stmu history media...p.31 » p.39 » p.46 » p.50 27 aztecs and quetzalcoatl by mia diaz 29 flavius...

StMU History MediaFeaturing Historical Research, Writing, and Media at St. Mary’s University

King Tutankamun: Ancient Egyptian embalming methods

Zoroastrianism: Good vs. Evil

Read about one of the most influential religions

in pre-history.

Find out how King Tutankhamun was prepared for burial

and why.

Read about this wonder of the world, how it got

its name.

King Tutankhamun

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

STMU HISTORY MEDIA

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03 ZOROASTRIANISMby Jezel Luna

06 TUTANKHAMUN’S CORPSEby Analina Devora

08 LA MALINCHA: TRAITOR?by Mariani Sandoval

11 HAMMURABI’S CODEby Kassandra Guillen

14 ANNIE OAKLEYby Rachel White

16 ANNE HUTCHINSON by Mia Diaz

19 NATHAN BEDFORD FORRESTby Celina Resendez

21 IRON WEAPONS IN ASSYRIAby Diana Moreno-Gutierrez

23 RACE OF THE HUMAN RACEby Soki Salazar

25 QUEEN HATSHEPSUTby Soki Salazar

TABLE OF1 CONTENTS

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AUG. - SEPT.

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27 AZTECS AND QUETZALCOATL by Mia Diaz

29 FLAVIUS JOSEPHUSby Christopher Repka

32 THREE MAYAN CALENDARSby Christopher Repka

35 COLUMBUS IN PUERTO RICOby Andres Palacios

37 JOHN PETER ZENGERby Mia Diaz

41 THE “REVOLUTION” OF 1800by Roberto Tijerina

44 WITCHES IN SALEMby Oscar Sepulveda

46 THE PANIC OF 1873by Sergio Avila Roque

48 MARTIN LUTHER & 95 THESESby Andres Palacios

51 HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON

by Danielle Garza

CONTENTSTOP 20 ARTICLES

2CONTENTS

Zoroastrianism was a dualist faith that originated in Persia, and over the years it has influenced a number of other faiths. Even though we may not recognize it today, it has been an influence on a number of world religions, especially on Christianity and Islam. Zoroastrianism is a belief system that stresses how we as human beings were meant to strive for our full potential. A primary tenet of the faith is that righteous and upstanding people will participate in the rewards of paradise, while the evil-doers will undergo punishments in hell.1

The prophet and founder of Zoroastrianism was Zarathustra, a man from an aristocratic family in Rhages, Media. Most scholars believe that Zarathustra was born around the late seventh and early sixth

centuries B.C.E. He was a priest who became disillusioned with Persian ancestral religion, so instead he decided to search for inspiration and wisdom, and for a deeper meaning to life. After ten years of traveling, he finally realized that he had been called to be a prophet of Ahura Mazda, the Lord of Light. “He received a revelation in the form of the Avesta, the holy book of his religion, and commissioned to preach to humankind.”2 He would preach the Gathas; these were known as the hymns to the gods.

The central claim of Zoroastrianism is that there are two coequal and co-eternal gods: Ahura Mazda, the All-knowing Lord of Light, and Angra Mainyu or Ahriman, the Lord of Darkness. These gods represent an extreme dualism, where followers were

Zoroastrianism and the Cosmic Conflict Between Good and Evil

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By Jezel Luna

given the option of choosing whom to worship. Ahura Mazda would save or condemn individuals based on whichever choice they decided to make.3 The people would experience rewards and punishments based on how they chose to behave. If they followed “Good words, Good thoughts, Good deeds,” they would be able to appreciate all the pleasures Ahura Mazda had in store for them in the afterlife.4

Devotees of Zoroastrianism believed that Ahura Mazda first produced the World of Thought and then gave birth to the World of the Living; but there was not yet life. Angra Mainyu challenged this pre-creation with his own counter-creation in order to destroy what Ahura Mazda was establishing. The Lord of Darkness wanted to demolish it with darkness, sickness, and death . Before Angra Mainyu was ab le to attack, Ahura Mazda forced him to recoil to the darkness. He was stunned into unconsciousness for three thousand years.5

Ahura Mazda then prepared for the Mixture of war, or battles against evil. This war was going to last six thousand years. For the first three thousand years, Ahura Mazda would unite with other lesser gods so that they could form a broad alliance. Angra Mainyu’s evil queen helped awaken the evil-doer and stirred all evil beings to attack Ahura Mazda. The battle then began, and Ahura Mazda’s creation came to life. Unfortunately, the very first beings killed were good, Gayomard and the Lone Bull; but from their semen they were able to manifest all humankind and bring into being all animals. Ahura Mazda’s right-hand man was Karsasp, a beautiful and innocent man, who helped fight off Angra Mainyu and his servants. Ahura Mazda then put Karsasp into a deep sleep so he would be well-rested for the very Last Battle.6 “At death, according to the tenets of Zoroastrianism, the souls of all persons ascend to the summit of Mount Hara where the good and bad of each soul are weighed in balances.”7 If one has made exceptional choices, ones soul will cross the cosmic bridge and continue an existence in heaven. In the case that many of one’s decisions were unacceptable, the bridge will disrupt and one’s soul will perish in hell. Scholar

Charles David Isbell summarizes the eschatology of Zoroastrianism this way: “Since evil will have become extinct, history will come to an end, good souls will receive immortal bodies and will live forever in the re-perfected earth ruled over by Ahura-mazda.”8

This religion has continued to be practiced for as much as three thousand years. There are still a few thousand devotees that continue to carry on the traditions of Zoroastrianism in Iran and in India today. This religion has faced many difficulties in its long history, especially during the seventh century C.E. when invading Arab Muslims conquered the land of Persia, the homeland of Zoroastrianism. The conquerors chose not to take away this religion altogether, but they did choose to put a financial burden

on the Zoroastrian temples.9 Many fled to India, which is home today to many of their descendants, known as Parsis. Many of those who stayed in Persia ended up convert ing to Islam. Although it may not be practiced as widely today, it has made a considerable impact on other religions.

Christianity was one of those

religions that may have been influenced by elements within Zoroastrianism. Scholar John R. Hinnells writes,

It is generally held that the form of the later Jewish and Christian concept of the devil or Satan was influenced by Iranian tradition. If this be accepted then it has serious implications for the understanding of the saviour or Messianic figure…. When [the devil] becomes truly demonic … then the savior is given a new task.10

That task, Hinnells believes, was to defeat a supernatural and evil being, which taps into Zoroastrian dualism. In fact, the beliefs in a Satan of evil pitted against a God of good, the belief in angels and demons fighting a cosmic war, and the belief in a savior figure who would save all of humanity from evil and sin are all elements deriving from Zoroastrianism.11 Zoroastrianism in its original

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Faravahar, the visual aspect of Ahuramazda | Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

form may be an obscure faith in today’s society, but its impact on the fundamental principles of many religions is evident and deserves our appreciation and acknowledgement. That task, Hinnells believes, was to defeat a supernatural and evil being, which taps into Zoroastrian dualism. In fact, the beliefs in a Satan of evil pitted against a God of good, the belief in angels and demons fighting a cosmic war, and the belief in a savior figure who would save all of humanity from evil and sin are all elements deriving from Zoroastrianism.11 Zoroastrianism in its original form may be an obscure faith in today’s society, but its impact on the fundamental principles of many religions is evident and deserves our appreciation and acknowledgement.

1. Jerry Bentley, Herbert Ziegler, Heather Streets Salter, Traditions & Encounters: A Brief Global History Volume 1 (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishers, 2016), 95-99.

2. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2015, s.v. “Zoroaster,” by J. Steward Alverson.

3. Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. “Ahura Mazda.”

4. Bentley, Ziegler, and Street Salter, Traditions & Encounters, 96-97.

5. P. Oktor Skjærvø, “Good vs. Evil,” Calliope 15, no. 5 (January 2005): 8.

6. P. Oktor Skjærvø, “Good vs. Evil,” Calliope 15, no. 5 (January 2005): 8. Charles David Isbell, “Zoroastrianism and Biblical Religion,” Jewish Bible Quarterly (2006).

7. Charles David Isbell, “Zoroastrianism and Biblical Religion,” Jewish Bible Quarterly (2006).

8. Bentley, Ziegler, and Street Salter, Traditions & Encounters, 97-98. John R. Hinnells, Zoroastrian and Parsi Studies: Selected Works of Johr R. Hinnells (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 2000), 46.

9. Bryan Rennie, “Zoroastrianism: The Iranian Roots of Christianity,” The Council of Societies for the Study of Religion vol. 36 no. 1 (2007): 3-5.

10. John R. Hinnells, Zoroastrian and Parsi Studies: Selected Works of Johr R. Hinnells (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 2000), 46.

11. Bryan Rennie, “Zoroastrianism: The Iranian Roots of Christianity,” The Council of Societies for the Study of Religion vol. 36 no. 1 (2007): 3-5.

WORKS CITED


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Thanks to modern technology, the examination and research into mummified bodies and artifacts from ancient Egypt have answered many questions for scientists and historians alike. What was the culture of these ancient people? Who were their leaders? And what was the process and purpose of mummification? In the twentieth century, the tomb of King Tutankhamen was discovered, and that discovery has answered many of these questions. Thanks to the discoveries of the Ancient Egyptian’s burials of their kings, particularly that of King Tutankhamen, we have learned more and more about the Ancient Egyptian’s history and traditions when it comes to laying the dead to rest.

Scientists and archaeologists say that King Tutankhamen became king at the very young age of nine. However, he may have been no more than a puppet ruler, and the true power behind the throne

was said to belong to a man who may have been related to Tut named Ay. Young Tut was a physically frail youth. Through the examination of his body, scientists have found malformations in his feet, and they suspect that the young man had walked with a cane.1 Though he was depicted as fighting in battles and slaying enemies in drawings on the walls of his tomb, there is no actual evidence that this young man participated in any actual battles. However, scholars believe that these depictions merely represent an extension of Tut’s power. It was believed that he married his half-sister, Anthesenpaaton, who was also very young. Though the two had not produced any known heirs, the bodies of two babies were found buried in Tut’s tomb. Archaeologists believe these babies may have been the children of young Tut and his queen.2 He reigned during a period of time known as the New Kingdom. At the young age of eighteen, Tut’s short life and reign over Ancient Egypt

The Discovery and Science behind King Tutankhamun’s Ancient CorpseBy Analina Devora

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had come to an end. The exact cause of Tut’s death remains a mystery; however, scientists believe it may be connected with an infection spread by a broken leg.3

In 1922, the tomb of King Tut was discovered. This finding helped give archaeologists an understanding of the wealth of Egyptian civilization, especially for those living in the upper class. The value of the gold and treasure found in King Tut’s tomb, as was the case for treasures found in other areas of ancient Egypt, surpass that of many others discovered from ancient times. It also has given scientists and researchers much insight into the history, tradition, and science behind the process and purpose of mummification.4

Scholars have discovered that mummifying bodies was tied to the ancient Egyptians’ belief about the afterlife. Egyptians believed that the body was not just a corpse after death, but a resting place for the soul. Osiris, the god of the resurrection and a very respected god to the Egyptians, would judge the soul of the dead.5 Because the Egyptians believed the soul would move on, King Tut’s final resting place was filled with tools and items that the King might need in the afterlife. It contained artifacts such as clothing, musical instruments, jewelry, lamps, chairs, and baskets with food and wine. In addition to the tomb itself, much has been discovered from bodies that were laid to rest so many years ago, including the body of King Tut. The success of the preservation can be accredited to the detail that the ancient Egyptians provided during the process of mummification. Through many years of research and observation, scientists and archaeologists have found that this important practice evolved over time, but it has followed the same basic instructions and procedures.6 After his death, all of Tut’s organs were removed from the body, except the heart, and placed into containers called Canopic Jars. Afterwards, Tut’s body was then covered in a mixture called natron, which consisted of salts that helped inhibit bacterial activity and dehydrate the body. After a little over a month, the mixture of salts was removed from Tut’s body and his cavities were filled with cloth containing resin to give the corpse its shape back. Only after this was the body wrapped with linen, giving it the classic “mummy” appearance. Tut was then placed in a solid gold coffin, and the coffin was then placed in his tomb.7

Traditionally, it was only emperors, kings, and members of the upper class who were mummified, but

as time progressed it became a tradition for many members of this ancient society.8

However, because Tut was a king, his resting place was filled with ancient artifacts and treasures in addition to his mummified corpse. Although his reign, and his life, were cut very short, the ancient Egyptians left more than a final resting place for the boy King’s soul when they laid him to rest: they left us, the people of the 21st century, with answers.


WORKS CITED

1. Phillip A. Mackowiak, Diagnosing Giants:Solving the Medical Mysteries of Thirteen Patients Who Changed the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 3.

2. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January 2015, s.v. “Tutankhamen,” by Donald C. Simmons.


4. G. Elliot Smith, Tutankhamen and the Discovery of His Tomb (Routledge: Hoboken, 2013), 1.

5. E. A. Wallis Budge, Egyptian Religion : Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life, Routledge Revival (London: Rutledge, 2013), 41.

6. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science, January 2015, s.v. “Mummification,” by James L. Robinson


8. George Hart, Ancient Egypt (New York: DK Publication, 2008), 1.

King Tutankhamen’s mummified body | Courtesy of National Geographic

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Largely due to the importation of disease and use of superior weapons, the Spaniards were able to conquer the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, kill the empire’s last emperor, Cuauhtémoc, and bring the Aztec empire to an end. Few know of La Malinche, the indigenous interpreter of Hernán Cortés, whose linguistic abilities were used to facilitate important conversations between the Spaniards and the indigenous leaders. Without the help of La Malinche, perhaps the Aztec empire would have survived.

Born between 1502 and 1505, La Malinche was named Malinalli Tenepal, the first part of her name being a Nahuatl term for the twelfth day of the month in correspondence to the Aztec calendar, and the second part of her name meaning “lively.” She was born of nobility in Paynala within the region of Veracruz. Her troubles started at a young age after the death of her father. La Malinche was ousted from

her home to ensure her new half-brother received the inheritance of the family instead of her, since she was the eldest child. She was given to “some Indians of Xicalango.”1 Then the Indians gave her to a nobleman in Tobasco, a region in the Yucatan. When Cortés arrived to Tobasco, he was offered twenty slaves, one of them being La Malinche. Having lived in Veracruz, a Nahuatl-speaking region, and then being sold into a Maya-speaking region, La Malinche knew both languages and she was soon recognized for the linguistic talents that could benefit Cortés in his conquests.2

The few glimpses of La Malinche and how her presence as an interpreter accelerated the fall of the Aztec empire can be found in the writings of the Spanish explorers, specifically from Hernán Cortés, her “lord and master.”3 From the second letter Hernán Cortés wrote to Emperor Charles V, dated October 30,

La Malinche: Traitor or Survivor?By Mariana Sandoval

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1530, Cortés speaks of La Malinche as “a female interpreter that I had, who was a native of this country, and whom I obtained at Putunchún on the Rio Grande.”4 This confirms the vague aspects of her life that we already know. But most importantly, in this context, this letter goes on to tell of a scenario in which La Malinche saved the Spaniards from an ambush by the Cholulans. La Malinche was told by the wife of a native leader that they planned to attack the Spaniards and if La Malinche came with them, she would be protected. La Malinche delivered this message to Cortés, which ultimately led to the massacre of Cholula and provided a direct path to march towards Tenochitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire.5 This leads to the question of whether or not La Malinche was a traitor or a survivor. Did she explicitly want the Aztec empire to fall or did she just want to save herself from the carnage?

With no traces of primary sources from La Malinche herself, her story has been retold by various scholars without much consistency, nothing ever being certain. Up until the twentieth century, La Malinche was viewed as a traitor to her country Mexico. In 1861, on the celebration day of Mexico’s Independence, Ignacio “El Nigromante” Ramírez, a Mexican journalist, addressed the Mexican people by saying, “One of the mysteries of fate is that every Mexican owes his downfall and disgrace to a woman, and to another woman his salvation and glory; the myth of Eve and Mary is reproduced everywhere; we indignantly remember Cortés’s mistress and will never forget, in our gratitude to Doña María Josefa Ortiz.”6 La Malinche is seen as playing a key role in the subjugation of the Mexican peoples to Spain, while Doña María Josefa Ortiz did the contrary and liberated the country. However, many Chicana writers and modern scholars are trying to rewrite the tale of La Malinche to understand the complexities of her choices and to vindicate her. For example, Gloria Anzaldua promotes the idea that La Malinche had a “new consciousness,” that she voluntarily served as the interpreter of Cortés not only to save herself, but also because she knew that a new mestiza culture was going to be born (especially considering she had a son with Cortés in 1524).7 She made a conscious effort to exchange language and cultural aspects from each side in order to facilitate the emergence of the new mestiza society; however, with that came brutal

consequences in the shape of warfare and mass death in the New World.

Whether or not La Malinche’s role as Cortés’s interpreter was traitorous, simply an effort to survive, or some other complex reason involving love for Cortés, hate for the Aztec empire for the cruelty she faced after being ousted from her home, or promotion of the new mestiza culture, no one will ever know the true story of the Indian, slave woman who traveled alongside Cortés towards the culmination of the Aztec empire.


This image comes from the Florentine Codex, which are paintings dating from around 1550 that illustrate the conquest of Mexico and show the

translator as playing a central role.

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WORKS CITED1. Bernal Castillo del Díaz, The Discovery and

Conquest of Mexico, 1517-1521 rev. American ed., trans. A.P. Maudsley (New York: The Noonday Press, 1965), chap. 22-23.

2. Pilar Godayol, “Malintzin/ La Malinche/ Doña Marina: re-reading the myth of the treacherous translator,” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Studies 18, no. 1 (April 2012): 61-68.

3. Castillo del Bernal, chap 23.

4. Hernan Cortes to Emperor Charles V, October 30, 1520, in Letters of Despatches of Hernando Cortes, to the Emperor Charles V., trans. (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1843), letter II.

5. Hernan Cortes to Emperor Charles V, October 30, 1520, in Letters of Despatches of Hernando Cortes, to the Emperor Charles V, letter II.

6. Rosario Pérez-Lagunes, “The Myth of La Malinche: From the Chronicles to Modern Mexican Theater” (PhD dis., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001), 24. Although she was of Spanish descent, Doña María Josefa Ortiz was born in Valladolid, Mexico in 1768 and identified herself as Mexican. She and her husband were both a part of the rebellion that ultimately led to Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1824.

7. Godayol, 68-70. This image comes from the Florentine Codex, which are paintings dating from around 1550 that illustrate the conquest of Mexico and show the translator as playing a central role.

Within the years 1792 and 1750 BCE, one of the most influential rulers known in ancient history emerged in the Babylonian Empire. Hammurabi took the throne as the sixth king of the first Babylonian Empire. He was known as a great warrior, an honored statesman, and an emperor who took a great interest in restoring the empire’s religious temples and values.1 He referred to himself as the “king of the four quarters of the world,” claiming that he was chosen by the gods to “destroy the wicked in the land and evil [so] that the strong might not oppress the weak.” Not only is Hammurabi known as a warrior, statesman, and religious man, but he is also remembered for his famous Code of Laws, the Hammurabi Code: a set of laws that is described as the “most extensive and most complete law code” of the Mesopotamian time.2

The laws were written on clay tablets to bring forth a legal system for those in authority to enforce. The Code acted as the legal foundation to a sophisticated society that the Babylonians had become. The laws were meant to bring a form of equality among the people. However, consequences and punishments given to a guilty party did not always reflect the kind of equality that we today would expect. These sets of laws not only brought a legal system, but also put on display the legal basis for a differentiated treatment of individuals based on wealth and gender. Within the Babylonian empire the population was divided into three classes.3 The classes were given the names Amelu, Muskenu, and Ardu. Each social class had specific rights and characteristics to them, as well as determined what quarter of the empire they were to

The Hammurabi Code: Amelu Versus Muskenu

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By Kassandra Guillen

live in.4

The code relies on the concept of lex talionis, or law of retaliation. It is commonly known as an “eye for an eye” justice. According to what the guilty party did, their punishment should thus reflect it.5 However, in some instances, this was not the case. The differences in punishments relied a great deal on which social class the victim or perpetrator belonged to. Many times, the Amelu, the elite class on the social spectrum, would be given lesser sentences than the poor by Hammurabi’s Code. For example, if the Amelu were to harm someone from the Muskenu class, the Amelu would merely be subject to a restitution in the form of silver. Committing the same crime against the Amelu, the Muskenu would be subjected to a much more severe punishment, in accordance with the Code. Furthermore, if the violator of the code could not pay or replace what had been harmed, the violator would be sent to immediate death.6 More often than not, it was the members of the lower class who were being accused of crimes and were unable to pay the restitutions.

The legal foundations of aristocratic privileges are evident in ancient Mesopotamian history. This was due to the economic importance and responsibilities held by the Amelu. During this time in history, one’s wealth, what official position one held, and which family one was born into, determined how one would be treated under the law. Differences in cases and punishment were arranged to benefit the “value” and “dignity” that the Amelu held within the society. The top of the social pyramid was seen as more important; therefore, committing any devaluing crime against them in any way was dealt with very firmly in comparison to how crimes committed on the Muskenu were handled.7 Although many judges of this civilization carried out the law according to Hammurabi’s standards, in which the higher class held a greater value in the society in comparison to the poor, some judges struggled to ensure that the Muskenu was not being oppressed by the Amelu.8

The code that Hammurabi introduced to the Babylonian people had a great impact as it brought

social order and a structured legal system. Overall, the code created a commonality in standards for those in authority when deciding punishments and consequences to a violator of the law. Hammurabi’s Code is believed to be the first set of written laws in human history.

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Code of Hammurabi inscribed on stone stele | Courtesy of The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide


1. George S. Duncan, “The Code of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi,” The Biblical World 23, no. 3 (1904): 188.

2. Jerry Bentley and Herbert Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters, Volume 1 From the Beginning to 1500, 5 edition (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2010), 29-30.

3. Salem Press Encyclopedia, August 2016, s.v. “Promulgation of Hammurabi’s Code,” by Mary Jegen.

4. Ancient History Sourcebook, 1915, “The Code of Hammurabi: Introduction,” by Charles Horne.

5. Jerry Bentley and Herbert Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters, Volume 1 From the Beginning to 1500, 5 edition, 30.

6. William F. Edgerton, “Amêlu and Muškênu in the Code of Hammurabi,” The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 41, no. 1 (1924): 58–63.

7. Edgerton, “Amêlu and Muškênu in the Code of Hammurabi,” 63.

8. Jerry Bentley and Herbert Ziegler, Traditions & Encounters, Volume 1 From the Beginning to 1500, 5 edition, 30.

WORKS CITED

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With the ever increasing wave of feminism arising this century, it is important to travel back in time and explore the life of one of the most distinguished American feminists: Annie Oakley. With her sharp shooting skills and her ideology that women are as independent as men, she believed women should be taught how to shoot and to be able to carry a gun with them for emergency protection. Oakley opened the door to future feminist movements in addition to her own. Through her social status and her ability to take on any male opponent, she proved that being a woman does not limit a person’s ability to hold any position in society or perform any activity.

Given name Phoebe Ann Moses, Annie Oakley was born in 1860 and suffered through a dramatic upbringing in which she experienced the loss of her biological father as well as her step-father, along with being sent away to a farm; she lived with a different family where she was forced to perform arduous labor both inside and outside of the household. 1 After years of being treated as a slave and being repeatedly abused on the farm, she returned home where she was then forced to pay her mother’s $200 monthly mortgage at the age of fifteen. She took to shooting game, which she had learned from her father at a young age, to

sell to nearby hotels and marketplaces in order to meet the mortgage payment. After boasting for years about her shooting skills, she found herself invited to a challenge against one of the best shooters at the time, Frank E. Butler. When she shot against him, he was amazed at her skills and became fond of her after she won the challenge, and the two married shortly thereafter. The two traveled throughout the country and were invited to star in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show. After performing with her husband and allowing him the main spotlight throughout their relationship, Annie eventually reached a turning point in which she had become the star of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show, known as the “Champion Markswoman,” and Butler, feeling inferior beside her, retired and became her manager. 2

After sixteen years of extensive travelling to many countries, and given the incredible opportunity to meet many famous individuals along with kings and queens, Annie and her husband decided to quit the show and retire to a relaxing life in Cambridge, Maryland. Although she retired at an early age, she wrote to the current president at the time, William McKinley, asking to be sent to the front line in the Spanish-American War, to which she received no

Annie Oakley: Contributor to the Feminist Ideals TodayBy Rachel White

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response. Then, when World War I erupted, Annie offered to hold shooting lessons in order to help teach young men how to shoot properly without injuring themselves or their fellow soldiers; however, her offer was declined. Years later, she decided to make her comeback and begin to perform in shows, but after a car accident, and then a train accident in which she was injured along with her husband, she was too frail to do much, and the Butlers relocated to Annie’s hometown where she worked on her memoirs, which would be published and distributed throughout the country.

Although there is still much debate today on whether Annie Oakley was truly an advocate for women’s equality in the United States or if she continued the “ladylike” expectations that were apparent in the country, it is clear that she was able to obtain a sense of belonging in what was a man’s world. She spent a large majority of her time helping to teach women how to shoot a gun safely, and it is estimated that she helped approximately fifteen thousand women to do so. Oakley is viewed as a complex woman today because she was seen as petite and fragile; however, she earned her place in society by her talent and ability to prove that she was just as capable, if not more, than any man at her time. In addition, her fame made her a public figure, which gave her power to stand up for other women at the time and produce a new image of women that had not been widely seen previously—that of independence. Contradictory to many beliefs, she did not politically take sides with other feminists of her time, but instead showed those around her that she possessed skills that were previously never demonstrated by a woman. 3 Oakley was very aware of her role in society, both in the United States and internationally, and made a point to be as feminine as she could be in order to show that even the most ladylike females are capable of doing tasks and performing “manly” activities. Along with being a sharp shooter, Annie took up riding a bicycle, which was also considered a “man’s sport” at the time, and made a point of showing that it should be acceptable for a woman to

participate in sports and that these sports should not be confined to a specific gender. http://http//www.neh.gov/events/annie-oakley Oakley succeeded in making

a name for women all across the world and proved to many countries that she traveled to that one’s gender makes no difference. She demonstrated that both genders are capable of participating in sports that had been male dominated in the centuries preceding her. 4


WORKS CITED

1. Ron Soodalter, “Annie Oakley vs. Hearst’s Worst,” Wild West 27, no. 5 (February 2015): 30.

2. Mary E. Virginia, “Annie Oakley,” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2016, http://blume.stmarytx.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ers&AN=88806878&site=eds-live&scope=site.

3. Lisa Bernd, “Annie Oakley and the disruption of Victorian expectations,” Theatre Symposium 20 (2012): 42.

4. Sarah Russell Cansler, “Annie Oakley, Gender, and Guns: The ‘Champion Rifle Shot’ and Gender Performance, 1860-1926,” Pursuit: The Journal of Undergraduate Research at the University of Tennessee 5, no. 1 (March 2014): 164.

Champion Markswoman and Feminist Reformer | Courtesy of the NEH Foundation

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For centuries women have fought against numerous injustices forced upon them because of their gender. Some of these injustices include the right to be seen as an equal to men, the right to vote, and the right for equal pay, along with many more. Although women have succeeded in breaking down some of these barriers, there are still many inequalities being fought today. During the seventeenth century, there was one woman in particular who battled in opposition to social injustice: Anne Hutchinson. This article is about the life of a brave woman who opposed an unfair law forbidding men and women from freely practicing their religion, and who also challenged the preposterous roles women were limited to in the religious community.

Anne Hutchinson, maiden name Anne Marbury, was born July 20, 1591, in Alford, England. She was the daughter of a midwife and a Cambridge scholar who published many unorthodox religious texts. In fact, Francis Marbury’s teachings were banned from where he was a teacher, at Saint Wilfred’s School in Alford. After vigorous pleading, Marbury was able to have the ban lifted, and he began teaching again in 1602. 1 Perhaps this is where Anne inherited her tenacious spirit to express her opinion. In 1605, at the young age of fourteen, Anne and her family

moved to London for her father’s new position as rector of Saint Martin’s Vintry, leaving behind Anne’s boyfriend, a tailor named William Hutchinson. After the death of Anne’s father in 1611, Hutchinson moved to London to be with Anne; the next year the two were married. That same year, the newlywed bride returned to Alford where her husband continued his tailor business, and Anne followed in her mother’s footsteps as a midwife. Anne and William went on to raise thirteen children together in Alford. 2

In 1612, newly ordained Puritan minister John Cotton began preaching at Saint Botolph’s Church in Boston, Lincolnshire, not far from Alford where Anne Hutchinson resided. His unique approach greatly intrigued Hutchinson. 3 Cotton’s preaching and his understandings of religion reminded Anne of her father’s teachings. Anne enjoyed Cotton’s work so much, that in 1633, when Cotton immigrated to New England, Anne convinced her husband to move there as well. In 1634, Anne and her family made the long transition to Massachusetts. 4

The following year, in 1635, Hutchinson began holding weekly gatherings in her home to discuss minister Cotton’s sermons. Anne and her followers addressed their beliefs of sheer grace as opposed to

Anne Hutchinson: “The First Feminist in the New World”By Mia Diaz

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the Calvinist theological viewpoint of predestination. Hutchinson and her followers believed that God alone grants salvation to whomever He believes is worthy of His grace, without human interaction. The clergy in New England taught that people could gain God’s grace by willingly performing various covenant conditions, such as performing good deeds, reciting prayers, attending church, along with other forms of religious practice. 5 Anne’s critics called her teachings Antinomianism. The Greek word is translated as “hostile to the law.” Anne provoked the colony leaders by proclaiming that members of their clergy who had not undergone a conversion experience had no authority to be held responsible for the spiritual offices of the colony. She also brought attention to the common yet unfair assumptions of women’s roles within Puritan society. 6 Anne’s following continued to grow, and it became so significant that in the 1636 governor’s election, the colony prevented the reelection of the current governor John Winthrop, and elected Sir Henry Vane the Younger into office. Sir Henry was an outspoken supporter of Anne’s movement, and he was a strong supporter of the anti-Winthrop movement.

Anne’s rising popularity caused three major problems for the colonial leaders. First, Anne’s gatherings paralleled preaching, which was strictly limited to those with a licence, and was absolutely forbidden to women. Second, the New England clergy was putting forth great effort in order to establish a unified church. Anne’s teachings contradicted their efforts. Third, Anne’s supporters consisted of both men and women. This act challenged the status quo of men being the only influential figures within society. 7 Never before had a woman caused so much trouble for authority figures, nor had a woman been the leader of a huge support of individuals.

The turning point of Anne’s momentum occurred during the governor election in May 1637, when former governor John Winthrop was reelected to office. It is not difficult to understand why Winthrop put Hutchinson on trial for heresy when he took office

in November. 8 Winthrop was desperate to regain social order within the colony. The trial was held

publicly to make an example out of Hutchinson, to show what happens to those who oppose the church and therefore oppose the colonial leadership. Anne surprised many with her witty banter and intellectual remarks. She defended herself quite impressively, proving her knowledge of the Bible and religious laws, and also by providing evidence demonstrating that her accused charge was based on more circumstantial evidence than proven facts of illegal activity. For example, the court tried to charge her with sedition, or an action suggesting discontent or rebellious actions against the government. Hutchinson made it clear that expressing opinions and holding conversations within a women’s meeting was not

an illegal act. The statements made within those meetings were confidential because they

were held in the privacy of her home. The spectacle of a self-educated woman verbally battling a governor who was a Cambridge scholar on an equal level was unheard of. Despite Hutchinson’s efforts, she was still convicted and banished from the colony. Anne was at a disadvantage from the start with civil officers, elected deputies, and clergymen represented as the jury in the trial. 9 After the verdict, Anne, her family, and a few loyal followers migrated to Rhode Island for a short while before settling in the Dutch colony of New Netherlands, which subsequently became New York. In 1643, Anne and her family became victims of an Indian uprising and were killed during the attack.

Anne Hutchinson is seen as one of the first female feminist who fought for religious freedom. Anne’s actions represent a right established to us as Americans in 1791. The first amendment to the Constitution established the freedoms of religion, assembly, speech, press, and petition. Anne’s reasons for refusing to conform to colonial authorities were reasonable and respectable. She was not the only person to fight for individual freedoms; but her courageous start led the way for others to fight against injustices too.


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Anne Hutchinson Preaching in her House in Bos-ton in 1637 | Illustration from ‘Colonies and Nation’

by Woodrow Wilson | Courtesy of Credo Images

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WORKS CITED

1. John R. Holmes, “Anne Hutchinson,” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia (January 2016), 1.

2. Holmes, “Anne Hutchinson,” 1.

3. Francis J. Bremer, “John Cotton,” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia (2016), 1.


5. James F. Cooper, Jr., “Anne Hutchinson and the ‘Lay Rebellion’ against the Clergy,” The New England Quarterly, Inc 61, no. 3 (September 1988): 382-383.

6. Alan Brinkley, American History, 15th ed., vol. 1: to 1865 (2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121: McGraw Hill Education, 2015), 45.


8. Alan Brinkley, American History, 45.

9. Lisa McGunigal, “The Criminal Trial of Anne Hutchinson: Ritual, Religion, and Law,” Mosaic: A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature 49, no. 2 (June 2016): 1-8.


Anne Hutchinson on trial in Massachusetts | Courtesy of Flickr

Ku Klux Klan is a name that perhaps everyone has heard at least once in their lifetime. Most associate this group with a terrible history of African American oppression and hatred through the use of grotesque methods of torture and killing. Some may wonder how and why such a horrible organization was formed. The name Nathan Bedford Forrest may not be one that is heard very often, but it is to this man who helped to get the Klan up and running in its early years.

Nathan Bedford Forrest served as a General for the Confederate army during the Civil War and was said to have been one of the strongest leaders of the Confederate army. Forrest was the oldest of nine children and was thrust into the role of caretaker after his father passed away when Forrest was just sixteen years old. 1 A tragedy such as this could take its toll on a young person, but instead of falling down, Forrest quickly began making a name for himself.

He began by working with his uncle to trade horses and then later moved on to the business of buying and selling slaves and real estate. Forrest became very successful in his businesses and in turn became a very wealthy man. 2

When his home state of Tennessee made the decision to secede from the Union, Nathan Bedford Forrest wasted no time in volunteering as a private soldier. 3 He was well known in the area and moved up the ranks to earn his title of General rather quickly. Forrest was said to have been a fearless man who had no problems taking action quickly and forcefully. He thought of his men as his own flesh and blood and was quick to straighten them out if necessary. 4

The Ku Klux Klan was formed shortly after the Civil War ended and the group, like most groups in the South at the time, were attempting to oppress African Americans by any means necessary. A group

Nathan Bedford Forrest: The Man Behind the Mask

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By Celina Resendez

such as this would need a leader who was not afraid to take charge and execute direction. It would appear the position of Grand Wizard for the Ku Klux Klan was a perfect fit for Forrest. Not only did Forrest have leadership and fighting experience but he was a former slave owner who had, very early on, made it his business to buy and sell slaves and had become very wealthy in the process. The Klan was still in its infancy when Forrest took position as the first Grand Wizard in 1867. However, this title would be short lived for Forrest as he decided to separate himself from the Klan in their early years after realizing the Klan was growing at a rapid rate and his authority would very soon no longer reign supreme. 5

The Ku Klux Klan would spend many years using different tactics to intimidate and oppress African Americans in the United States. It was not until Congress passed and began to carry out the Enforcement Acts that many of the activities carried out by the Klan finally began to decline. The Acts

were put in place to help protect the rights of African Americans and hold all parties responsible who were caught attempting oppression. 6 Although Nathan Bedford Forrest only spent a short period of time with the Ku Klux Klan, it is possible that his popularity in the area allowed the organization to rise quickly and spread throughout the South.

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WORKS CITED

1. Jac Weller, “The Logistics of Nathan Bedford Forrest,” Military Affairs 17, no. 4 (1953): 162.

2. Weller, (1953): 162.

3. Richard Tillinghast, “Nathan Bedford Forrest: Born to Fight.” Sewanee Review 123, no. 4 (Fall 2015): 605

4. Weller, (1953): 169.

5. Court Carney, “The Contested Image of Nathan Bedford Forrest.” The Journal of Southern History 67, no. 3 (2001): 603.

6. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past Volume 2, 15 edition. (McGraw-Hill Education, 2014): 414.

Statue of Confederate Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest in Memphis, Tennessee

| Courtesy of flickr.com

During the first millennium BCE, warfare with neighboring civilizations was a constant possibility. The only way a society would be safe would be by having an advantage over its attackers. The Assyrians found that advantage in the new technology of iron weapons. The Assyrian empire reached its height between the ninth and seventh centuries B.C.E., and although it would be in constant war with their various rivals, which included the Babylonians, Egyptians, and the Hittites, their military was much better equipped.1

By 800 B.C.E., the Assyrian army was ruthlessly conquering other territories with their use of iron weaponry, which was superior to the brittle bronze weapons that were still being used at the time. They adopted the Hittite’s technique of smelting iron and were the first to incorporate it in their variety of weapons. The process used

involved extracting oxygen from metal ore using charcoal, leaving just the metal alone.2 Most of the iron produced at that time was used for making weapons for both short and long range, as well as armor for protection.

The short ranged weapons included iron swords, daggers, javelins, and spears.3 Iron swords were used for close combat and they gave the Assyrians a great advantage. Unlike their bronze sword counterparts, iron swords suffered less damage, and if bent, they were able to return to their original shape. The daggers were also sturdier and were used commonly on enemies. They were carefully crafted and modeled like combat knives, which were highly valued.4 The next two weapons are considered mid-ranged since they could be thrown if need be. Both spears and javelins were long pointed sticks. The spear was usually a wooden shaft with an iron spearhead

The Usage of Iron for Assyrian Weaponry

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By Diana Moreno-Gutierrez

and usually measured around five feet. They were used on opponents themselves, while the javelins were used to break their opponents’ shields or puncture their armor.

Other forms of weaponry included those that were long ranged. One of the two main long ranged weapons included the sling. A strong army included specialist slingers who could aim a sling bullet to fire up to 1300 feet.5 It was very practical due to its cheap production cost and lightweight structure. Many soldiers were stationed at a hill fort, and with these iron slings they were able to aim their slings better. The other weapon was the bow, which either used iron tipped arrows or flaming arrows, and they had a range of up to 700 yards.6

Finally, the Assyrian army used three main iron shields, all of which were superior to previous models that had been made of either bronze or wood. The most common shield was the round shield, which could sometimes contain embedded spikes. Another shield was the convex shield, which was similar to a rectangle in shape and could also include spikes to be used as a weapon if need be. Lastly, the conical shield, like its name, was cone-like in shape. 7

Due largely to the fact that the Assyrians

were the first to incorporate iron into their daily lives, they were able to build a powerful army. Assyria is remembered for its strong military, improvements in weaponry, and numerous conquests, all of which would not have been made possible without the cheap yet efficient use of iron.

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WORKS CITED1. John Marriott and Karen Radner, “Sustaining the

Assyrian Army Among Friends and Enemies in 714 BCE,” Journal Of Cuneiform Studies 67 (2015): 129.

2. A. J. Arkell, “The Iron Age in the Sudan,” Current Anthropology 7, no. 4 (1966): 451-52.

3. Mark Healy and Angus McBride, The Ancient Assyrians (London: Osprey, 1991), 12.

4. Vagn Fabritius Buchwald, Iron and Steel in Ancient Times (Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 2005), 63-65.

5. Salem Press Encyclopedia, January 2016, s.v. “Clubs, maces, and slings.” by Scott M. Rusch.

6. Salem Press Encyclopedia, January 2015, s.v. “War and Weapons in the Ancient World,” by Wilton Eckley.

7. A. J. Arkell, “The Iron Age in the Sudan,” Current Anthropology 7, no. 4 (1966): 451-52.

King Ashurbanipal, who was a powerful Assyrian King, is pictured on his horse with a strong iron bow and arrow, which helped the Assyrians defeat many rival

armies | Courtesy of realmofhistory.com

The human species that today makes astounding advances in technology, and particularly in the medical field, did not exist four million years ago. In fact, hominids of that period were very different from the modern species in many ways. How did humans evolve to become today’s humans? How did Homo sapiens become so innovative? For one, they developed favorable qualities that were essential for adaptation and a thriving existence.

Homo sapiens derived from a form of early humans called Neanderthal. Unlike modern humans, characteristics of the Neanderthal included occipital buns and protruded brow ridges.1 One important facial feature of the Neanderthal was their large nose for “humidifying and warming cold, dry air” before it reached the lungs.2 Modern humans do not have this characteristic due to the fact that the Neanderthals lived in much harsher conditions. Thanks to the work of archaeologists and anthropologists, we know a great deal about the life and world of Neanderthals. The first fossils of these humans were found in France, and scholars have since called these humans Cro-Magnon. They created innovative tools from bones

and antlers for hunting. This enabled them to survive and thrive in their environment. They even created artwork “in the form of decorated tools, beads, ivory carvings of humans and animals, clay figurines, musical instruments, and cave paintings.”3

Homo sapiens originated from East Africa. From there homo sapiens have migrated to all of earth’s main land masses. By taking advantage of land bridges, they have spread to Indonesia, New Guinea, Australia, and the Americas. Another contributing factor to the spreading of humans was the recent major Ice Age. The freezing of the oceans’ waters around the polar caps lowered the sea level, which exposed land bridges between land masses that were otherwise under water. For example, the connection between Calabria and Sicily had a sea level around -126 meters.4 They were able to adapt to the different environments due to their larger brain capacities, hence more intelligence. Having the knowledge that they had, they were able to create warm clothes and shelters to survive under various harsh conditions in the regions they occupied. Since they were nomadic people, there was no economic prosperity during the

The Race of the Human Race

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By Soki Salazar

Paleolithic era. This was due to the fact that they never inhabited an area for a long duration of time. They were foragers; they scrapped up whatever they could find for survival, so there was no time period in which they could accumulate wealth. With that being said, that meant that there were no social classes. Instead, they lived an egalitarian lifestyle. While the men hunted, the women gathered. This method sustained their existence until the Neolithic Revolution, which domesticated both plants and animals.

The evolution of earlier hominids to Homo sapiens opened the door to a species capable of more advanced thinking about their surroundings and survival. The human race has since continued to thrive to the present. Without their innovative tools, body structures, and eventually domestication of plants and animals, Homo sapiens would not have been able to produce the advancements in technology and sciences that we have available today.

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WORKS CITED

1. Markus Bastir, Paul O’Higgins, and Antonio Rosas, “Facial Ontogeny in Neanderthals and Modern Humans,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274, no. 1614 (May 7, 2007): 1125–32.

2. Todd C. Rae, Thomas Koppe, and Chris B. Stringer, “The Neanderthal Face Is Not Cold Adapted,” Journal of Human Evolution 60, no. 2 (February 2011): 234–239.

3. “Evolution: Humans: Origins of Humankind.” Accessed September 10, 2016. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/humans/humankind/o.html.

4. Fabrizio Antonioli, V. Lo Presti, M. G. Morticelli, M. A. Mannino, Kurt Lambeck, Luigi Ferranti, Catriona Bonfiglioli, et al., “The Land Bridge between Europe and Sicily over the Past 40 Kyrs: Timing of Emersion and Implications for the Migration of Homo Sapiens,” Rendiconti Online Societa Geologica Italiana, 2012. https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/71477.

Magdalenian cave painting of a bison in Altamira, Spain | Courtesy of Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

Queen B said it best when she sang the infamous line, “Who run the world? Girls.”1 When looking back to history, men are seen as better and treated better than women. A long time ago, in ancient Egypt, women of the royal family served as guides to young male rulers. But there was one unconventional case where a woman defied the odds and obtained the role of pharaoh.

Queen Hatshepsut was the oldest daughter of Thutmose and his Great Royal Wife, Queen Ahmose. Thutmose, like most males who held power during those times, had another wife with whom he had a son. His name was Thutmose II; when he was at the age of eight and Hatshepsut was thirteen, they were wed, despite the fact of their shared blood line. When their father passed, Thutmose II assumed the position of pharaoh. While he was pharaoh, they birthed a daughter, but every male in power needs a male heir. Since she was unable to produce a son, he and a minor

wife, Iris, conceived a son who became Thutmose III. Thutmose II and Hatshepsut reigned in Egypt until his death. The next male in line was Thutmose III, but Hatshepsut’s step child was too young to fulfill the position of pharaoh, so she ruled in his stead. On that note, even when he did become old enough to rule, she refused to turn over the power to him, and she remained in power. That is when she began her transition from Queen Hatshepsut to Pharaoh Hatshepsut.2

The Queen herself had a headdress made that included a beard and some male characteristics.3 She did not go out of her way to keep her gender a secret, for she did include feminine touches to her attire. Masculinity of course was respected more and was associated with power, which is why she sometimes took on such characteristics. Despite being a female ruler, at that time (and still today) people would not expect such a flourishing reign. Beginning in

“She’s the Man”: The Reign of Queen Hatshepsut

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By Soki Salazar

1473 B.C.E. and ending in 1458 B.C.E., under her control wealth was accumulated. When it came to the protection of Egypt, she engaged in successful warfare against her invaders. She also had an extensive building program in which a temple of devotion to their sun god, Amun, was erected. Prosperity and wealth also came about because she sent ships on expeditions to foreign lands to obtain riches. These included ivory, ebony, gold, and trees. Now, why would they bring back trees? Whenever they had temple ceremonies, trees would be burned by the tons for fragrant incense.4

All good things must come to an end, and this particular ending is death. After she died, successors attempted to erase the fact that a female had become pharaoh.5 Even with this attempt to erase history, she is still known as a successful pharaoh to this day. She brought about protection, prosperity, and plenitude during her time as king. She did not serve as a guide to a young male pharaoh, but she showed how one must rule during her reign.

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WORKS CITED

1. Beyoncé, “Run the World (Girls),” in 4, Columbia Records, 2011.

2. Ann Macy Roth, “Models of Authority: Hatshepsut’s Predecessors in Power,” in Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh, ed. Catharine H. Roehrig, Renee Dreyfus, and Cathleen A. Keller (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005), 10.

3. Roth, “Models of Authority: Hatshepsut’s Predecessors in Power,” 10.

4. Rupert Matthews, DK Eyewitness Books: Explorer (DK Publishing, 2012), 8.

5. Angela Murock Hussein, “Legacy of a Female Pharaoh,” Calliope 19, no. 1 (September 2008): 48.

The Temple of Karnakat Luxor built under Hatshpsut’s reign dedicated to the sun god, Amur | Courtesy of World History Encyclopedia

There are numerous significant events that stand out from the era of discovery of the Americas. One event in particular is Hernando Cortés and his group of six hundred men conquering the Aztec Empire. One might ask how this conquest was possible? How was a small number of men able to conquer an entire empire? One factor that contributed to the Spanish conquest was the disease smallpox; however, there was another variable as well. The Aztec emperor Montezuma mistakenly believed Cortés to be Quetzalcoatl, an all powerful Aztec god who had promised one day to return to his people.1 So who was this supposed almighty god and why was Cortés believed to be him?

Quetzalcoatl, though most famously known for his relation to the Aztec religion, was actually acknowledged long before the Aztec civilization. Quetzalcoatl’s believers stretched all over Mesoamerica after the fall of Teotihuacan.2 Teotihuacan was a

prehistoric city located in Central Mexico. The city arose around the first or second century BCE and fell around the 600s or 700s.3 The information regarding the civilization residing inside of Teotihuacan is still not fully known due to outside elements such as weather and other tribes who may have resided or passed through the area. The exact reason for the destruction of the city is still unknown. Although, archaeologists speculate the downfall was caused by a rapid decline in population.4 In accordance with Aztec legend, Quetzalcoatl had traveled from the east and elevated the Aztec empire by teaching them how to grow crops, develop architectural structures, and create tools with medal. He also helped construct the Aztec calendar. When an unknown rival tribe had surfaced, they drove Quetzalcoatl away. Before he left, Quetzalcoatl promised one day to return and save his oppressed people.5 Quetzalcoatl’s deity is represented as a feathered serpent.6 He was understood to be the god of learning and the patron

Quetzalcoatl and his Influence on the Aztec Empire

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By Mia Diaz

of priests.7 Quetzalcoatl’s forthcoming was suspected to be around the same time as Cortés’ arrival.8

Scholars have attained an impressive amount of knowledge from ancient Aztec documents. According to their discoveries, the Aztecs proclaimed various omens of warning, which occurred just before the arrival of the conquistadors. Such omens included: an unusual amount of stars and comets in the sky, a sacred temple caught on fire, and the water on the lakes and rivers seeming to boil. All of these signs and the belief in the soon return of their god Quetzalcoatl, made it easy for the Aztecs to presume that Cortés was their long awaited god. Upon Cortés’ arrival, he was greeted with jewels and an assortment of gifts. When Cortés soon realized who the Aztecs deemed him to be and the influence his mistaken identity could produce, he was quick to use this opportunity to gain Montezuma’s trust, knowledge, resources, material objects, and even his fear. With their own emperor in a state of dismay, the rest of the Aztec people arose in a state of hysteria. This made it possible for Cortés and his men to manipulate the Aztecs, and profit from them what they wanted while they could. Eventually, Montezuma’s mistake led to the conquest of his entire empire.9

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WORKS CITED

1. Beyoncé, “Run the World (Girls),” in 4, Columbia Records, 2011.

2. Ann Macy Roth, “Models of Authority: Hatshepsut’s Predecessors in Power,” in Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh, ed. Catharine H. Roehrig, Renee Dreyfus, and Cathleen A. Keller (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005), 10.

3. Roth, “Models of Authority: Hatshepsut’s Predecessors in Power,” 10.

4. Rupert Matthews, DK Eyewitness Books: Explorer (DK Publishing, 2012), 8.

5. Angela Murock Hussein, “Legacy of a Female

Pharaoh,” Calliope 19, no. 1 (September 2008): 48.

6. Michael E. Smith, “Aztec Culture: An Overview” (Arizona State University, 2006), http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/1-CompleteSet/Smith-AztecCulture-WWW.pdf, 5.

7. Michael E. Smith, “Aztecs,” 563.

8. Sara E. Cohen, “How the Aztecs Praised Montezuma,” 24-26.

9. Sara E. Cohen, “How the Aztecs Praised Montezuma,” 24-26.

Image of a serpent stone outside The Temple Quetzalcoatl in Central Mexico | Courtesy of dreamstime

Who was Flavius Josephus? Some would say a moderate, others might say he was a traitor to the Jewish people. Upon examination, the lines between the two become blurred. Josephus was born Josephus ben Matthias in the year 37 CE to a lineage that he claimed was of priestly Judaic origin. So why do so many now refer to him as Flavius Josephus? Why did he bear the first name of a Roman emperor? It appears that Josephus’ identity was much more complex than being simply a Roman or a Jew.

In Josephus’ autobiography, he did not hesitate to sing the praises of his own accomplishments and nobility. He said of himself in his introductory paragraphs that “he was commended by all for his passion for learning,” and that even the high priests themselves would come to ask for his teaching on Judaic law at the mere age of fourteen. 1 According to Josephus, his desire to learn did not end there. At the age of sixteen, Josephus began to study the three major sects of Judaism (the Sadducees, the Pharisees, and the Essenes) in order to become contented with one of the three sect’s philosophies and customs.

However, Josephus found himself contented with none of them, but rather was drawn into the Judean desert by a man named Banus.

Banus was an ascetic Jewish philosopher who wandered the desert wearing clothing fashioned from the leaves of plants. He ate nothing but that which he acquired by foraging, bathed with cold water, and preserved his chastity. For reasons not offered by Josephus, he became attracted to Banus’s way of life, and so followed Banus in his ways for three years.2

Upon his return to Jerusalem from the desert, what Josephus began to do exactly has been disputed, at least in the particulars. Some have interpreted his autobiography, The Life of Flavius Josephus, as saying he became a Pharisee, while other scholars, such as Steve Mason, interpret the language simply as meaning that he lived among the Pharisees and worked for them.3 Despite disagreement, it is clear that Josephus was at least allied closely with many of the Pharisees.

Flavius Josephus: Hellenized Moderate or Traitor to the Jews?

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By Christopher Repka

Indeed, at age twenty-six, Josephus sailed by ship to Rome to request the release of some priestly acquaintances. According to Josephus, his friends were put into captivity for insignificant causes. On his voyage by sea, however, Josephus reported his first scrape against the threat of death; the ship he was on, holding some six-hundred men, sunk at sea. Josephus survived and was saved, along with around eighty other men, by a friendly ship. They were taken to the Italian city of Puteoli, where he met with his acquaintance, and friend of Emperor Nero, Aliturius. Fortunately, since Aliturius was a friend of Nero’s and his wife, Poppea, Aliturius was able to acquaint Josephus with Poppea, who became so charmed by Josephus that she freed his fellow Pharisees from captivity.4 Thus, Josephus had established himself as a mediator for the Jews to the Romans.

But when Josephus arrived back in Judea from Puteoli, rumors were spreading quickly of the Jews’ desire to revolt against the Romans. At hearing such thoughts, Josephus scolded the supporters of insurrection. Meanwhile, the Syrians, then under the authority of the Romans, were appalled by such a speculation, and they lashed out against the Jews violently. That being said, the Jews were forced to defend themselves against the governing powers.5

When the Jews were victorious in the first counter-assault against the Romans, they were excited by their victory, and thought that they could defeat and conquer the Romans. Around 66 CE, the Jewish Zealots began building up their armed forces in preparation for war. Though Josephus thought this was foolish, he hesitantly accepted his appointment as a commander in Galilee and began fortifying the cities surrounding Galilee. But Josephus eventually met his defeat at the hand of Vespasian, the Roman General, and was captured in the aftermath of the battle for Jotapata.6

Josephus and his troops, who had taken refuge in a cave, were discovered by the Romans. According to Josephus’ History of the Jewish War, Josephus had

a close acquaintance under the dictate of Vespasian, who offered clemency from the Romans. However, Josephus was threatened by his Zealot peers that, if he were to take such an offer from the Romans, they, the Zealots, would kill him. But, Josephus argued that there was no reason to die when they could live under the Romans, who offered peace. Josephus’ peers were not convinced, and the only compromise they offered was a pact of collective suicide. It was then decided that, instead of committing suicide, each soldier

would draw lots to determine who was to be killed first and last.7 Curiously, Josephus drew the last lot, and so was left alone with one other, who determined with Josephus that they should take the Roman offer of clemency rather than kill each other.

Thus, Josephus returned to Roman society peacefully, and after correctly predicting that Vespasian would succeed Emperor Nero’s throne, he was granted a special position within the Roman government. A deeply Hellenized Jew, Josephus ben Matthias took the family name of Vespasian and became Flavius Josephus. He wrote many histories, including The Antiquities of the Jews, The Jewish War, and The Life of Flavius Josephus. For some time, Josephus pursued a position as mediator between the Romans and Jews, but due

to the distrust he had earned from both parties, his attempts were never successful.

Criticized deeply both in his own time and after, Josephus lived a life of leadership in an admittedly difficult time. Pressured politically and religiously to choose one side over another, Josephus found himself drawn to the rich meaning of Jewish tradition and philosophy, as well as to the rationalism of Greco-Roman philosophy. Distressed by the radicalism of the Jewish Zealots and desiring the peace and tolerance of the Romans, Josephus was a model for tolerance in a politically, religiously, and socially polarized Empire.

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Bust of Flavius Josephus | From www.flickr.com

1. Flavius Josephus, Life of Flavius Josephus, §2. translated by William Whiston.

2. Josephus, Life of Flavius Josephus, §2.

3. Josephus, The Life of Josephus, §21. translated by Steve Mason; See Introduction, §2

4. Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus, §3.

5. Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 18:1:1:3-10.

6. Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus, §37.

7. Flavius Josephus, “The Wars of the Jews or History of the Destruction of Jerusalem,” in Wars of the Jews 3:8:5.

WORKS CITED

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Today, when most people think of the Ancient Maya, the first connection that is often made is to their intricate calendar system. What most do not know about the Mayan calendar, however, is that there are three of them. These calendars are the secular or political astronomical calendar, the religious or ceremonial calendar, and the long calendar. The secular astronomical calendar, the Haab, is the Mayan calendar most nearly aligned with our modern conventions (the Gregorian Calendar), since it is based upon a cycle of 365 earth days, while the religious calendar, the Tzolk’in, is 260 earth days; and lastly, there is the long count calendar, which cycles every 5,124 cycles of the Haab.1

Like our modern calendar, the secular, or the Haab, calendar is split into three units of measure. The first and smallest measure on the calendar is the k’in, or the day; next is the winal, which closely aligns with the modern conception of months; finally, there is the Haab, or the entire collective calendar year. There are 20 k’in in the winal, and 18 winal in the haab. There are only five days in the 19th winal, constructing a year nearly equivalent to our modernized Gregorian calendar of 365 days. However, the Mayan Haab did not contain the modern convention of weeks or leap years; each of the twenty k’in (days) in the winal (month) had individual names assigned to them.2

The Tzolk’in, the Haab, and the Long Count: An Introduction to the Mayan Calendar SystemsBy Christopher Repka

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While the Mayan Haab calendar was quite accurate to the duration of one earth year, the methods by which the year was calculated were actually quite primitive. By observation, ancient observers of the sky would mark the positions of heavenly bodies with two staves stuck into the ground. The observers were then able to mark and measure the cycles by the time the measured star or planet took to return to its origin. Gradually, over time, temples were built around these staves, forming what appear to be permanent observatories for certain heavenly bodies. For example, at Tikal, one may stand at the top of the Lost World Pyramid and observe the alignment of three seasons with the points of three pyramids in the course of one year.3

The religious calendar, the Tzolk’in, is a cycle that runs independent of the Haab and Long Count calendars. The Tzolk’in consists of thirteen numbered days interlocked with twenty named days that bear the names of Mayan gods.4 In other words, there are no constructions of weeks, or months in the Tzolk’in; since twenty is not evenly divisible by the thirteen numbered days, the names and numbers of the Tzolk’in do not cycle through evenly. Just as Tuesday will not always fall on the 2nd of the month in the modern Gregorian Calendar, the second numbered day will not consistently align with any certain named day of the Tzolk’in. The Tzolk’in has no certain correlation to astronomy, but it is often thought that it was constructed to reflect the birthing cycle, or perhaps even the seasonal growth of corn.5

The Haab and the Tzolk’in both have their origin in the winter solstice. However, because the Tzolk’in is not evenly divisible into three hundred and sixty-five days, it takes fifty-two years for the Haab and the

Tzolk’in to meet again on the winter solstice. This period of fifty-two years is a source of tradition and meaning in Mayan cultures, and it is only when one reached fifty-two years of age that they were thought to be an elder.6

Finally, the Mayan Long Calendar was kept to track the number of days since the Mayan creation date, which was marked as August 11th, 3114 BCE in Mayan creation narratives. The Long Count could be considered to serve the same function as our convention of “A.D.” or “B.C.” It served as the “zero” point from which we are able to count upwards, to provide a linear notion of time. The Long Count calendar takes a format similar to that of the Haab, but is written strictly in numerical format, without any named days or months. The smallest unit of measurement was the Mayan day, or K’in; next came the Winal, which is constructed of 20 k’in; the Tun, which is constructed by 18 Winal; the K’atun, which is the equivalent of 20 Tun; and finally, the Bak’tun, which is the equivalent of 20 K’atun. The notation for the Long Calendar was represented by a format such as 12.19.15.17.7, followed by the present number and day name of the Tzolk’in cycle as well as the number and day name of the Haab cycle. Thus, the full expression of a date would appear something like “12.19.15.17.7 | 7 Manik 10 K’ank’n”, with “Manik” and “K’ank’n” representing the day names of the Tzolk’n and the Haab, respectiviely. 7


Depiction of Mayan Hieroglyphs for the K’in of the Winal. The demarcations beneath numbers 0-19 are the corresponding Mayan numerals | Courtesy of mayancalendar.org

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1. J. Gordon Melton, “Mayan Calendar,” Religions of the World Vol. 4 2nd ed. J. Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann (2010 ABC-CLIO, LLC): 1838-1839.

2. J. Gordon Melton, “Mayan Calendar,” Religions of the World, Vol. 4 2nd ed. J. Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann (2010 ABC-CLIO, LLC): 1838-1839; Mark Van Stone, “The Maya Long Count Calendar: An Introduction,” Archaeoastronomy 24 (June 2011): 8–11.

3. Charles George and Linda George, “Greatest Achievements,” Maya Civilization, ed. Charles George and Linda George (Lucent Books, 2010), 59-61.

4. Mark Van Stone, “The Maya Long Count Calendar: An Introduction,” Archaeoastronomy 24 (June 2011): 8–11.

5. George and George, “Greatest Achievements,” Maya Civilization, 59-61.

6. J. Gordon Melton, “Mayan Calendar,” Religions of the World, Vol. 4 2nd ed. J. Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann (2010 ABC-CLIO, LLC), 1838-1839.

7. Mark Van Stone, “The Maya Long Count Calendar: An Introduction,” Archaeoastronomy 24 (June 2011): 8–11.

WORKS CITED

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In 1493, on his second voyage to the Americas, Christopher Columbus discovered Puerto Rico, an island that he named San Juan Bautista. On his first trip, Columbus, as we know, discovered La Española (Hispaniola), which is today the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. In a failed attempt to reach La Española on his second trip, Columbus landed on Puerto Rico, where he was received by the Taíno Indians, who were of the same ethnic group as the people of La Española and the other islands in the Caribbean.1

Months after reaching the Island, the Spaniards started the process of colonizing the Taíno Indians, led by Juan Ponce De Leon, who was one of the conquistadors that came with Columbus. Later, in

1508, De Leon became the first governor of San Juan Bautista. During this process of colonization, the Taíno Indians did not show resistance because they believed the Spaniards were gods. The reason they saw the Spaniards as gods was because there had been a Taíno legend that spoke of a time when gods were going to rise from the water to give salvation to the Taíno. This legend facilitated the process of colonization for the Spaniards, since they did not encounter any native resistance. Within a short time they had created villages and colonies. By the beginning of the 1500’s, the Taíno natives were working in gold mines and plantations. In 1514, the Taíno decided to take matters into their own hands and rebel against their Spanish overlords. What resulted was one of the most brutal genocides in Latin American history. More than 25,000

Christopher Columbus and The Discovery of Puerto Rico

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By Andres Palacios

Taíno Indians were murdered by the Spaniards on the Island of San Juan Bautista. This means that 85-90% of their population had been killed at the hands of the Spaniards. After the rebellion, the Spaniards noticed that the natives that had survived were not enough to fulfill their labor requirements. They decided to search for a new work force.2

After the massacre of 1514, the Spaniards noticed that they needed a new “work force,” as they called their slaves; so in 1518 they started importing African slaves from the Gulf of Guinea. The slaves started to reach the island later that year, and became the new “work force” of the Spaniards along with the small number of Taíno Indians that had survived the massacre. This caused more problems, since the Spaniards and the Africans brought a variety of diseases to the Island, such as small-pox and measles. Approximately two million Taíno Indians that lived on the islands of the Caribbean died from these diseases. By the late 1500’s there were no more Taíno Indians left on the island of San Juan Bautista; only the children of those who intermarried with the Spaniards and Africans survived. Of course, the Taíno, Africans, and Spaniards intermarried through time, and this is why Puerto Ricans today have such a diverse racial heritage; but the original Taíno racial group became extinct by around 1600. By that time the island of San Juan Bautista had become one of the most important colonies in the Caribbean. The Spaniards now had a way to export their products to the rest of the Caribbean and Latin America through this island, giving them an economical advantage. In less than thirty years the Spaniards took the Taíno land, men, women, and children, and virtually erased a whole population from the face of the earth. Most people consider Christopher Columbus as one of the greatest explorer to ever live, and as a hero of sorts, but have they taken into consideration the many civilizations in the Americas that have been affected by him? Not only the Taíno population, but also the Aztecs, the Incas, and many other societies throughout the Americas were affected significantly by this Columbian moment in history.3

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1. Roberto Marquez, “Sojourners, Settlers, castaways and creators: A recollection of Puerto Rico past and Puerto Rico present,” Massachusetts Review 36, no. 1 (1995): 94.

2. Robert M. Poole, “What Became Of The Taíno?” Smithsonian 42, no. 6 (October 2011): 58.

3. Byron Cannon, “West Indian Uprisings,” Salem Press Encyclopedia (January 2016): 583-586.

WORKS CITED

In the media today, every public figure is being scrutinized through a magnifying glass. People are openly, and at times brutally, expressing their opinions about celebrities, athletes, and especially politicians. Now imagine if every reporter, journalist, or even just an ordinary citizen was arrested for publishing either images or written words that were deemed harmful to the reputation of a public figure. Today we have legal guarantees permitting us the freedom to speak freely about our opinions; it is called the first amendment to the Constitution, giving us the freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, and petition. During the eighteenth century, however, this liberty was not yet established. Instead, this act was called libel, when an individual published untruthful or harmful opinions about government officials. John Peter Zenger spoke

truth to power, and thereby he fought for the right of expression through written formation, particularly when the opinions and concerns of writers have a truthful undertone.

John Peter Zenger was born in 1697 in Impflingen, in the Palatinate land in Germany. In 1710, at the age of thirteen, John and his family immigrated to English America. They began their new lives in New York. When John turned fourteen, he began an apprenticeship with William Bradford, a royal printer in the New York colony. In 1719, upon the completion of his apprenticeship, Zenger moved to Maryland for a few years only to return to New York in 1725. The same year of his return to New York, Zenger became partners with his former mentor. The following year,

John Peter Zenger: One Man’s Struggle for Free Press

37 ARTICLES

By Mia Diaz

John was able to establish his own printing business. His establishment was prospering by 1730. John’s company printed the first arithmetic textbook to be published throughout the colonies. Continuing his success, Zenger developed a newspaper in 1733 called the New York Weekly Journal.1

While Zenger was building and flourishing a successful business, New York was experiencing some political confrontations. The king of England had recently appointed William Cosby to be the new governor of New York. Cosby was a vicious leader who constantly abused his position for personal gain. He cared more about wealth than prospering the colony. Cosby sued the former acting governor, Rip Van Dam, for refusing to give him half of his salary, which he obtained while he was in office. When the case was sent to the provincial Supreme Court, chief justice Lewis Morris ruled against Cosby. In a spiteful act of retaliation, Cosby then went on to fire Morris. Afterwards, Morris and many other anti-Cosby supporters desperately wanted to reveal Cosby’s true nature to the colony. He was able to form allies with

attorneys James Alexander, William Smith, Sr., and other influential political figures within New York, to establish a strong foundation of protesters to rally against Cosby and the following he was able to obtain within the administration. In order to obtain a stronger following and reach the general public, Morris and his fellow anti-Cosby supporters came up with the idea to reach the members of the colony through the printed press. However, no one would dare publish anything without the approval of local executives in fear of being accused of seditious libel.2 This is how Zenger

became injected into the situation. Morris, along with the influence of his supporters, convinced Zenger to use his newspaper in an ongoing attempt to expose Cosby’s true character. Zenger willingly joined the cause. He allowed Morris and his following to write anonymous articles regarding Cosby and the need for liberty. James Alexander was responsible for editing all of the articles, and then Zenger would publish them into his newspaper. Zenger’s first issue of his newspaper was published on November 5, 1733.3 The

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Burning of Zenger’s newspaper | New York | Courtesy of The New York Digital Collections

Front page of the New York Weekly Journal discussing freedom of press | Courtesy of Credo Images

articles from the paper aggressively attacked Cosby for his actions regarding the Van Dam incident. They scorned his political decisions, questioned all of his judgments, claiming them to be rash and irresponsible, and overall denounced his character. Despite the main focus of the paper focusing on removing Cosby as their governor, they also promoted the rights and liberties of what they believed belonged to a “true Englishmen.”4

When the news of the content of Zenger’s newspaper spread, Cosby was informed of the allegations being printed against him, and became outraged by these attacks. After two failed attempts to have Zenger indicted for seditious libel, Cosby ordered the town sheriff to deliver a court order requiring some of Zenger’s newspaper articles to be burned. The order read,

Whereas by an order of this Council some of John Peter Zenger’s journals, entitled The New York Weekly Journal, Nos. 7, 47, 48, 49, were ordered to be burned by the hands of the common hangman or whipper near the pillory in this city on Wednesday the 6th [1734] between the hours of 11 and 12 in the forenoon, as containing in them many things tending to sedition and faction, to bring His Majesty’s government into contempt, and to disturb the peace thereof, and containing in them likewise not only reflections upon His Excellency the Governor in particular, and the legislature in general, but also upon the most considerable persons in the most distinguished stations in this Province.5

Eleven days later, Cosby was finally able to have Zenger arrested for the charge of seditious libel. Zenger’s bail was set for eight hundred pounds, which is equivalent to $128,000 in American currency today. Cosby was hopeful the arrest would force Zenger to reveal his sources. Unfortunately for Cosby, Zenger remained silent and refused to reveal the true authors behind the articles he published. Unable to pay his bail, Zenger spent ninety days in jail until his trial

date on August 4th, 1735.6

Originally, Zenger was going to be represented by fellow anti-Cosby supporters, James Alexander and William Smith Sr. Although their designated legal

team did not remain in place as hoped, Justice James De Lancey, an ally of Cosby, had both Alexander and Smith Sr. disbarred.7 Fortunately for Zenger, he was able to be represented by the well-known American colonial lawyer Andrew Hamilton. He was born in Scotland, and came to the United States around 1700. Hamilton settled in Virginia and later in Philadelphia, where he practiced law. In 1717, he was appointed the attorney general of Pennsylvania. Hamilton served in the provincial assembly and was speaker of the house from 1727 to 1739. He was also responsible for choosing the site and general design of the Pennsylvania State House, later known as Independence Hall. Despite Hamilton’s impressive reputation, he became known for his work on the Zenger case. Hamilton’s unique approach

and main defense for the case was in proving that the publications of articles with

truthful content cannot be considered libelous.8

In Hamilton’s opening argument he stated, “I cannot think it proper for me to deny the Publication of a Complaint, which I think is the right of every freeborn subject to make when the matters so published can be supported with truth.”9 Hamilton went on by reiterating the difference between truth and false libel. He declared that libel must be both harmful and false. He explained to the jurors that if they found Zenger guilty of this charge, they would be implying that truth is a greater sin than lying. In a strong final statement, Hamilton argued, “[This case] is not the cause of one poor printer, of New York alone, which you are now trying. No!… It is the cause of liberty.”10 It was not long after the conclusion of the trial, that the jury returned with a not guilty verdict.11

The case against John Peter Zenger established


The Trial of John Peter Zenger | New York | Courtesy of Credo

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more than just a precedent for the freedom of the press; it also proved that it is possible for people to fight against unjust rulers as well as fight for liberty. Zenger passed away forty-five years before the first amendment was ratified, instilling freedom of the press into the Constitution. Although he was not alive to witness the ratification of the Bill of Rights, he was one of the brave souls who helped begin the up hill battle that allowed Americans to receive these liberties.

1. Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. “Zenger, John Peter,” 1.

2. American National Biography (from Oxford University Press), 2010, s.v. “William Cosby,” by Robert E. Cray

3. John Thomas Lee, “The First Edition of the Zenger Trial, 1736,” Wisconsin Historical Society (September 1917): 4.

4. American National Biography (from Oxford University Press), 2010, s.v. “William Cosby,” by Robert E. Cray.

5. “Trial of John Peter Zenger for libel,” Trial Of John Peter Zenger For Libel (January 10, 2009): 80. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost (21213343).

6. Vincent Buranelli, “Peter Zenger’s Editor,” American Quarterly, 7, no. 2 (1955): 5–9.

7. American National Biography (from Oxford University Press), 2010, s.v. “William Cosby,” by Robert E. Cray.

8. Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. “Hamilton, Andrew.”



11. Harold L. Nelson, “Seditious Libel in Colonial America,” The American Journal of Legal History, 3, no. 2 (April 1959): 1.

WORKS CITED


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After watching the current events of this 2016 election, the American people can agree as a whole that this Presidential race has been significantly different than ones we have seen before. The two candidates take and give personal blows to each other, and the electorate watches as what seems as the most personal election in recent history. With careful consideration of previous American Presidential Elections, one might be reminded of another election just as personal, maybe even more so, than our current one. The Election of 1800, or as Thomas Jefferson put it: the “Revolution of 1800.”1

This gruesome election was between Federalist and incumbent John Adams with his running mate Charles C. Pinckney and Democratic-Republican and principal author of the Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson with his running mate Aaron Burr. In this story we have an interesting cast of characters,

all of which are very prominent figures in the history of the early Republic. The men involved had intricate personal relationships that acted as a catalyst in the crucible that would become the Election of 1800.

All men involved came from some form of political or military merit. John Adams was a prominent voice in declaring America’s Independence. Thomas Jefferson had been the United States Minister to France (he had spent a majority of the war and its aftermath in France). Aaron Burr had been a colonel in the Continental Army. Most of the men were quite fond of each other due to the fact that they had worked with each other before, although all had one thing in common: their distaste for Alexander Hamilton, Chief de Aide for General George Washington during the Revolutionary War and Senior Officer in the Continental Army. Hamilton was a stubborn man. Years before the election Hamilton had attempted

Jefferson, Adams, and the “Revolution” of 1800

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By Roberto Tijerina

to destroy Adams in his Adams’ Pamphlet, 2. He continuously bashed heads with Jefferson, while both he and Jefferson served in George Washington’s Presidential Cabinet in the early 1790s; and Hamilton was very vocal in his distaste of Aaron Burr.

At the beginning of the race, much of the American population was not too fond of President Adams’s Administration. With the implementation of the highly unpopular Alien and Sedition Acts, which was an act of law signed by Adams himself in 1798 that allowed the deportation of foreigners, the Federalist party itself seemed to fall apart. Only some truly supported Adams. With the relative unity of the Democratic-Republican Party and the particular favoritism of Jefferson in the South and Aaron Burr in New York, the Federalists feared that their opponents would win the presidency. In November of 1800 the election began, and as the ballots came in, the results only surprised a few. Adams received sixty-five votes while Jefferson received seventy-three. The election seemed to have been won, but something went wrong. The members of the electoral college failed to hold back one of their votes for Burr, which caused a vote count tie of seventy-three votes for each Jefferson and Burr, and thus propelled the two into a one on one race for presidency. 3

Alexander Hamilton, seeing both of his enemies wi th the potential to become president, felt himself in a sticky situation. Adams seeing this, laughed at Hamilton, saying,“The very man—the very two men—of all the world that he was most jealous of are now placed above him.”4 Hamilton had to put his pride aside and place his support behind one of these men for the betterment of the country.

Aaron Burr, being Jefferson’s running mate, was also put in an uncomfortable situation. He came into the race as just a Vice Presidential candidate; now he had to go against Jefferson for the presidential seat. Most people believed that Burr should just give Jefferson the position, even if Burr might have won by a landslide in the coming vote in the House, where the tie would be decided. This was not Burr’s intention. After being Jefferson’s running mate in the previous election, the Election of 1796, Burr had been left with a bitter taste in his mouth after Jefferson himself won the Vice Presidency and left him with nothing in fourth place. Burr even went so far as to say “As to my Jeff, what happened at the last election (Et tu

Brute!).” 5 Burr was in it to win it.

Now that Adams, the Federalist Presidential Nominee, was out of the picture, the Federalists were in a scattered frenzy over whom they should pick: Jefferson or Burr. Most contemplated giving their votes to Burr due to the fact that most Federalists saw Jefferson as unfit to run for such an office, or as Robert G. Harper, a Federalist, put it: Jefferson was possibly able to be “a professor in a college or a president of a philosophy society,” but definitely not the head of our nation. 6 Others that were in favor of Jefferson were known to be quite violent in their advocacy, some even stating that if Burr were elected in place of Jefferson “we will march and dethrone him as an usurper.” 7

Finally, in February of 1801, the voting went to the House of Representatives. All sixteen states were allowed a single vote, and the winner only needed a majority of nine votes. The voting went on for five days. Tensions rose, state militas threatened to rise if a president was not elected. The House went through thirty-five votes, and each time they reached the same result: a tie. Then men grew restless and began to seek out an easy way out, and this is when Hamilton seized any opportunity he could to write to each of

his Federalists colleagues in the electoral college to either withdraw their vote or place it for Jefferson.

James A. Bayard, a Federal i s t from Delaware, began to listen to Hamilton’s plea. For all thirty-five previous votes, Bayard had voted for Burr, but after reading

Hamilton’s letters, Bayard began to weaken his

support for Burr. Finally on the thirty-sixth vote, Bayard inserted a blank vote and abstained Delaware’s vote. At the same time two other representatives gave in as well and also withdrew their votes, allowing Jefferson to win ten votes, and thus win the presidency.

The general confusion of the Election of 1800 led the next Congress to pass the Twelfth Amendment, which revised the way the electoral college elected the President and Vice President. In addition to the passing of the Twelfth Amendment, personal feuds came to fruition after Burr’s lost. Burr believed Hamilton was the greatest impediment in his path for success and challenged him to a duel. In 1804, both left to New Jersey and Burr shot down Hamilton.

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(From Left to Right: Adams, Hamilton, Burr, Jefferson) | Courtesy of historynewsnetwork.org


1. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past. Volume 1: to 1865 (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2015), 177.

2. Ron Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (New York : Penguin Press, 2004), 619.

3. Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 178.

4. Chernow, Alexander Hamilton, 632.




WORKS CITED

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Why would adults in Salem, Massachusetts in the 1690s take the accusations of nine year old girls seriously? During the seventeenth century, New England had grown diverse. The people living in the communities were of different backgrounds. But in the 1690’s there was an apparent outbreak of witchcraft. The most famous of these outbreaks was the event in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692 that stirred up the Salem community and soon spread to other communities.

The widespread hysteria over witches was all over the town after an accusation of witchcraft was made in January 1692. A group of young adolescent girls met in the home of Samuel Parris, a Puritan pastor in Salem. The pastor had a nine year old daughter, Betty. Betty and her cousin Abigail were fascinated by the voodoo tales and tricks told to them by the family slave. The family slave, Tituba, was the one whom the little girls had sought after for entertainment.1 It was not long after their time spent with Tituba, when the girls began to behave strangely; seeing visions, babbling at times, and lapsing into trances. The Puritans thought

that these behaviors were of witchcraft, as the work of the devil. People in Salem began believing the girls, and charged Tituba and two other village women for practicing witchcraft on them. Two men, John Hathorne and Johnathan Corwin of Massachusetts, were called to do a legal examination of the women. The Puritans followed the Old Testament law. This was how they assessed the examinations. Scripture had a statement that said witches were not able to live. The two men knew exactly what they had to do. The examination was done on these women of Salem by looking for a certain mark on the body: a wart or tit. This specific mark was said to be the place where the devil and his demons would take blood out of the witch.2 Many of the women accused were of lower status in the community.

Research shows most of the accused witches were middle-aged women, widowed, with few or no children. Also, if the woman had been involved with domestic conflicts, they were accused. The women were accused of crimes and appeared to be dangerous

Witches: The Hocus Pocus in SalemBy Oscar Sepulveda

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by their neighbors. Women in Salem who inherited or possessed land were also accused of witchcraft.3 The accusations towards these women were out of the ordinary and seemingly wrong. One must first think about the view of women during this time. They were undermined and portrayed as having no power or knowledge of such things; they were subservient to the men in the community. Not only were low class women accused of witchcraft, but as time passed, superior women were accused as well.4

On October 29th, the Salem Witch Trials were called to an end. Governor Phips dismissed the Court and that marked the end to the witch hunt craze. Many were disappointed about the ending of the trials, but many were glad to return to work.5 The community in Salem blamed Pastor Parris for letting the innocent die. The people of the Salem church also voted to void his salary. In the following years, those family members of the deceased were restored their good names. The families were awarded a compensation

for all the financial loses they went through during such tragic times. Increase Mather, a pastor of the Boston Puritan Church, wanted the people to do away

with the court because he believed they put innocent people to death.

The Witch trials took on an important role in American History. The trials became a tragic and memorable moment in history. Generational, racial, and sexual hostility, opposition to law, social stresses, and food poisoning were all causes as to why the people had anxieties that found release in the witch hunt craze. The witch hunts became searches for scapegoats; the community leaders were looking for anyway possible to ease the community’s anxieties.6


1. Kenneth P. Minkema, “In the Devil’s Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692,” The Christian Century, no. 8 (2003): 37.

2. Salem Press Encyclopedia, January 2015, s.v. “Salem Witchcraft Trials,” by Warren M. Billings and Kimberly Manning.

3. Alan Brinkley, American History, 15th ed., vol. 1: to 1865 (2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121: McGraw Hill Education, 2015), 86-87.

4. Salem Press Encyclopedia, January 2015 s.v. “Salem

Witchcraft Trials,” by Warren M. Billings, Kimberly Manning.

5. Salem Press Encyclopedia, January 2015 s.v. “Salem Witchcraft Trials,” by Warren M. Billings, Kimberly Manning.

6. Salem Press Encyclopedia, January 2015 s.v. “Salem Witchcraft Trials,” by Warren M. Billings and Kimberly Manning.

WORKS CITED

Witch being accused of witchcraft during the Salem Trials | Courtesy of Visible Ink Press

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Many Americans remember the Great Depression that left our country in financial ruin during the 1930’s.1 However, many of them are oblivious to the depression that was brought on by the Panic of 1873. Even fewer people are aware of the fact that the Panic of 1873 was dubbed the Great Depression until subsequent years when that title was won over by the decade encompassing the 1930’s.2 The 1930’s Great Depression, as we know it today, was brought on by a crash in the stock market (and various other factors, but mainly the events leading up to Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929).3 The Panic of 1873 had various causes that historians still debate for being the most responsible for the economic slump.

Unlike the Great Depression, the Panic of 1873 was brought on by high risk investments into the railroad building business. The demise of Jay Cooke & Company, the leading investor at the time, started a domino effect that was felt not only in the United States but also in Britain (triggering a severe two-decade long slump).4 The firm led financial efforts during the Civil War, and as a result of that, it became an agent for the federal government. Its promise was to build the second transcontinental railroad. By September 18, 1873, Cooke’s investment firm had declared bankruptcy.

The railroad building business was very risky; investors were essentially pouring their money into building industrial tracks leading to nowhere in hopes that the location would become prime locations for commerce. The leading firm, Jay Cooke & Company, decided to fold; a significant number of companies followed, approximately eighty-nine out of the existing three hundred sixty-four railroad companies.5

The First Great Depression: The Panic of 1873By Sergio Avila Roque

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Photo ofTutankamun’s mummified corpse Photo from National Geographic


1. Alison Cook-Sather and John E Moser, Global Great Depression and the Coming of World War II, U.S. History in International Perspective (Boulder: Routledge, 2015), 8-9.

2. Francois Furstenberg, “What history teaches us about the welfare state,” The Washington Post, July 1, 2011.

3. Cook-Sather and Moser, Global Great Depression, 51.

4. Alan Brinkley, American History, 15th ed., vol. 2: from 1865 (2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121: McGraw Hill Education, 2015), 413.

5. Francois Furstenberg, “What history teaches us about the welfare state,” The Washington Post,

July 1, 2011.

6. John M. Lubetkin, Jay Cooke’s Gamble: The Northern Pacific Railroad, the Sioux, and the Panic of 1873 (Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 2014), 5, 15.

7. Hans Rosenberg, “Political And Social Consequences Of The Great Depression Of 18731896 in Central Europe,” The Economic History Review 13, no. 12 (1943): 69.

8. Rosenberg, “Political and Social Consequences of the Great Depression,” 60.

9. “Ulysses S. Grant – Part One: Warrior,” American Experience, directed by Adriana Bosch (Arlington, Virginia: WGBH, 2005), DVD.

WORKS CITED

The majority of these companies declared bankruptcy within the first two years after Jay Cooke & Company declared bankruptcy, meaning that after having invested most of their monies into the railroad building business, most of those companies would rather take the loss than further invest any more money.6 This in turn caused more problems for the average citizen, because of the economic slump that would ensue.

Because industrialization was so vital for the early development of the United States, it is of no surprise that the railroad business was affected the most by that industrialization. The nation’s development was heavily rooted in the industrious railroad market of the time. Strikes, wage cuts, poor working conditions, less hours, and discrimination plagued the few in the working force. Panic had set in. Men were no longer able to provide for their families as they once did because of the decrease in pay and hours.7 This set up a perfect recipe for employers to take advantage; now they could demand more work for less pay because the unemployment rate was so high (peaking at 14%), so anybody looking for a job would have to take what they could.8 This employment competition led to poorer working conditions and even more discrimination, because any working class citizen would do whatever it took to survive during this time period.

The Panic of 1873 had some disastrous consequences. Aside from the corrupt politics of the time (for example, the Grant Administration Scandals), and the economic tatters the country was left in, the country’s values began to disintegrate as well. One of the most commonly known events, the Haymarket

Affair, left seven people dead by a dynamite bomb during a labor demonstration, and many others were severely wounded.9 It seemed like the country would never recover; troops were deployed to various demonstrations as “peace keepers,” but only more violence would ensue. In order for change to occur, new methods would have to be implemented.

The Panic of 1873 never really ended; various factors ultimately led to an upward trend in the economy, and in turn, the growth of the nation again. Investors began to be more cautious with their monies, the government took responsibility for the corruption, and ultimately the country’s morale began to boost. This upward trend led the nation out of its first great depression.

Haymarket Affair | Illinois | Courtesy of New World Encyclopedia

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In 1517 Martin Luther was provoked by Johann Tetzel to write his famous 95 Theses. In the spring of 1517, Johann Tetzel, a German friar who practiced the selling of indulgences in Germany, was preaching on indulgences in the city of Jüterbog. By selling indulgences, Tetzel and the Catholic Church gained monetary value in exchange for a believer’s future diminished time in purgatory. In other words, one’s sins would be forgiven if one were to buy these indulgences. Luther, who was a Theology professor at the University of Wittenberg, attended to Tetzel’s preaching. Luther felt disgusted by the act, and as a Theology professor he felt that he had to address this issue in a scholarly way. During the summer of 1517 Luther started to write the 95 Theses, which was not only a criticism of the selling of indulgences, but also a criticism of many of the actions and practices of the Catholic Church, particularly of its hierarchy. 1

The 95 Theses consisted of Luther challenging the teachings of the Catholic Church on the nature of penance, the authority of the pope, and the selling of indulgences. He believed that the salvation of a person’s soul should not be based on one’s monetary contribution to the church. Luther believed that faith was the only way to reach salvation and not the monetary contributions to the church. Quoting Saint Paul, Luther wrote, “The just will live by faith.”2 In the

95 Theses Luther not only criticized the Catholic Church and its corruption, but also set numerous propositions for reforming the Catholic Church. After writing the 95 Theses, on October 31, 1517, Luther decided to nail them to the door of the Wittenberg Church. After this event, the 95 Theses started to be spread throughout Europe. A year after Luther wrote the 95 Theses, they were condemned as heretical by Pope Leo X, and Luther was also excommunicated from the Catholic Church that same year.3

Martin Luther was given the chance to recant his statements against the Catholic Church at the Imperial Diet of Worms in 1521, but he refused. Luther famously said:

“Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Holy Scriptures or by evident reason—for I can believe neither pope nor councils alone, as it is clear that they have erred repeatedly and contradicted themselves—I consider myself convicted by the testimony of Holy Scripture, which is my basis; my conscience is captive to the Word of God. Thus I cannot and will not recant, because acting against one’s conscience is neither safe nor sound. God help me. Amen.4”

Luther believed that salvation was reached by faith alone, and not by the works of giving money to the church, and he held to these beliefs for the

Martin Luther and the 95 ThesesBy Andres Palacios

1. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Johann Tetzel.”

2. Romans 1:17.

3. Andrew Culp and Kevin Kuswa, “Signs of protest rhetoric: From Logos to logistics in Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses,” Quarterly Journal Of Speech 102, no. 2 (May 2016): 153-154.

4. Heiko Oberman, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil (New York: Image Books – Doubleday Press, 1992), 39.

5. Scott H. Hendrix, Martin Luther: Visionary Reformer (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015), 145-150.

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rest of his life. Luther was also responsible for starting the Protestant Reformation, where a large number of Catholics decided to follow his steps by separating from the Catholic Church. Luther not only started the Protestant Reformation, but he also contributed to the so-called Catholic Reformation of the Catholic Church as well, since his 95 Theses sparked a reform movement within the Catholic Church that culminated in the Council of Trent. Even though Luther was seen as a controversial person in the Catholic Church, he contributed in significant ways to what the Catholic Church is today.5

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Martin Luther | Courtesy of spselca.org


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In 225 B.C.E., the Greek writer Philo of Byzantium wrote On The Seven Wonders, and this early literary work highlighted the greatest man-made entities at the time. Most of the seven ancient wonders of the world are still shrouded in mystery and beauty. Yet, when it comes to these ancient wonders, the most mysterious is the hanging gardens of Babylon.

The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World are the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the lighthouse at Alexandria. The Hanging Gardens, the last Ancient Wonder of the world, called Babylon its home. Babylon rose to power for the second time from 600 to 550 B.C.E., as the Chaldean Empire under the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar. His kingdom grew to be thousands of miles wide, and King Nebuchadnezzar secured his capital city of Bablyon with large walls. These protective walls were believed to be multiple feet thick and impenetrable.1

On these walls were beautiful shrubs and flowers. The legend of how these flowers bloomed over the wall began with the king.

Nebuchadnezzar was proud of his creation, but one of his wives still longed for more. She mourned for her homeland on top of a mountain and wished to see the beauty of her home once again. When the king heard this, he ordered for the flowers and shrubs to be brought and then placed on top of his great wall. Exotic flowers and greenery brought a wonderful fragrance to the kingdom. The walls were irrigated using new technology. Waterwheels and pumps were installed, truly making the gardens a scientific and artistic masterpiece.2

What we can know about the Hanging Gardens of Babylon is one the most challenging of projects for modern scholars. This is due to the lack of evidence that we have about whether these gardens ever even existed in Babylon so many thousands of years ago. Much of the literature on the Hanging Gardens was written by second-hand accounts in the ancient world. Historians and archaeologists have searched for the gardens in the ruins of Babylon, but nothing concrete has been found. There are many theories about the actual location of the gardens; the leading theory comes from scholar Stephanie Dalley, a researcher from Oxford University in England. She believes that the Hanging Gardens were not

The Mysterious Hanging Gardens of BabylonBy Danielle Garza

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in Babylon at all, but rather in Nineveh.

Dalley is an expert in ancient Mesopotamian languages. The new translations of texts from the reign of King Sennacherib of Nineveh state that there was a large beautiful garden in Nineveh that was irrigated by an aqueduct. The texts describe a water-raising screw made of bronze. The descriptions resemble that of other ancient writers’ descriptions of the Hanging Gardens, and as such, there could have been a misunderstanding in translation in subsequent years. Dalley explains that the conquering of Babylon by the Assyrians gave them the nickname of Nineveh or “New Babylon.”3

The Seven Ancient Wonders of the World still have many mysteries connected to them. Yet, the most mysterious is that of Babylon’s Hanging Gardens. Many have been skeptical that they may have never existed. Now, new evidence brings hope that more about the Gardens may yet be known, and a new understanding of the wonder of ancient civilizations may come to light.4

1. Jerry Bentley, Herbert F. Zieglar, and Heather E. Streets, Traditions and Encounters, a Brief Global History. 4th ed. Vol. 1. (Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2008), 12.

2. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 2009, s.v. “The Seven Wonders,” by Joshua J. Mark.

3. Stephanie Dalley, “Garden History,” Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved, vol. 21, (February 2009): 7.

4. Stephanie Dalley, “Garden History,” Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved, vol. 21, (February 2009): 7.

WORKS CITED

Photo ofTutankamun’s mummified corpse Photo from National Geographic

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