be consulted at all as a very strong or even the only decision support of

judgement of performance and behaviours in earlier employments. The analysed reports

are rather confusing. The danger of distortions and the use of stereotypes are still

widespread. The quality of the WJR is very different and depends not primarily on the

largeness of the company or the personal qualification and experience of the HR

manager.

The findings show, where important distortion danger tendency lie and therefore

statements have to be more strongly analysed in the relevant areas. Primarily in the

context of structured interviews with the candidates, and by specific inquiry at the person

who gives reference.

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8. Recommendations

8.1. Recommendations for Written Job Reference Analysts

Weuster (1994, 227-234) dealt with the question of the treatment of WJR in detail. Despite

different reservations, which HR manager in Germany have against WJR, he holds the

opinion that qualified WJR are accepted and can be considered as an artefact and an

important information source. The recommendations, listed followingly, are a mix of the

suggestions of Weuster and my own procedure in the practice. The systematic procedure

and the permanent analysing contribute to recognize distortions and stereotype better.

The following rules should be respected:

• Never judge a single WJR, always several.

• Looking "for leitmotif" (consistency in the areas of performance, behaviour, clarity

etc.).

• Reading WJR repeatedly and intensively, this helps to recognize important points.

• Trying to recognize missing information, e.g. abilities and experiences with respect

to the vacant place.

• Making notes to important components of the WJR for the following interview.

• Asking candidate for statement on all important remarks and text passages from

several Written Job References.

• Asking background to the situation of the WJR draw up (author, relation,

framework condition of the judgement, employment duration etc.).

• Clearing participation of the candidate on the WJR draw up (influence of

statements, wordings etc.).

• Respect the diversity situation with candidates from others cultures. Differences

could be paraphrased as a defect, instead of having been recognized as a

chance in the team work.

• Integral judgement of the WJR, not weighting single negative points as “total

killers.”

• And: No recruiting decision, without specific reference information (and a sample

of work – if possible).

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8.2. The Swiss Written Job Reference in the International Environment

The rapid economic development and the need for qualified employees in future, induces

Swiss enterprises increasingly, to obtain the personnel resources abroad. The international

recruitment has been a matter of course for multinationals since a long-time period, now it

is foreseeable that medium-sized companies are also forced increasingly to recruit

internationally. The globalisation of the labour market will increase. For this reason the

handling or value of WJR in other countries also must be taken into account. In the context

of the Swiss Diploma Studies SNP 31 (2006), the handling of WJR from other countries was

analysed. As mentioned, the WJR is only established in Germany and Austria in the same

way as in Switzerland, and not in other countries. Of the four forms known only the

“Reference” and the “Testimonial” have a partly similar form to the Swiss WJR. But by the

draw up of the WJR in an other language (mostly English), contents and importance of

statements can cause distortions and wrong interpretations additionally. The Survey of the

SNP 31 (2007) has shown that HR managers make the same demand to international WJR

as to such in Switzerland. This request, however, can not be fulfilled, and therefore, the

reference information might primarily offer one of the solutions for the dilemma. The

question is, how far the recruitment method, spread in Switzerland, can be lasting as a

spot solution in future, or must be adapted to the international selection methods. The

study mentions the development of a reference book as possible solution for text

interpretations.

8.3. Quo Vadis Written Job Reference?

The mentioned examples show a certain dilemma, with regard to the draw up and use of

the WJR as a reliable information source in the (international) staff recruitment. The validity

of the forecast for the later professional success, based on the statements in the WJR

alone, is very low. Schwarb (1999, 37) derives it indirectly from the personal (traditional)

interview, where it is 0.14, according to Gerpott (1989, 904). On the other hand, the still

high attention to the WJR is reason enough to search for ways out of this dilemma and to

ways of improvement.

8.3.1. The Biographical Written Job Reference, a Way out?

Without being able to go closer into the advantages and disadvantages of the individual

concepts in the context of this work, it seems that the biographical WJR contains some

advantages in opposite to the other forms (Schwarb 2005, 34-37) which have to be taken

into account. The biographical WJR records the development on the judged person within

his corresponding work and therefore can be interpreted also by practitioners and less

trained HR managers in a reliable way. The specific form requires an independent

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wording, which has to be adapted to the employee. So the danger of stereotypes can be

reduced. Also at this form, constituent elements can absolutely be used as base text;

performance and behaviours, however, then have to be put into the corresponding

context of the task for which the employee in question was responsible in the company in

the course of the employment time. At this form of WJR, analogously to the feedback rule,

the description of the impressions and the concrete behaviour stand in the foreground. In

the interest of a consistent compliance, it has to be divided between perceptions,

assumptions and feelings (assumptions and feelings mustn’t be part of the WJR).

If a WJR was prepared this way, it could be a reliable form for analysis and judgement. It,

however, makes also increased demands to the author, is rather more extensive, more

understandable, is subject of fewer misunderstandings and is more meaningful. By its

special concept, the biographical WJR guarantees also in a higher degree, that the

author really can judge the judged.

Weuster (1994, 226) does not use the expression "Biographical WJR" but, mentioned that

the WJR must give correct impression of the facts of the employee-employer relationship

and of the judgement by the employer. (...“muss das Zeugnis beim Leser einen

zutreffenden Eindruck von den Fakten des Arbeitsverhältnisses und von der

arbeitgeberseitigen Beurteilung vermitteln...“.)

Today it is uncertain if a development can be realized towards the biographical WJR and

whether the will to this exists at all. As long as this is not the case, a big danger remains for

distortions and the use of stereotypes in the WJR draw up.

There is still hope that by sensitization on the stumbling blocks a qualitative contribution is

made which helps the WJR authors and analysts to be able to do their job a little bit

better.

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Performance. Amacom, American Management Association, New York. Gerpott T.J, (1989b): Oekonomische Spurenelemente in der Personalwirtschaftslehre. (Basis is copies. Book no longer available or article only appeared in a magazine?) - Economic trace elements in the staff economics.

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