Stormwater Effects Handbook A Toolbox for Watershed Managers, Scientists, and Engineers

Stormwater Effects Handbook A Toolbox for Watershed Managers, Scientists, and Engineers

G. Allen Burton, Jr., Ph.D. Robert E. Pitt, Ph.D., P.E.

LEWIS PUBLISHERS

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Burton, G. Allen Stormwater effects handbook : a toolbox for watershed managers, scientists, and

engineers / by G. Allen Burton, Jr. and Robert Pitt. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-87371-924-7 (alk. paper) 1. Runoff—Management—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Runoff—Environmental

aspects—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Water quality—Measurement—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Water quality biological assessment—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Pitt, Robert. II. Title.

TD657 .B86 2001 628.1'68—dc21 2001029906

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Dedication

This book is dedicated to those who were instrumental in guiding and supporting our develop­ment as scientists and engineers and our appreciation of the outdoors.

Preface

This handbook is intended to be a working document which assists scientists, engineers, consultants, regulators, citizen groups, and environmental managers in determining if stormwater runoff is causing adverse effects and beneficial-use impairments in local receiving waters. This includes adverse effects on aquatic life and human health and considers exposures to multiple stressors such as pathogens, chemicals, and habitat alteration. Given the complicated nature of the problem, where diffuse inputs contain multiple stressors which vary in intensity with time (and often in areas which are simultaneously impacted by point source discharges or other development activities, e.g., channelization), it is difficult to define and separate stormwater effects from these other factors. To accomplish this task requires an integrated watershed-based assessment approach which focuses on sampling before, during, and after storm events.

This handbook provides a logical approach for an experimental design that can be tailored to address a wide range of environmental concerns, such as ecological and human health risk assess­ments, determining water quality or biological criteria exceedances, use impairment, source iden­tification, trend analysis, determination of best management practice (BMP) effectiveness, storm­water quality monitoring for NPDES Phase I and II permits and applications, and total maximum daily load (TMDL) assessments. Despite the complexity of stormwater, successful and accurate assessments of its impact are possible by following the logical integrated approaches described in this handbook.

New methods and technologies are rapidly being developed, so this should be considered a “living” document which will be updated as the science warrants. We welcome your input on ways to improve future editions.

Allen Burton Bob Pitt

May 2001

Disclaimer: The views presented within this document do not necessarily represent those of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Acknowledgments

We are indebted to our professional colleagues whose prior contributions enabled us to produce this book. In addition, the long productive hours of a host of graduate and undergraduate students at Wright State and the University of Alabama at Birmingham are acknowledged for their essential research contributions.

We greatly appreciate the word processing of Nancy Pestian and Amy Ray. We also thank the production staff and editors at Lewis Publishers/CRC Press for their hard work and patience.

The support of the U.S. EPA, especially Richard Field, is also appreciated, not only for help in the preparation of this current work, but also for the prior support given to many of the research projects described in this book.

Special thanks are also due to our families, who provided never-ending support during the preparation of this book.

About the Authors

G. Allen Burton, Jr., is the Brage Golding Distinguished Professor of Research and Director of the Institute for Environmental Quality at Wright State University. He obtained a Ph.D. degree in Environmental Science from the University of Texas at Dallas in 1984. From 1980 until 1985 he was a Life Scientist with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. He was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the National Oceanic and Atmo­spheric Administration’s Cooperative Institute for Research in Environ­mental Sciences at the University of Colorado. Since then, he has had positions as a NATO Senior Research Fellow in Portugal and Visiting Senior Scientist in Italy and New Zealand.

Dr. Burton’s research during the past 20 years has focused on devel­oping effective methods for identifying significant effects and stressors in aquatic systems where sediment and stormwater contamination is a concern. His ecosystem risk assessments have evaluated multiple levels of biological organization, ranging from microbial to amphibian effects. He has been active in the development and standard­ization of toxicity methods for the U.S. EPA, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Environment Canada, and the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Dr. Burton has served on numerous national and international scientific committees and review panels, and written more than 100 publications dealing with aquatic systems.

Robert Pitt is currently a Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Alabama. Bob had pre­viously served on the School of Engineering faculty at the University of Alabama at Birmingham since 1987. Prior to that, he was a Senior Engi­neer for 16 years in industry and government, and continues to consult to many municipalities and engineering firms. He received his Ph.D. in Civil and Environmental Engineering from the University of Wiscon­sin–Madison, his M.S.C.E. in Environmental Engineering/Hydraulic Engineering from San Jose State University, CA, and his B.S. in Engi­neering Science, from Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA. He is a registered professional engineer (WI) and a Diplomate of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers.

During the past 30 years, Bob has been the project manager and principal investigator for many water resources research projects conducted for the U.S. EPA, Environment Canada, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, and state and local governments concerning the effects, sources, and control of urban runoff. Some are used as case studies in this book. His major area of interest is in stormwater management, especially the integration of drainage and water quality objectives. He currently teaches classes in water supply and drainage design, hydrology, hydraulics, experimental design, and field sampling, plus a series on stormwater man­agement. Bob has published more than 100 chapters, books, journal articles, and major research reports. He is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the Water Environment Federation, the North American Lake Management Society, the American Water Resources Asso­ciation, and the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry.

Contents

Unit 1: The Problem of Stormwater Runoff

Chapter 1 Introduction Overview: The Problem of Stormwater Runoff ......................................................................3 Sources of NPS Pollution.........................................................................................................4 Regulatory Program..................................................................................................................8 Applications of the Handbook ...............................................................................................10

References ........................................................................................................................................13

Chapter 2 Receiving Water Uses, Impairments, and Sources of Stormwater Pollutants Introduction.............................................................................................................................15 Beneficial Use Impairments ...................................................................................................22 Likely Causes of Receiving Water Use Impairments............................................................30 Major Urban Runoff Sources.................................................................................................31 Summary.................................................................................................................................42

References ........................................................................................................................................43

Chapter 3 Stressor Categories and Their Effects on Humans and Ecosystems Effects of Runoff on Receiving Waters .................................................................................47 Stressor Categories and Their Effects....................................................................................63 Receiving Water Effect Summary..........................................................................................90

References ........................................................................................................................................92

Unit 2: Components of the Assessment

Chapter 4 Overview of Assessment Problem Formulation Introduction...........................................................................................................................102 Watershed Indicators of Biological Receiving Water Problems .........................................103 Summary of Assessment Tools ............................................................................................107 Study Design Overview........................................................................................................107 Beginning the Assessment....................................................................................................108 Example Outline of a Comprehensive Runoff Effect Study ...............................................119 Case Studies of Previous Receiving Water Evaluations......................................................123 Summary: Typical Recommended Study Plans...................................................................213

References ......................................................................................................................................218

Chapter 5 Sampling Effort and Collection Methods Introduction...........................................................................................................................224 Experimental Design: Sampling Number and Frequency ...................................................224 Data Quality Objectives (DQO) and Associated QA/QC Requirements ............................247 General Considerations for Sample Collection ...................................................................254 Receiving Water, Point Source Discharge, and Source Area Sampling..............................278 Sediment and Pore Water Sampling ....................................................................................313 Summary: Basic Sample Collection Methods .....................................................................336

References ......................................................................................................................................338

Chapter 6 Ecosystem Component Characterization Overview...............................................................................................................................346 Flow and Rainfall Monitoring..............................................................................................349 Soil Evaluations....................................................................................................................388 Aesthetics, Litter, and Safety ...............................................................................................398 Habitat...................................................................................................................................400 Water and Sediment Analytes and Methods ........................................................................423 Microorganisms in Stormwater and Urban Receiving Waters ............................................485 Benthos Sampling and Evaluation in Urban Streams .........................................................491 Zooplankton Sampling .........................................................................................................502 Fish Sampling.......................................................................................................................502 Toxicity and Bioaccumulation .............................................................................................507 Summary...............................................................................................................................546

References ......................................................................................................................................550

Chapter 7 Statistical Analyses of Receiving Water Data Selection of Appropriate Statistical Analysis Tools and Procedures ..................................575 Comments on Selected Statistical Analyses Frequently Applied to Receiving Water Data.......................................................................................................................................582 Summary of Statistical Elements of Concern When Conducting a Receiving Water Investigation..........................................................................................................................605

References ......................................................................................................................................606

Chapter 8 Data Interpretation Is There a Problem? .............................................................................................................609 Evaluating Biological Stream Impairments Using the Weight-of-Evidence Approach......611 Evaluating Human Health Impairments Using a Risk Assessment Approach....................619 Identifying and Prioritizing Critical Stormwater Sources ...................................................626 Summary...............................................................................................................................636

References ......................................................................................................................................637

Unit 3: Toolbox of Assessment Methods

Appendix A Habitat Characterization The Qualitative Habitat Evaluation Index (QHEI) .............................................................643 The USEPA Habitat Assessment for the Rapid Bioassessment Protocols..........................652 References.............................................................................................................................662

Appendix B Benthic Community Assessment Rapid Bioassessment Protocol: Benthic Macroinvertebrates .............................................665 The Ohio EPA Invertebrate Community Index Approach .................................................681 A Partial Listing of Agencies that Have Developed Tolerance Classifications and/or Biotic Indices........................................................................................................................687

References ......................................................................................................................................690

Appendix C Fish Community Assessment Rapid Bioassessment Protocol V — Fish ...........................................................................693

References ......................................................................................................................................707

Appendix D Toxicity and Bioaccumulation Testing General Toxicity Testing Methods .......................................................................................710 Methods for Conducting Long-Term Sediment Toxicity Tests with Hyalella azteca ........710 Methods for Conducting Long-Term Sediment Toxicity Tests with Chironomus. tentans...................................................................................................................................718 In Situ Testing Using Confined Organisms .........................................................................724 Toxicity Identification Evaluations ......................................................................................729 Toxicity — Microtox Screening Test...................................................................................730

References ......................................................................................................................................733

Appendix E Laboratory Safety, Waste Disposal, and Chemical Analyses Methods Introduction...........................................................................................................................736 Fundamentals of Laboratory Safety.....................................................................................737 Basic Rules and Procedures for Working with Chemicals..................................................738 Use and Storage of Chemicals in the Laboratory ...............................................................743 Procedures for Specific Classes of Hazardous Materials ....................................................748 Emergency Procedures .........................................................................................................758 Chemical Waste Disposal Program......................................................................................760 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) ..................................................................................763 Summary of Field Test Kits .................................................................................................767 Special Comments Pertaining to Heavy Metal Analyses ....................................................774 Stormwater Sample Extractions for EPA Methods 608 and 625........................................779 Calibration and Deployment Setup Procedure for YSI 6000upg Water Quality Monitoring Sonde.................................................................................................................782

References ......................................................................................................................................785

Appendix F Sampling Requirements for Paired Tests Charts....................................................................................................................................787

Appendix G Water Quality Criteria Introduction...........................................................................................................................798 EPA’s Water Quality Criteria and Standards Plan — Priorities for the Future ..................798 Compilation of Recommended Water Quality Criteria and EPA’s Process for Deriving New and Revised Criteria ....................................................................................................799 Ammonia ..............................................................................................................................813 Bacteria .................................................................................................................................816 Chloride, Conductivity, and Total Dissolved Solids............................................................822 Chromium.............................................................................................................................823 Copper...................................................................................................................................824 Hardness ...............................................................................................................................825 Hydrocarbons........................................................................................................................826 Lead ......................................................................................................................................827 Nitrate and Nitrite ................................................................................................................828 Phosphate..............................................................................................................................830 pH .........................................................................................................................................832 Suspended Solids and Turbidity...........................................................................................834 Zinc .......................................................................................................................................835 Sediment Guidelines.............................................................................................................836

References ......................................................................................................................................839

Appendix H Watershed and Receiving Water Modeling Introduction...........................................................................................................................843 Modeling Stormwater Effects and the Need for Local Data for Calibration and Verification............................................................................................................................845 Summary...............................................................................................................................860

References ......................................................................................................................................866

Appendix I Glossary.................................................................................................................867

Appendix J Vendors of Supplies and Equipment Used in Receiving Water Monitoring General Field and Laboratory Equipment ...........................................................................871 Automatic Samplers .............................................................................................................872 Basic Field Test Kits ............................................................................................................873 Specialized Field Test Kits...................................................................................................873 Parts and Supplies for Custom Equipment ..........................................................................873 Toxicity Test Organisms.......................................................................................................874 Laboratory Chemical Supplies (and other equipment)........................................................874

Index ..............................................................................................................................................875