stilistika_-_otvety_k_ekzhamenu_na_5_kurs-1769

8/12/2019 Stilistika_-_otvety_k_ekzhamenu_na_5_kurs-1769

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1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistics. The problem of stylisticsearchUnits of language on different levels are studied by traditionalanches of linguistics as phonetics (that deals with speech sounds

nd intonation), lexicology (treats the words, their meaning andocabulary structure), grammar (analysis forms of words), syntaxnalysis the function of words in a sentence).These areas of study are more or less clear-cut. Some scholars

aim that stylistic is a comparatively new branch of linguistics, Therm stylistics really came into existence not too long ago.Problems of stylistic research:

. the ob!ect and the matter under study" #ot only may each of ese linguistic units (sounds, words and clauses) be charged with artain stylistic meaning but the interaction of these elements, as wellthe structure and the composition of the whole text are stylisticallyrtinent ($%&' *+, / 012+).3. The definition of style" 4ifferent scholars have defined stylefferently at different times. 5n 677 the 8cademician 9.9.nogradov defined style as :socially determined and functionally

onditioned internally united totality of the ways of using, selectingnd combining the means of lingual intercourse in the sphere of oneational language or another;. 5n 6< =rof. 5.>. ?alperin offered hisefinition of style as :is a system of co-ordinated, interrelated andter-conditioned language means intended to fulfil a specificnction of communication and aiming at a definite effect;.

ccording to =rof. Screbnev :style is what differentiates a group of omogeneous texts from all other groups@ Style can be roughlyefined as the peculiarity, the set of specific features of text type or

a specific text;.A. the number of functional styles" The authors of handbooBs onfferent languages propose systems of styles based on a broadbdivision of all styles into 3 classes C literary and colloDuial andeir varieties. These generally include from three to five functionalyles.?alperinEs system of stylesF . Gelles-lettres style (poetry, emotiveose, drama)" . =ublicist (oratory and speeches, essay, article)" A.wspaper (brief news items, headlines, ads, editorial)" H. scientific

ose" 7. official documents.8rnoldEs system of stylesF . =oetic" 3. Scientific" A. #ewspaper" H.lloDuial.ScrebnevEs system of stylesF #umber of styles is infinite.Stylistics is that branch of linguistics, which studies the principles,

nd effect of choice and usage of different language elements inndering thought and emotion under different conditions of

ommunication. Therefore it is concerned with such issues asF. The aesthetic function of language" 3. expressive means in

nguage (aim to effect the reader or listener)" A. synonymous waysrendering one and the same idea (with the change of wording a

hange in meaning taBes place inevitably)" H. emotional colouring innguage" 7. a system of special devices called stylistic devices" J.

e splitting of the literary language into separate systems calledyle" iffaterre, >. acBobson and other scholars of the =rague

linguistic circle. serious contribution into this branch of stylisticstudy was also made b$ =rof. 5.V. 8rnold. Wach act of speech has the

performer, or sender of speech and the recipient. Mh& former does theact of &n' ding and the latter the act of decoding the information.

5f we analyse the text from the authorQs (encoding) point of viewwe should consider the epoch, the historical situation, the personal

political, social and aesthetic views of the author.Gut if we try to treat the same text from the readerQs angle of view

we shall have to disregard this, bacBground Bnowledge and get themaximum information from the text itself (its vocabu ary,' mX sition, s&nt&n'& arrangement, &t'.) The first approachmanifests the prevalence of the literary analysis. Mh& second is basedalmost exclusively n the linguistic analysis. 4ecoding stylistics is anattempt to harmoniously ' mbine the two meth ds of stylisticresearch and &nLb& the scholar to interpret L worB of art with Lminimum loss of its purport and message.

#unctional styllstics

Special mention, should b& made of functional stylistics which is L branch of lingua-stylistics that investigates functional styles, that isspecia sublanguLg&s or varieties f of the national language such asscientific, colloDuial, business, publicist and so on.

Yowever mLn$ types of stylistics mL$ exist r spring intoexistence they will Lll consider the same source material for stylisticanalysis sounds, words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and texts.ThatQs why any Bind of stylistic research, will b& based n the level-forming branches that includeF

Stylistic le$icologyStytystic Pexicology studies the semantic structure of the word and

the interrelation (or interplay) of the connotative and denotativemeanings of the word, as well as the interrelation of the stylistic

connotations f the word and the context.Stylistic Phonetics (or Phonostylistics) is engaged in the study of style-f rming phonetic features of the text. 5t describes the Xros dicf&Ltures of prose and poetry and variants of pronunciation in differenttypes of speech (colloDuial or oratory or recital ( &Z[L%2X \L 2&).

Stylistic grammarStylistic ]orphology is interested in the stylistic potentials of

specific grammatical, forms Lnd categories, such as the number of the noun, or the peculiar use of tense forms of the verb, etc.

Stylistic Syntax is n& of the oldest branches of stylistic studiesthat grew ut f classical rhetoric. The mLterial in Du&sti n lendsitself readily to analysis and description. Stylistic syntax has to dowith the expressive order of words, types of syntactic linBs

( asyndeton, polysyndeton), figures of speech (antithesis, chiasmus,etc.). 5t also deals with bigger units from paragraph onwards.

%. &nterrelation of Stylistics with other linguistic branchesStylistics and other linguistic disciplines8s is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic

studies this science is very closely linBed to the linguistic disciplines


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hilology students are familiar withF phonetics, lexicology andammar due to the ' mm n study source.Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology.

his is L branch of linguistics whose area of study is L mostomplicated and enormous sphere that of meaning. The. termmantics is also widely used in linguistics in relation to verbaleanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of gns in general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.]eaning is not attached to the level of the word only, or for thatatter to n& level at all but correlLt&s with all of them - morphemes,ords, phrases r texts. This is one of the most challenging areas of

&s&Lr'h since prL'ti'ally all stylistic effects are based n theterplay between different Binds of m&Lning n different levels.

uffice it to say that their are numerous types of linguistic meaningstached to linguistic units, such as grammatical, lexical, ogical,

enotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.'nomasiology (or onomatology ) is the theory of naming dealing

ith the choice of words when naming or assessing some ob!ect or h&n m&n n. 5n stylistic analysis we often have to do with L transfer

nominal meaning in L text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy,c.)The theory of fun'tionLl styles investigates the structure of the

ational linguistic space - what constitutes the literary language, theblanguages and dialects mentioned more than n'& already.Piterary stylistics will inevitably overlap with areas of literary

udies su'h as the theory of imagery, literary genres, the art of omposition, etc.

4ecoding stylistics in many ways borders culture studies in theoad sense of that word including the history of art, aesthetic trends

nd even information theory.

. Stylistic neutrality and stylistic coloring. "enotation andnnotation. &nherent and adherent connotationStylistic neutrality and stylistic colouringSpeaBing of the notion of style and stylistic colouring we cannot

void the Xr bl&m of the n rm and neutrality and stylistic colouring

contrast to it.]ost scholars abroad and in this country giving definitions of yle ' m& to the conclusion that style mL$ b& defined as deviationom from the lingual norm. 5t m&ans that what is stylistically

onspicuous, stylistically relevant or stylistically c l ur&d is Leparture from the norm of L given national language. (?. Peech, .ffLt&rr&, ]. Yalliday, >. acobson and others)FThere are authors who ob!ect to the use of the word ^norm_ for

arious reasons. Mhus V. . SBrebnev argues that since weBnowledge the existence of L vLri&t$ of sublanguages within L

ational language we should also acBnowledge that &L'h of them hasnorm of its own.So, SBrebnev claims there are as mLn$ norms as there are

blanguages. Wach language is sub!ect to its wn norm. M re!ectis would mean admitting abnormality of everything that is noteutral. `nly 8RI-booBs, and texts for foreigners would b&onsidered ^normal_. Wverything that has style, eyerything thatemonstrates peculiarities of whatever Bind would b& consideredbn rmLl, including worBs b$ 4icBens, Twain, `QYenry, ?alsworthynd so n.

Oor all its challenging and defiant character this argument seems toontain L grain of truth and it does stand to reason that what we oftenll ^the norm_ in terms of stylistics would b& more appropriate toll ^neutrality_.Since style is the specificity of L sublanguage it is self-evident thatn-specific units of it do not participate in the formation of its style"

nits belonging to all the sublanguages Lr& st$listicLll$ n&utral. Thuse observe an XX sition of stylistically coloured specific elementsstylistically neutral non-specific elements.The styllstic colouring is nothing but the Bnowledge where, inhat particular type of communication, the unit in Duestion is

urrent.=rofessor Yoward . ]ims of Ileveland State Univ&rsit$ did ancurate study of grammatical deviations found in 8merican Wnglish

that he terms vernacular (non-standard) variants. & made a list of 3grammatical forms which he calls relatively ' mm n and some of them are so freDuent in every-day speech that $ u hardly register them as deviations from the norm.

The ma!ority of the words are neutral. Stylistically coloured words- booBish, solemn, poetic, official r colloDuial, rustic, dialectal,vulgar - have each L Bind of label on them showing where the unitwas :manufactured;, where it g&n&rally belongs.

Nithin the stylistically coloured words there 7 another opposition b&twe&n f rmal vocabulary and informal vocabulary.

These terms have mLn$ synonyms offered b$ different authors.> mLn acobson described this opposition as casual and non-casual,other terminologies name them as booBish and colloDuial or formaland informal, correct and ' mm n.

5n surveying the units commonly called neutral 'Ln we assert thatthey only denote without connoting That is not completely true.

5f we taBe stylistically neutral words separately, we mL$ call themneutral without doubt. Gut occasionally in L certain context, in LsX&cific distribution one of many implicit meanings of L word wenormally consider neutral may prevail. Specific distribution may alsocreate unexpected additional colouring of L generally neutral wordsuch stylistic connotation is called occasional.

Stylistic connotations mL$ b& inherent or adherent. Stylisticallycoloured words possess inherent stylistic connotations. Stylisticallyneutral words will have nl$ adherent (occasional) stylisticconnotations acDuired in L certain context.

Stylistic function notionPiBe other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical,

grammatical, phonetic and phraseological data of the language.Yowever there is L distinctive difference between stylistics and theother linguistic sub!ects. Stylistics does not study or describe separatelinguistic units liBe phonemes or words or clauses as such. 5t studiestheir stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressive

potential f these units and their interaction in L text.Stylistics focuses n the expressive properties of linguistic units,

their functioning and interaction in conveying ideas and emotions ina '&rtLin text or communicative ' nt&xt.

Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the conte$tualmeaning of word and its denotati!e m* nings.8ccordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of

connotative meanings.5n brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of L word roughly

consists of its grammatical meaning (n un, verb, ad!ective) and itsl&xical meaning. P&xical meaning 'Ln further n b& subdivided intodenotative (linBed to the logical or n minLtive meaning) andconnotative meanings. Ionnotative meaning is only connected withextralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communicationand the participants of communication. nn tLtive meaning consistsof four componentsF

. emotive"

3. evaluative"A. expressive"H. stylistic.Stylistics of Language and stylistics of SpeechPanguage C system of signs, that actually exists only in our minds,

abstract.Speech C external use of the language for communication,

physical.The stylistics of language analyses permanent or inherent

stylistic properties of language elements while the stylistics of speech studies stylistic properties, which appear in a context, andthey are called adherent .

+. onnotati!e meaning types , componentsStylistic function notionPiBe other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical,

grammatical, phonetic and phraseological data of the language.Yowever there is L distinctive difference between stylistics and theother linguistic sub!ects. Stylistics does not study or describe separatelinguistic units liBe phonemes or words or clauses as such. 5t studies


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eir stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressiveotential f these units and their interaction in L text.

Stylistics focuses n the expressive properties of linguistic units,eir functioning and interaction in conveying ideas and emotions in&rtLin text or communicative ' nt&xt.Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the contextualeaning of L word and its denotative m&Lnings.8ccordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of

onnotative meanings.5n brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of L word roughly

onsists of its grammatical meaning (n un, verb, ad!ective) and its&xical meaning. P&xical meaning 'Ln further n b& subdivided intoenotative (linBed to the logical or n minLtive meaning) andonnotative meanings. Ionnotative meaning is only connected withxtralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communicationnd the participants of communication. - nn t ti!e meaningnsists of four components:

. emotive" 3. evaluative" A. expressive" H. stylistic. word is always characterised b$ its denotative m&Lning but not

ecessarily b$ connotation. Mh& four components mL$ b& Lll presentnce, or in different combinations or they mL$ not b& found in the

ord at Ll.1. /moti!e connotations express various feelings r emotions.

m tions differ from feelings. Wmotions liBe !oy, disappointment,easure, anger, worry, surprise are m r& short-lived. Oeelings implymore stable state, or attitude, such as love, hatred, respect, pride,gnity, etc. The emotive component of meaning mL$ b& occasional usual (i.&. inherent and adherent).5t is important to distinguish words with emotive connotations

om words, describing or naming emotions and feelings liBe anger r f&Lr, because the latter Lr& L special vocabulary subgroup whoseenotative meanings Lr& emotions. They do not connote the speaBerQsate of mind r his emotional attitude to the sub!ect of speech.2. The e!aluati!e component charges the word with negative,

ositive, ironic or other types of connotation conveying the speaBerQstitude in relation to the ob!ect of speech. 9ery often this componentL part of the denotative m&Lning, which comes to the f r& in L

ecific context.The verb to sneaB means ^to m v& silently and secretly, usu. for aad purpose_. This dictionary definition maBes the evaluativeomponent bad Duit& e/Xlicit. Two derivatives a sneaB and sneaByave both preserved L d&r gLtory evaluLtiv& connotation. Gut theegative component disappears though in still another derivativeeaBers (shoes with a soft sole). 5t shows that &v&n words of theme root mL$ either have or lacB Ln &vLluative component in their ner form.%. /$pressi!e connotation either increases or decreases the

xpressiveness of the message. an$ scholars hold that emotive andxpressive components cannot b& distinguished but =rof. 5. 8rnoldaintLins that emotive connotation always entails expressiveness but

ot vice versa. M prove her point she comments n the example b$rnb$ and >. Oowler with the word ^thing_ applied to L girl.hen the word is used with Ln emotive ad!ective liBe ^sweet_ itcomes &m tive itselfF ^She was L sweet little thing_. Gut in other ntences liBe ^She was L small thin delicate thing with spectacles_,

he argues, this is not true and the word ^thing_ is definitelyxpressive but not emotive. 8nother group of words that help createis expressive effect are the so-called 0intensifiers words liBe

absolutely, frightfully, really, Duite_, etc.. #inally there is stylistic connotation . word possesses

ylistic connotation if it belongs to L certain functi nLl style or Lecific layer f vocabulary (such as archaisms, barbarisms, slang,rgon, etc). Stylistic connotation is usually immediately

cogni Lbl&.?alperin operates three types of lexical meaning that areylistically relevant - logical, emotive and nominal. & describes theylistic colouring of words in terms of the interaction of these typeslexical meaning. SBrebnev maintains that connotations only showwhat part of the national language L word belongs - one of the sub-

nguages (functional styles) or the neutral bulB. & on y speaBsbout the stylistic component of the connotative meaning.

3. Standard structure of fictional narrati!e communication.4 o!ert5 and 4o!ert5 narrators. The problem of narrator5srelationship to the story. 6enette5s narrati!e types. Lanser5s rule

Standart structure of fictional narrati!e communication- the level of non-fictional communication (author and reader) C

extratextual level- the level of fictional mediation and discourse (narrator and

addressee(s)) C intertextual level- the level of action (characters) C intertextual level7arrator types 8n 9'!ert narrator is one who refers to him her in the first

person (5, we), one who directly or indirectly addressees the narrator,one who offers readers friendly exposition whenever it is needed, onewho exhibits a discoursal stand towards characters and events,especially in his her use of rhetorical figures, imagery.

8 9 o!ert narrator C he she is one who neither refers to him or herself nor addressees any narrates, one who has a more less:neutral; (non-distinctive) voice and style, one who is sexuallyindeterminate, one who does not provide exposition even when it isurgently needed. `ne who doesnEt interfere, one who lets the storyevents unfold in their natural seDuence and tempo, one whosediscourse fulfils no obvious phatic, appellative or expressivefunctions.

6enette5s narrati!e types?enetteEs two basic types of narratives areF1. ;omodiegetic narrati!e .5n a homodiegetic narrative the story is fold by a (homodiegetic)

narrator who is presented as a character in the story (a text ishomodiegetic if among its story-related-action sentences there aresome that contain first-person pronouns (5 did this. 5 saw this. etc),indicating that the narrator was at least a witness to the eventsdepicted).

2. ;eterodiegetic narrati!e5n a heterodiegetic narrative the story is fold by a (heterodiegetic)

narrator who is not present as a character in the story (a text isheterodiegetic if all of its story-related-action sentences are third-

person sentences (She did it, this was what happened to him, etc.)).

Lanser5s rule5n the absence of any text-internal clues as to the narratorEs sex,use the pronoun appropriate to the authorEs sex" i.e. assume that thenarrator is male if the author is male, and that the narrator is female if the author is female respectively.

ar?ers5 that pro@ect a narrati!e !oice. StanAel5s(protoB)typical narrati!e situation. >ain aspects of firstBpersonnarration. Casic features of authorial narrati!e

9=oice mar?ers that pro@ect a narrati!e !oice1. ontent matter C appropriate voices for sad and happy, comic

and tragic sub!ects (though precise type of intonation never followsautomatically)"

2. Sub@ecti!e e$pressions C expressions (or :expressivitymarBers;) that indicate the narratorsE education, his her beliefs,convictions, interests, values, political and ideological orientation,attitude towards people, events and things.

%. Pragmatic signals C expressions that signal the narratorEsawareness of an audience and the degree of his her orientationtowards it.

StanAel5s (protoB)typical narrati!e situations1. 8 firstBperson narrati!e is told by a narrator who is present as a

character in his her story" it is a story of events she he hasexperienced him herself, a story of personal experience,

The individual who acts as a narrator (narrating 5) is also acharacter (experiencing 5) on the level of action.

2. 8n authorial narrati!e (heterodiegetic o!ert ) is fold by anarrator who is absent from the story, i.e. does not appear as acharacter in the story. The authorial narrator tells a story involvingother people. 8n authorial narrator sees the story from an outsiderEs

position, iften a position of absolute authority that allows her him toBnow everything about the storyEs world and its characters.

%. 8 figural narrati!e (heterodiegetic co!ert plus internalfocaliAation ) C the specific configuration of a heterodiegetic covert


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arrative which bacBgrounds the narrator and foregrounds internalcali ation.The techniDue of presenting something from the point of view of a

ory by an internal character is called internal focaliAation.The character through whose eyes the action is presented is called

n internal focaliAer .Oigural narrative is a narrative which presents the story events asen through the eyes of a third-person internal focali er.The narrator of a figural narrative is a covert heterodiegetic

arrator hiding behind the presentation of the internal focali erEsonsciousness, especially his her perceptions and thoughts.

Gecause the narratorEs discourse closely mimics the focali erEsoice its own vocal Duality is largely indistinct. `ne of the mainfects of internal focali ation is to attract attention to the mind of theflector-character and away from the narrator and the processes of

arratorial mediation.The full extent of figural techniDues was first explored in the

ovels and short stories of 3 th century authors such as Yenry ames,ran afBa, 4orothy >ichardson, atherine ]ansfield, 9irginiaoolf, ames oyce and many others.

D. Scene and summary as narrati!e modes. "escription andmmentary as narrati!e modes7arrati!e >odes- Showing . 5n a showing mode of presentation, there is little or no

arratorial mediation, overtness ( &\2 ' j) or presence. Theader is basically cast in the role of a witness to the events.- Telling . 5n a telling mode of presentation, the narrator is in overt

ontrol (especially durational control) of action presentation,haracteri ation and point-of-view arrangement.

- Scene,scenic presentation . 8 showing mode which presents aontinuous stream of detailed action events. 4urational aspectFochrony (story time and discourse time are mapping ( kXL L j)).- Summary . 8 telling mode in which the narrator condenses aDuence of action events into a thematically focused and orderlycount. 4urational aspectF speed-up.Supporti!e 7arrati!e >odes

- "escription. 8 telling mode in which the narrator introduces aharacter or describes the setting. 4urational aspectF pause.- omment,commentary . 8 telling mode in which the narrator

omments on characters, the development of the action, thercumstances of the act of narrating, etc. 4urational aspectF pause.

E. Semantics semasiology onomasiology their lin?s to stylisticsStylistics and other linguistic disciplines8s is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic

udies this science is very closely linBed to the linguistic disciplineshilology students are familiar withF phonetics, lexicology andammar due to the ' mm n study source.Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology.

his is L branch of linguistics whose area of study is L mostomplicated and enormous sphere that of meaning. The. termmantics is also widely used in linguistics in relation to verbaleanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of gns in general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.]eaning is not attached to the level of the word only, or for thatatter to n& level at all but correlLt&s with all of them - morphemes,ords, phrases r texts. This is one of the most challenging areas of

&s&Lr'h since prL'ti'ally all stylistic effects are based n theterplay between different Binds of m&Lning n different levels.

uffice it to say that their are numerous types of linguistic meaningstached to linguistic units, such as grammatical, lexical, ogical,

enotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.

'nomasiology (or onomatology ) is the theory of naming dealingith the choice of words when naming or assessing some ob!ect or h&n m&n n. 5n stylistic analysis we often have to do with L transfer

nominal meaning in L text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy,c.)The theory of fun'tionLl styles investigates the structure of the

ational linguistic space - what constitutes the literary language, theblanguages and dialects mentioned more than n'& already.

Piterary stylistics will inevitably overlap with areas of literarystudies su'h as the theory of imagery, literary genres, the art of composition, etc.

4ecoding stylistics in many ways borders culture studies in the broad sense of that word including the history of art, aesthetic trendsand even information theory.

1F. Tropes (brief outline: definition classification). #iguresof Guantity

Trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play onwords, i.e. using a word in a way other than what is considered itsliteral or normal form. Tropes comes from the ?reeB word :tropos;which means a :turn;. Ne can imagine a trope as a way of turning aword away from its normal meaning, or turning it into somethingelse.

Tropes includeF epithet, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, periphrasis, personification, simile, etc.

/pithet is an ad!. or an ad!ective phrase appropriately Dualifying asub!ect (noun) by naming a Bey or important characteristic of thesub!ect.

Semantics-oriented epithet classification by prof. 5.ScrebnevF .metaphorical epithet (la y road, ragged noise, $ *[L0 XL), 3.

]etonymical (brainy fellow), A. 5ronic.Structural characteristics of epithetsF . =reposition, one-wordepithet (a nice way)" 3. =ostposition, one-word or hyperbation (theeyes watchful)" A. Two-step (immensely great)" H. =hrase (a go-to-hell looB)" 7. 5nverted (a brute of a dog, a monster of a man).

>etaphor is a transference of names based on the associatedliBeness between two ob!ects, on the similarity of one featurecommon to two different entities, on possessing one commoncharacteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a commoncomponent in their semantic structures. e.g. ;pancaBe; for the :sun;(round, hot, yellow)" e.g. ;silver dust; and :seDuins; for :stars;

>etonymy is a transference of names based on contiguity(nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the

phenomena (ob!ects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of existence in reality but different semantic (9.8. ucharenBo). e.g.;cup; and :tea; in :Nill you have another cup ;"

'$ymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictorynotions, that help to emphasise contradictory Dualities simultaneouslyexisting in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity(9.8. ucharenBo). e.g. ;low sByscraper;, :sweet sorrow;, :nicerascal;, :pleasantly ugly face;.

Periphrasis is a device which, according to NebsterEs dictionary,denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and

plainer form of expression. e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightlyfailure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. lit thestreet lamps (4icBens)

Personification is a metaphor that involves liBeness betweeninanimate and animate ob!ects (9.8. ucharenBo). e.g. ;the face of Pondon;, :the pain of ocean;"

Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unliBe ob!ects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some Duality (9.8. ucharenBo). e.g. She is liBe a rose.

#igures of Heplacement (Tropes) are divided into two classesF


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#igures of Guantity which are hyperbole or overstatement, i.e.xaggeration and meiosis or understatement, i.e. weaBening.

#igures of Guality which are metonymy, metaphor, irony.#igures of Guantity;yperbole is a stylistic device in which emphasis is achievedrough deliberate exaggeration (9.8. ucharenBo). Yyperbole is a

eliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unliBeriphrasis) to the ob!ect or phenomenon (5.>. ?alperin). 5t does notgnify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter rough the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of theeaBer. e.g. ]y vegetable love should grow faster than empires. (8.rvell)" e.g. 5 was scared to death when he entered the room..4.Salinger)>eiosis deliberately expresses the idea, there less important thane action is. ]eiosis is dealt with when the si e, shape, dimensions,

haracteristic features of the ob!ect are intentionally underrated. 5toes not signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents thetter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of e speaBer. e.g. ;The wind is rather strong; instead of :ThereEs a

ale blowing outside;" e.g. She wore a pinB hat, the si e of a button..>eed)

11. Tropes. #igure of GualityTrope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play onords, i.e. using a word in a way other than what is considered itseral or normal form. Tropes comes from the ?reeB word :tropos;hich means a :turn;. Ne can imagine a trope as a way of turning aord away from its normal meaning, or turning it into somethingse.Tropes includeF epithet, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron,riphrasis, personification, simile, etc./pithet is an ad!. or an ad!ective phrase appropriately Dualifying ab!ect (noun) by naming a Bey or important characteristic of theb!ect.Semantics-oriented epithet classification by prof. 5.ScrebnevF .etaphorical epithet (la y road, ragged noise, $ *[L0 XL), 3.tonymical (brainy fellow), A. 5ronic.

Structural characteristics of epithetsF . =reposition, one-wordpithet (a nice way)" 3. =ostposition, one-word or hyperbation (theyes watchful)" A. Two-step (immensely great)" H. =hrase (a go-to-ell looB)" 7. 5nverted (a brute of a dog, a monster of a man).

'$ymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictoryotions, that help to emphasise contradictory Dualities simultaneouslyxisting in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity.8. ucharenBo). e.g. ;low sByscraper;, :sweet sorrow;, :nicescal;, :pleasantly ugly face;.Periphrasis is a device which, according to NebsterEs dictionary,

enotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter andainer form of expression. e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightlyilure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. lit the

reet lamps (4icBens)Personification is a metaphor that involves liBeness betweenanimate and animate ob!ects (9.8. ucharenBo). e.g. ;the face of ondon;, :the pain of ocean;"Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unliBe ob!ectslonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of me Duality (9.8. ucharenBo). e.g. She is liBe a rose.

#igures of Heplacement (Tropes) are divided into two classesF#igures of Guantity which are hyperbole or overstatement, i.e.

xaggeration and meiosis or understatement, i.e. weaBening.#igures of Guality which are metonymy, metaphor, irony.#igures of Guality>etaphor is a transference of names based on the associated

Beness between two ob!ects, on the similarity of one featureommon to two different entities, on possessing one commonharacteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a commonomponent in their semantic structures. e.g. ;pancaBe; for the :sun;ound, hot, yellow)" e.g. ;silver dust; and :seDuins; for :stars;>etonymy is a transference of names based on contiguityearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the

henomena (ob!ects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of

existence in reality but different semantic (9.8. ucharenBo). e.g.;cup; and :tea; in :Nill you have another cup ;"

&rony is a stylistic device in which the contextual evaluativemeaning of a word is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning. Thecontext is arranged so that the Dualifying word in irony reverses thedirection of the evaluation, and the word positively charged isunderstood as a negative Dualification and (much-much rarer) viceversa. The context varies from the minimal C a word combination tothe context of a whole booB. e .g. 5t must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in oneEs pocBet.

5rony can be of three BindsF !erbal irony is a type of irony when itis possible to indicate the exact word whose contextual meaningdiametrically opposes its dictionary meaning, in whose meaning wecan trace the contradiction between the said and implied ( e.g. Sheturned with the sweet smile of an alligator. ( .SteinbecB) (9.8.

ucharenBo)" "ramati? irony happens when a reader or viewer Bnows more information that a character in booB or in a movie"Situational irony is a Bind of !oBe that is against you or situation.

12. The structure of metaphor. Types of metaphor>etaphor is a transference of names based on the associated

liBeness between two ob!ects, on the similarity of one featurecommon to two different entities, on possessing one commoncharacteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a commoncomponent in their semantic structures. e.g. ;pancaBe; for the :sun;(round, hot, yellow)

The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both ob!ects C the one which is actually namedand the one which supplies its own :legal; name, while each oneenters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.

The wider is the gap between the associated ob!ects the morestriBing and unexpected C the more expressive C is the metaphor.

e.g. Yis voice was a dagger of corroded brass. (S. Pewis)" e.g.They walBed alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unableto communicate. (N.S.?ilbert).

]etaphors, liBe all S4s can be classified according to their degreeof unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected,

i.e. are Duite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Thosewhich are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimeseven fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are tritemetaphors , or dead metaphors . Their predictability therefore isapparent and they are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of thelanguage (5.>. ?alperin)" prolonged metaphor is a group (cluster) of metaphors, each supplying another feature of the described

phenomenon to present an elaborated image (9.8. ucharenBo).The constant use of a metaphor, i.e. a word in which two meanings

are blended, gradually leads to the breaBing up of the primarymeaning. The metaphoric use of the word begins to affect thedictionary meaning, adding to it fresh connotations or shades of meaning. Gut this influence, however strong it may be, will never

reach the degree where the dictionary meaning entirely disappears.;ow metaphor wor?s (according to Lei?off and Iohnson)Source domain is a realm with the help of which the imagianary

and verbal representation are made. TaBen from the Source 4omain( k[L' j-2' 2Z) images and words are applied to a Target4omain ( k[L' j-q&[j).

Types of metaphors (according to Lei?off and Iohnson). `riental metaphors (up and down, front and bacB, in and out,

near for, etc.)3. 8ntological metaphors, associate with activity motions C

personificationA. Structural metaphors (argument is war, life is a !ourney, etc.)

1%. Syntagmatic semasiology. Semantic figures of coBoccurrence (general remar?s on classification)

Semantic #igures of oBoccurrence1. #igures of &dentitya. simile" b. Duasi-identity" c. replacers2. figures of ineGualitya. specifiers" b. climax" c. anti-climax" d. pun" e. eugma" f.


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utology" g. pleonasm%. #igures of contrasta. oxymoron" b. antithesis8s distinct from syntagmatic semasiology investigating the

ylistic value of nomination and renaming, syntagmaticmasiology deals with stylistic functions of relationship of

ames in texts. 5t studies types of linear arrangement of eanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is

alled here Qfigures of co- ''u r&n'&Q, b$ which termmbined, !oint LXX&LrLn'& of sense units is understood.The interrelation of semantic units is uniDue in Ln$dividual text.

et stylistics, liBe any other branch of science, aims atnerali ations.The most general types of semantic relationships 'Ln b&duced to three. &Lnings 'Ln b& either identical, or fferent, r else opposite. Pet us have L more detailedterpretation.

.5dentical meanings. Pinguistic units co-occurring in thext either have the same meanings, or Lr& used Ls nLm&s of e same ob!ect (thing, phenomenon, process, property, etc.).3. 4ifferent meanings. The correlative linguistic units in the

xt Lr& perceived as denoting different ob!ects (phenomena,ocesses, properties).A. `pposite meanings. Two correlative units Lr& semantically

olar. The meaning of one of them is incompatible with theeaning of the secondF the one excludes the other.The possibility of contrasting notions stand in n logical

pposition to each other (as do antonyms long - short, young -d, uX - down, etc.).8s for the second item discussed (difference, ineDuality of

o-occurring meanings), it must b& specially underlined thate are dealing here not with Ln$ Bind of distinction or sparity, but only with cases when carriers of meanings arentactically and or semantically correlative. Nhat is meant

ere is the difference manifest in units with homogeneousnctions.

M sum uX, sometimes two or more units are viewed b$ bothe speaBer and the hearer - according to varying aims of mmunication - as identical, different, or &v&n opposite.The three types of semantic interrelations are matched b$ree groups of figures, which are the sub!ect-matter of

yntagmatic semasiology. They areF figures of identity,gures of ineDuality, and figures of contrast.

1 . Semantic figures of coBoccurrence J figures of identitynd contrast

Semantic #igures of oBoccurrence1. #igures of &dentity: a. simile" b. Duasi-identity" c. replacers2. figures of ineGuality: a. specifiers" b. climax" c. anti-climax" d.

un" e. eugma" f. tautology" g. pleonasm%. #igures of contrast: a. oxymoron" b. antithesis#igures of &dentityYuman cognition, Ls viewed b$ linguistics, 'Ln b& defined

s recurring acts of lingual identification of what we perceive.$ naming ob!ects (phenomena, processes, and properties f ality), we identify them, i.e. search for classes in which toace them, recalling the names of classes already Bnown to.1. Simile , i.e. imaginative comparison. This is an explicit

atement of partial identity (affinity, liBeness, similarity) f wo ob!ects. The word identity is only applicable to certainatures of the ob!ects comparedF in fact, the ob!ects cannot

& identical" they are only similar, they r&s&mble each other ue to s m& identical features. simile has manifold forms,mantic features and expressive aims. s already mentioned,simile mL$ b& combined with or accompanied b$ another

ylistic device, or it mL$ achieve one stylistic effect or nother. Thus it is often based n exaggeration of propertiesescribed.

2. KuasiBidentity . 8nother Xr bl&m arises if we inspect

certain widespread 'Ls&s of Qactive identificationQ usuLll$treated as tropes" when we looB at the matter m r& closely, theyturn out to b& L special Bind of syntagmatic phenomena. S m&

f Duasi-id&ntiti&s manifest special expressive force, chieflywhen the usual topic - comment positions change placesF themetaphoric (metonymical) nLm& LXX&Lrs in the text first, thedirect, straightforward denomination following it. S&& whathappens, for instance, with L metaphorical characteristics

preceding the deciphering noun.%. Synonymous replacements . Mhe term goes bacB to the

classification of the use of synonyms\ proposed b$ ].4.u nets in L paper n syn n$ms in Wnglish as early Ls 6H


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1+. Semantic figures of coBoccurrence J figures of ineGuality:un Aeugma tautology pleonasm.

Semantic #igures of oBoccurrence1. #igures of &dentity: a. simile" b. Duasi-identity" c. replacers2. figures of ineGuality: a. specifiers" b. climax" c. anti-climax" d.

un" e. eugma" f. tautology" g. pleonasm%. #igures of contrast: a. oxymoron" b. antithesis#igures of &neGualityTheir semantic function is highlighting differences. The

xpression of differences 'Ln b&, !ust Ls previously, either passiveQ, i.e. nearly, though not Duite unintentional (e.g.ecifying synonyms), or QactiveQ, i.e. used n purpose (e.g.imax, anti-climax), and, in some varieties, effectingumorous illogicality (Xun, eugma, pretended ineDuality).

Specifying r clarifying synonyms . s suggested above,eir use contributes to precision in characteri ing the ob!ect

speech. Synonyms used for clarification mostly follow onenother (in opposition to replacerEs), although not necessarilymmediately. Ilarifiers mL$ either arise in the speaBerQs minds Ln afterthought and b& added to what has b&&n said, or they'uX$ the sLm& syntactical positions in two or more parallelntences.-lima$ ( r: 6radation). The ?reeB word 'limax means

ladderQ" the Patin gradatio means Qascent, climbing uXQ. Thesewo synonymous terms denote such an arrangement of orrelative ideas (notions expressed b$ words, wordombinations, or sentences) in which what precedes is lessan what follows. Thus the second element surpasses the first

nd is in its turn, surpassed b$ the third, and so n. M put it

herwise, the first element is the weaBest (though notcessarily weaB)" the subseDuent elements gradually increasestrength, the last being the strongest.8ntiBclima$ ( r: Cathos). The device thus called is

haracteri ed b$ s m& authors as QbacB gradationQ. s its veryLm& shows, it is the opposite to climax, but this assumption isot Duite correct. 5t would serve n Xurpose whatever maBinge second element weaBer than the first, the third still weaBer,

nd s n. real anti-climax is L sudden deception of thecipientF it consists in adding n& weaBer element to n& or veral strong ones, mentioned before. The recipient issappointed in his expectationsF he predicted L stronger ement to follow" instead, some insignificant idea follows the

gnificant one (ones). #eedless to say, anti'limL/ is employedith L humorous aim. Oor example, in It's bloody lie and not uite true , we s&& the absurdity of mixing uX Ln offensiveatement with L polite remarB.Pun. This term is synonymous with the current expression

play upon wordsQ. The semantic essence of the device is basedn polysemy or homonymy. 5t is Ln elementary logical fallacylled QDuadruplication of the termQ. The general formula for

the pun is as followsF QS eDuals R and Q, which is the result of L fallacious transformation (shortening) of the two statementsQS eDuals RQ and QS eDuals Q (three terms in all). e.g. 5s lifeworth living 5t depends n the liver .

8longside the Wnglish term QpunQ, the international(originally Orench) term calembour is current (cf. the >ussianZL[L%k$X).

Leugma . s with the pun, this device consists incombining uneDual, semantically heterogeneous, or evenincompatible, words or phrases.

eugma is L Bind of economy of syntactical unitsF one unit(word, phrase) maBes L combination with two or severalothers without being repeated itselfF She was married to ]r.

ohnson, her twin sister, to ]r. Nard" their half-sister, to T r.Trench. The passive-forming phrase was married does notrecur, yet is obviously connected with Lll three prepositionalob!ects. This sentence has n stylistic colouring, it is

practically neutral. e.g. She dropped L tear and her pocBethandBerchief. (4icBens)

Tautology pretended and tautology disguised . 5s arepetition of one and the same word or idea within a sentenceor a figure syntactic unit. Tautology pretended (e.g. Oor Wast isWast, Gefehl ist Gefehl, L \ + & ZLZ L \ + &) and tautologydisguised (e.g. Yeads, 5 win, tails, you lose C $k[2X \L 2&2 &2).

Pleonasm. Using more words that reDuired to express an idea, being redundant. #ormally a vice, it is done on purpose on rareoccasions for emphasis. Wg.F Ne heard it with our own ears .

13. #unctional Styles. "ifferent approaches to functionalstyles classification

#unctional Styles of the /nglish Language8ccording to ?alperinF Ounctional Style is a system of

coordinated, interrelated and inertconditioned language meansintended to fulfill a specific function of communication and aimingaiming at a definite effect in communication. 5t is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive

features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devicesthemselves. Wach style, however, can be recogni ed by one or moreleading features which are especially conspicuous. Oor instance theuse of special terminology is a lexical characteristics of the style of scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recogni ed.

The authors of handbooBs on different languages propose systemsof styles based on a broad subdivision of all styles into 3 classes C literary and colloDuial and their varieties. These generally includefrom three to five functional styles.

6alperin5s system of styles:. Gelles-lettres style (poetry, emotive prose, drama)" 3. =ublicist

(oratory and speeches, essay, article)" A. #ewspaper (brief newsitems, headlines, ads and announcements, editorials)" H. scientific

prose" 7. official documents (business, legal, diplomacy, military).8rnold5s system of styles:. =oetic" 3. Scientific" A. #ewspaper" H. IolloDuial.

5n her last issueF . IolloDuial styles (literary coll., familiar coll.,common coll.) and 3. Piterary booBish style (scientific, officialdocuments, publicists, oratorical, poetic)

Screbne!5s system of styles F #umber of styles is infinite.Screbne! and MusneA

. literary booBish style (publicist" scientific (and technological)"official documents)" 3. free colloDuial (literary coll." familiar coll.)

N.O. Q R RUV W.X. Y Q Z[* \.Y. ]U^ _*`R. official business style" 3. scientific professional style" A.

publicist style" H. literary coll. Style" 7. familiar coll. Style

"a!id hrystal. #unctional Styles System. regional (Ianadian" cocBney" etc.)" 3. social" A. occupational(religious" scientific" legal" plain (or official)" political" news media"etc.)" H. restricted (Bnit write" cooB write" congratulatory msg." n pheadlines" sportcasting scores" air speaB" emergency speaB" e-mail"etc.)


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=.8.>altAe! (9/ssays on /nglish Stylistics ): his teory based one broad division of lingual material into :formal; and :informal;

arieties and adherence to SBrebnev system of functional styles.

lassification of #unctional Styles of the /nglish Language. The Gelles - Pettres Ounctional StyleF a) poetry" b) emotive

ose" c) drama"3. =ublicistic Ounctional StyleF a) oratory" b) essays" c) articles in

ewspapers and maga ines"A. The #ewspaper Ounctional StyleF a) brief news items" b)

dvertisments and announcements" c) headlines"H. The Scientific =rose StyleF a) exact sciences" b) humanitarianiences" c) popular- science prose"7. The `fficial 4ocuments Ounctional StyleF a) diplomatic

ocuments" b) business letters" c) military documents" d) legalocuments"

1


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+. Scientific Style: a) complete and standard syntactical mode of xpression, b) direct word order, c) use of lengthy sentences withbordinate clauses, d) extensive use of participial, gerundial andfinitive complexes, e) extensive use of adverbial and prepositional

hrases, f) freDuent use of parenthesis introduced by a dash, g)bundance of attributive groups with a descriptive function, h)voidances of ellipsis, i) freDuent use of passive and non-finite verbrms, !) use of impersonal forms and sentences such as mentionould be, assuming that.

ompositional1. Literary Colloquial Style : a) can be used in written and spoBen

arieties (dialogue, monologue, personal letters, essays, articles), b)epared types of texts may have thought out and logical

omposition, to a certain extent determined by conventional forms, c)ontaneous types have a loose structure, relative coherence and

niformity of form and content.3. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of deviant language on all

vels b) strong emotional coloring, c) loose syntactical organi ationan utterance, d)freDuently little coherence or adherence to the

pic, e) no special compositional patterns.A. Publicist style: a) carefully selected vocabulary, b) variety of pics, c) wide use of Duotations, direct speech and representedeech, d) use of parallel constructions, e) in oratory (simplicity of ructural expression), f) in headlines (use of devices to arresttentionF pun, pu le etc), g) in news items (strict arrangement of les and subtitles), h) careful division on paragraph.H. Style of Official Documents: a) special compositional designoded graphical layout, clear-cut subdivision of texts into units of rmation), b) conventional composition of treaties, agreements,otocols, c) use of stereotyped, official phraseology, d) accurate use

punctuation, e) generally ob!ective, concrete, unemotional andmpersonal style of narration

+. Scientific Style: a) highly formali ed text with the prevalence of rmulae, tables etc, b) in humanitarian textsF descriptive narration,

upplied with argumentation and interpretation, c) logical andonsistent narration, seDuential presentation of material and facts, d)xtensive use of citations, e) extensive use of W] and S4, f)

xtensive use of conventional set phrases at certain points tomphasi e the logical character of the narration, g) use of digressionsdebate or support a certain point, h) introduction, chapters,

aragraph, conclusion, i) extensive use of double con!unctions liBe@as, either@or, both@and, etc, !)compositionally arrangedntence patternsF postulatory (at the beginning), argumentative (ine central part), formulative (in the conclusion)

2F. The classification of syntactical stylistic de!ices byof.Screbne! (the general sur!ey)=aradigmatic syntax has to do with the sentence paradigmFmpleteness of sentence structure (1) , communicati!e types of ntences (2) , word order (%) , and type of syntactical connection

). =aradigmatic syntactical means of expression arranged accordingthese four types includeF(1): ellipsis aposiopesis oneBmember nominati!e sentencesdundancy: repetition of sentence parts syntactic tautologyrolepsis) polysyndeton.(2): in!ersion of sentence members(%): GuasiBaffirmati!e sentences GuasiBinterrogati!e sentences

uasiBnegati!e sentences GuasiBimperati!e sentences( ): detachment parenthetic elements asyndetic subordination

nd coordination.

21. Syntactical stylistic de!ices with missing elementsSyntactical S":

1. Syntactical S" with missing elements2. Syntactical S" with redundant elements%. &n!ersionSyntactical stylistic de!ices with missing elements8posiopesis stopping abruptly and leaving a statement unfinished.8posiopesis :a stopping short for rhetorical effect; (5.>.?alperin).sed mainly in the dialogue or in the other forms of narrative

mitating spontaneous oral speech because the speaBerEs emotions

prevent him from finishing the sentence (9.8. ucharenBo). e.g. ou !ust come home or 5Ell ... " e.g. ?ood intentions, but ...

/llipsis. The omission of a word or a part of a sentence thatfollows logically. Typical of oral speech.

Wllipsis a deliberate omission of at least one member of thesentence. e.g. Nhat all my pretty chicBens and their dam at one fellswoop (N.ShaBespeare)" e.g. 5n manner, close and dry. 5n voice,husBy and low. 5n face, watchful behind a blind. (4icBens)" e.g. Yisforehead was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose allone side. (4icBens).

8po?oinu is the omission of coordinative or subordinative words.Typical of spontaneous or illiterate speech.

apo-Boinu constructions (?reeB with a common element ). e.g.There was a door led into the Bitchen. (Sh. 8nderson)" e.g. Ye wasthe man Billed that deer. (>. Narren)" e.g. There was no bree e camethrough the door. (W.Yemingway)" e.g. 5 bring him news will raisehis dropping spirits. (`. espersen)

22. Syntactical stylistic de!ices with redundant elementsSyntactical S":1. Syntactical S" with missing elements2. Syntactical S" with redundant elements%. &n!ersionSyntactical S" with redundant elements8syndeton. Ionsists of omitting con!unctions between words,

phrases, or clauses. 5n a list of items, asyndeton gives the effect of unpremeditated ( X& L%&X& *+) multiplicity, of anextemporaneous (2% X \2 2X \L *+) rather than a laboredaccount.

8syndeton is a deliberate omission of con!unctions, cutting off connecting words. Yelps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active

prose. (9.8. ucharenBo). e.g. Soames turned away" he had an utter disinclination for talB, liBe one standing before an open grave,watching a coffin slowly lowered. (?alsworthy)

Polysyndeton. 5s the use of con!unction between each word, phrase, or clause, and it thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton.The rhetorical effect of polysyndeton, however, often shares with thatof asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic, enumeration and

building up. =olysyndeton is a repeated use of con!unctions. 5s tostrengthen the idea of eDual logical emotive importance of connectedsentences(9.8. ucharenBo). e.g. Gy the time he had got all the

bottles and dishes and Bnives and forBs and glasses and plates andspoons and things piled up on big trays, he was getting very hot, andred in the face, and annoyed. (8.TolBien)

8nadiplosis (or catch repetition). >epeats the last word of one phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the text. 5tcan be generated in series for the saBe of beauty or to give a sense of

logical progression (@a, a@). e.g.F =leasure might cause her read,reading might maBe her Bnow, @8naphora. 5s the repetition of the same word or words at the

beginning of successive phrases, clauses or sentences, commonly incon!unctions with climax and with parallelism (a@, a@). e.g.FSlowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not knowing what they find at the top of the hill.

/pistrophe (also called antistrophe or epiphora). Oorms thecounterpart to anaphora, because the repetition of the same word or words comes at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences(@a, @a). e.g.F 5 waBe up and Im alone and 5 walB round Narleyand Im alone " and 5 talB with people and Im alone and 5 looB at hisface when 5Em home and itEs dead. ( .Graine)

Symploce. Iombining anaphora and epiphora, so that one word or phrase is repeated at the beginning and another word or phrase isrepeated at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences (a@b,a@b). Wg. To thinB clearly and rationally should be a ma!or goal for man " but to thinB clearly and rationally is always the greatestdifficulty faced by man .

8mplification. 5nvolves repeating a word or expression whileadding more detail to it, in order to emphasi e what might otherwise


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passed over. e.g.F Pride boundless pride C is the bone of vilisation.Prolepsis. 5s the use of co-referential pronoun after a noun or aoper name. Typical of spontaneous speech. e.g.F John, he doesnEt

Be loud music.;ypophora. Ionsists of raising one or more Duestions and thenoceeding to answer them, usually at some length. 8 common usageit asB the Duestion at the beginning of a paragraph and then use that

aragraph to answer it.Hhetorical Guestion (or erotesis). 4iffers from hypophora in thatis not answered by the writer, because its answer is obvious or

bviously desired, and usually !ust a zyesE or znoE. 5t is used for fect, emphasis or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionaryatement from the facts at hand. e.g. or i! we lose the ability tor"eive our !aults, what is the good o! living on#

2%. Types of repetition>epetition is an expressive means of language used when theeaBer is under the stress of strong emotion. 5t shows the state of eaBer. 8s a S4 repetition is recurrence of the same word, word

ombination, phrase for two and more times. 8ccording to the placehich repeated unit occupies in the sentence (utterance), repetition isassifiedFanaphora F the beginning of two or more successive sentenceslauses) is repeated C a.., a..,a@ The main stylistic function of

naphora is hot so much to emphasi e the repeated unit as to createe bacBground textile non-repeated unit, which, through its novelty,comes foreground.epiphora F the end of two or more successive sentence (clauses) ispeated- ..a,@a,@a. The main function of epiphora is to add stressthe final words of the sentences.framing F the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end, thusrming the :frame; for the non- repeated part of the sentencetterance)-a..a. The function of framing is to elucidate the notionentioned in the beginning of the sentence.catch repetition (anadiplosis or linBing or reduplication) the endone clause (sentence) is repeated in the beginning of the following

ne -@a,a@ it maBes the whole utterance more compact andomplete. Oraming is most effective in singling out paragraphs.chain repetition presents several successive anadiplosis- ..a,a@b,

@c, c. The effect is that of the smoothly developing logicalasoning.ordinary repetition has no definite place in the sentence and thepeated unit occurs in various positions- @a, @a@, a@ ordinarypetition emphasi es both the logical and emotional meanings of theiterated word.successi!e repetition is a string of closely following each other iterated units- ..a,a,a@ this is the most emphatic type of repetitionhich signifies the peaB of emotions of the speaBer.Synonym repetition . The repetition of the same idea by using

nonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly differentuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance.F there arewo terms freDuently used to show the negative attitude of the critic

all Binds of synonym repetitionF a) pleonasm C the use of moreords in a sentence than are necessary to express the meaning"dundancy of expression" b )tautology -defined as the repetition of e same statement" the repetition of the same word or phrase or of e same idea or statement in the other words" usually as a fault of yle

2 . Syntactical stylistic de!ices: parallelism chiasm!ersion and its typesParallel constructions may be viewed as a purely syntactical type

repetition for here we deal with the reiteration of the structure of veral successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexicalflesh . True enough, parallel constructions almost always includeme type of lexical repetition too, and such a convergence producesvery strong effect, foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic,

motive and expressive aspects of the utterance. The necessaryondition in parallel constructions is identical or similar structure inwo or more sentences or parts of a sentence. =arallel constructions

are often bacBed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) andcon!unctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). =arallel constructionscan be partial and complete. Partial parallel arrangement is therepetition of some arts of successive sentences or clauses. ompleteparallel arrangement , also called balance, maintains the principal of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences. Thereare two main functions of parallel constructions $ semantic (suggesteDual semantic significance of the component parts) and structural(rhythmical design to these component parts).

>eversed parallelism is called chiasmus. The second part of achiasmus is, in fact, inversion of the first construction. Thus, if thefirst sentence (clause) has a direct word order - S=`, the second onewill have it inverted - `=S. PiBe parallel constructions chiasmuscontributes to the rhythmical Duantity of the utterance, and the pausecaused by the change in the syntactical pattern may be liBened to acaesura in prosody.

Inversion which was briefly mentioned in the definition of chiasmus is very often used as an independent S4 in which the directword order is changed either completely so that the predicate(predicative) precedes the sub!ect" or partially so that the ob!ect

precedes the sub!ect-predicate pair. Iorrespondingly, we differentiate between partial and a "omplete inversion. The stylistic device of inversion should not be confused with grammatical inversion whichis a norm in interrogative constructions. Stylistic inversion deals withthe rearrangement of the normative word order. {uestions may also

be rearrangedF our mother is at home asBs one of the charactersof . GaldwinQs novel. The inverted Duestion presupposes the answer with more certainty than the normative one. 5t is the assuredness of the speaBer of the positive answer that constitutes additionalinformation which is brought into the Duestion by the inverted wordorder. 5nterrogative constructions with the direct word order may beviewed as cases of two-step (double) inversionF direct w o |_grammatical inversion |_ direct w o.

2+. Semantic figures of coBoccurrence J figures of ineGuality:specifiers clima$ antiBclima$.

Syntagmatic semasiology deals with stylistic functions of

relationship of names in text. 5t studies types of linear arrangement of meanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is called:figures of co-occurrence; (or figures of replacement). There are Atypes of semantic interrelationsF figures of identity , figures of ineGuality figures of contrast.

larifying (specifying) synonyms ( synonymous repetition used tocharacteri e different aspects of the same referent). E.g $ %ouunder"ut sin!ul, insidious hog.

lima$ (gradation of emphatic growing in strength, in ?reeB means :ladder;).- consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentencesin the order of increasing importance, weight or emphasis. E.g:&hat di!!eren"es i! it rained, hailed blew, snowed, "y"loned#

8ntiBclima$ (bacB gradation C instead of a few elements growing

in intensity without relief there unexpectedly appears a weaB or contrastive element that maBes the statement humorous or ridiculous). E.g.: the woman who "ould !a"e the very devil himsel! or a mouse goes all to pie"es in !ront o! a !lash o! lightning.

23. Phonographical stylistic de!icesS4 based on the opposition of meanings of phonological and or

graphical elements of the language are called phonetical and

graphical stylistic devices.'nomatopoeia - the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified ob!ect or action, such as hiss , bowwow , murmur ,

bump , grumble , si le and many more. =oetry abounds in somespecific types of sound-instrumenting, the leading role belonging toalliteration - the repetition of consonants, usually-in the beginningof words, and assonance - the repetition of similar vowels, usually instressed syllables. They both may produce the effect of euphony (a


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nse of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophonysense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing). To

eate additional information in a prose discourse sound-strumenting is seldom used. 5n contemporary advertising, massedia and, above all, imaginative prose sound is fore groundedainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation.his intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or wordombination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is calledap on. : mispronunciations in the speech of uneducated peoplepeepul;, :!ewinile;), amalgamated forms (:gimme; (give me),onna; (going to), mispronunciations which show the physical

efects of the speaBersF stumbling, lisping" graphical changes usedconvey the intensity of the stress, emphasi ing and thus

regrounding the stressed words, i.e. all changes of the type ( italicspitaliAation ), spacing of the graphemes ( hyphenationultiplication ) and of lines (verse lines organi ed in :steps;).hyme is the repetition of identical or similar sound combinations of ords. Hhythm - the flow of speech presents an alternation of ressed and unstressed elements" the pattern of interchange of strongnd weaB segments is called rhythm.

2eady-made structure which canEt be

hanged or substituted.Professor Screbne! differentiate1. #ormal,boo?ish phr.units: Wg. The Bnight of the {uill a

riter" 8 heart of oaB brave, courageous" 8chilles hill C L/2[&' \L0 L2. 7eutral phr.units are units which are devoid of any

motivenessF Wg. Gy hooB or by crocB C \'&%2 XL\ L%2 2& XL\ L%2" Oor good and for all C XL 2 L\'& L

%. #amiliar colloGuial phr.units: Wg. Yave bats in oneEs belfry C * j & \ '\ &% $%&" 8 pretty Bettle of fish C \&'&[& jZL0 2' X20"o rain cats and dogs C & X20 ' 2 \L[0 '0" To be oneEs cups C * j L\&'&[&, \* 2\}2%" Small fry C %&[ZL0 ' }ZL

. Slangish phr.units: Wg. To drop off the hooBs C ' X\L j'0 '& &[j, $%&X& j" To BicB the bucBet C L j $kL" To hop the twig C L $ j'0, L j $kLProfessor &.=. 8rnold classifies phr.units into1. sual p.units that are fixed in the dictionaries" 2. 'ccasional

units that is creation of different authors. They are contextualedetermined. They appeared as a result of some change in usual

nits. These changes are the followingF a. Prolongation . Wg. To beorn with a silver spoon in oneEs mouth (usual p.unit) C X 2 '0

L' [2\ + \& +F Pittle ?eorge was born with a silver spoon in aouth whi"h was "urly and large (prolongation). b. Substitution .Wg. 8ll the world and his wife (usual p.unit) C \'~ '\& 'Z &

k1&' \ F all the world and his mistress (substitution) were at thearty. c. &nsertion (\Z[2 2\L 2&). Wg. To turn oneEs nose at sb.sual p.unit) C '% X& j ' \*' ZLF She turned her well shaped

nsertion) nose at him.Professor Moonin differentiate phr.units:1. Stylistically neutral are units which are devoid of any

motivenessF Wg. Gy hooB or by crocB C \'&%2 XL\ L%2 2& XL\ L%2" Oor good and for all C XL 2 L\'& L"2. /moti!ehr.units contain some Bind of attitude towards this and that sub!ect.

Wg. 8s welcome as flower in may" %. /$pressi!e phr.units are

haracteri ed by some degree of expressiveness. Wg. Ye is dead nutsn this girl he is full of love" . Stylistically mar?ed phr.units areose which are referred either to the formal or non-literary informalyles (!argon, slang, vulgarisms, etc.). Wg. The debt of nature eath" 8 ?ordian Bnot complicated problem" To go to Ianossar $k[2 ZL0 j'0, $ 2 2 '0" +. /le!ated phr.units: Wg. Toeath oneEs last C 'L% + '%&X 2" To fiddle while >ome burns C 2X \ \X&%0 $%*. Nithin elevated phr.units he ( oonin)

distinguishesF a) 8rchaic (the iron in oneEs soul C $}&\ *& %$Z2,to play upon advantage C k%L *\L j, L $\L j) and b) Poeticphr.units (of high account C 2%&12+ q& ' j, most and the least

C \'& k& 2'Z[ & 20)" 3. #oreign phr.units (barbarisms). Wg. 8 lacarte C LZL $, a la mode C % &, beaumonde C k % ,\*'}2+ '\& , ad patress C Z XL qL%, ad verbum C '[ \ \ '[ \ .

8ll sorts of proverbs and sayings may undergo some changes.P.8. GarBova made a research in which she studied pragmatic

effect of using phr.units in commercial advertisementsF eg. The other side of the medal (usual p.unit) C the other side of the metal (ads.), sofar so good (usual p.unit) C sofa so good (ads.).

2D. 7arratology as a branch of linguistics. Types of narration and main compositional forms

#aratology-special branch of linguistics, which deals withnarrative of text. The roots of modern naratology can be found in thenarrative theory of >ussian formalist such as ].Gachtin, Potman,TomashevsBiy, SchlovsBiy, =ropp C the fathers of naratology.

#aratology as a special science combines linguistics an literary. 5twas formed in the last, but now its acBnowledged and beingdeveloped in different countries. The term :naratology; was

proposed by Todorov by its etymology the word :narrative; stands bacB to the word (latin verb) :narrare; (:to tell; to give an account:of;, which in its term goes bacB 5ndo-Wuropean :gna; (Bnowledge).

#arrative-the recounting of one or more real fiction events presentedin the chronological order. #arrative is basically a story of happenings of event either real or imaginary which the narrator consider interesting or important. Types of narration . The author5snarrati!e F unfolded plot, personages of given characteristic, the timeand place of action. The authorial narrative supplies the reader withdirect information about author preferences and ob!ections believesand contradictions. 8) entrusted narrative is used in an afford tomaBe the text more plausible, to impress the reader with the facts of authenticity of the described events. The write entrust some fictionscharacter with the tasB of dealing story. The writer himself that hides

behind the figure of the narrator. "ialogue F personage express their mind in the utter speech. 5n their exchange of remarBs the

participants of the dialogue, other people and their action exposethem self to. `ne of the significant forms of the personage self-characteri ation-dialogue, which allows the author to show him inthe process. &nterior speech of personageB its allows the author andthe readers to peep into inner world of the character, to observe hisidea and viewF a) interior monologue- a rather lengthy peace of textdealing with the main topic of the character thinBing, offering past,future actions" b) short in-sets- presents immediate mental andemotional reactions of the personage to the remarB or event bycharacters" c) stream of consciousness technic- specially popular withtheir representative of modernism in contenting literature. The author tries to portray the purely associated character. Hepresented speech(reported speech)B serves to show either the mental production of the

character thinBingF a) represented uttered speech" b) representedinner speech. The main narrati!e compositional forms . 5f itssemantic of the text that its taBen as foundation of classification Anarrative forms traditionally analy ed in poetics and stylisticsFnarrati!e proper (the unfolding of the plot is concentrating,dynamic form of the text), description (supplies the details of appearance of people and things of the place and time of action -static), argumentation (offers causes and effects of the personages

behavior, his considerations about moral, ethical, ideological or other issues). 5ts rather seldom that any of their compositional forms isused in a pure uninterrupted way.


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