strategies for applying public service motivation

8/9/2019 Strategies for Applying Public Service Motivation

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From Theory to Practice:

Strategies for Applying Public Service Motivation

Laurie E. Paarlberg, [email protected] (primary contact)

Department of Public and International Affairs

Uniersity of !ort" #arolina$%ilmington

%ilmington, !# &'*$+-

a/0 (12)1&$*&'

3ames L. Perry, [email protected]

4c"ool of Public and Enironmental Affairs

Indiana Uniersity, 5loomington

Annie 6ondeg"em, annie."ondeg"[email protected]

8at"olie7e Uniersiteit Leuen

Par7straat + bus *1 $ * Leuen

9el0 2 *& *2 ' $ a/0 2 *& * 22

2

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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From Theory to Practice:

Strategies for Applying Public Service Motivation

Despite gro:ing eidence of t"e e/istence of public serice motiation (Perry and

%ise, 211) and its effects on employee performance, :e "ae little understanding of :"at

t"at means for management practices. 6o: do :e "arness t"e positie effects of public

serice motiation to en"ance employee and organi;ational performance< 9"is c"apter

bridges t"e gap bet:een our t"eoretical understanding of t"e motiational potential of public

serice and our applied understanding of "o: to =manage> employee motiations. %e

propose t"at in order to create "ig" performing goernment organi;ations, leaders s"ould

adopt strategies t"at incorporate public serice alues across all leels of t"e organi;ation?s

management systems.

eie:s of "ig" performance management systems suggest t"at practices t"at promote

s"ared alues not only entice indiiduals to oin an organi;ation but also motiate people to

act upon t"eir alues once a member of t"e organi;ation. 4uc" s"ared social structures may

ultimately lin7 people :"o normally do not interact, facilitating information s"aring and

improed ability to engage in comple/ problem soling, and creating s"ared mental models

and norms of reciprocity. Despite t"e gro:ing body of t"eoretical and empirical eidence t"at

suggests alue$based management may en"ance indiidual and organi;ational performance,

applied alues management is significantly underdeeloped. E/isting researc" tells us little

about "o: to =manage> public serice alues as sc"olars "ae made less progress in

translating findings about public serice motiation into recommendations for "o:

practitioners can use public serice alues to improe performance in t"e :or7place (Bann,

&). Alt"oug" indiiduals may enter public serice :it" a predisposition to alue certain

public serice ideals, alues are also influenced t"roug" enironmental forces, suc" as :or7

place relations"ips and practices. In t"is c"apter, :e propose t"at public serice alues can be

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managed in :ays t"at strengt"en t"e relations"ip bet:een moties and be"aiour by

integrating public serice alues into t"e organi;ation?s management systems.

%e propose strategies across fie conte/tual units of analysis (Perry and Porter?s

21'&)$$indiidual, ob, :or7place, organi;ation and society $releant for motiating employee

be"aior. Dra:ing upon #"apter *Cs discussion of t"e be"aioral dynamics of public serice

motiation, our strategies use management practices to reinforce alue systems t"at motiate

indiiduals to engage in public serice be"aiors. ur model of alues management e/tends

beyond t"e traditional "uman serice functions of recruitment, appraisal, retention and

re:ards, to managing suc" alues in all aspects of t"e organi;ation, including tas7 design and

organi;ational mission. %e also moe beyond t"e formal "uman resource management

system to loo7 at social systems of leaders"ip, culture, and interpersonal relations"ips t"at

s"ape people and t"eir attitudes and be"aiors.

Individual-level Initiatives: Integrating Public Service Motivation into Human esource

Processes

ne of t"e most important s"ifts in "uman resource management is moing a:ay from

a focus on t"e ability of an employee to carry out a particular tas7, to focusing on t"e promise

of indiiduals to fit into t"e organi;ation. 9raditional models of "uman resource management

focus on organi;ations select, train, appraise, and re:ard indiiduals to "old a specific ob

:it"in an organi;ation (La:ler, 211). Person$organi;ation fit (#"atman, 2112 8ristof$

5ro:n, Fimmerman, and 3o"nson, &+) perspecties on "uman resource management focus

on t"e be"aiors and attitudes indiiduals need to e/"ibit to ma7e t"e organi;ation successful.

9"is s"ifts t"e focus of "uman resource processes from selecting and reinforcing not ust

indiidual s7ills, but also t"e uniGue motiations t"at indiiduals bring into t"e :or7 place.

Selecting !ased "pon Public Service Motivation

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9"e first step in promoting public serice alues in employees is selecting indiiduals

t"at "old or are responsie to suc" alues (Le:is and ran7, && Bann, &). 9"e

importance of a fit bet:een person and organi;ation and bet:een person and ob (#"atman,

2112) is supported by researc" in t"e public sector (see also c"apter in t"is olume).

Applicant and organi;ation select eac" ot"er based upon perceptions of t"e fit

bet:een t"e applicantCs and organi;ationCs alues (4c"neider, 21'-) and t"e ob interie:

process may "elp bot" organi;ation and indiidual to more accurately assess t"is fit t

( 5o:en, Ledford and !at"an 2112). %"ile face$to$face time interie:s may offer

opportunities to discern alues and preference (#"atman, 2112), open$ended interie:s

s"ould be supplemented :it" multiple screens, including personality tests interie:s :it"

"uman resource personnel, co$:or7ers and ot"er employees situational tests and realistic ob

preie:s (5o:en, Ledford and !at"an, 2112 3udge, #able and 6iggins, &).

4ituational udgment tests (439s) t"at present difficult but realistic situations people

may face on t"e ob and as7 :"at t"e applicant mig"t do in eac" situation may be useful in

learning more about an applicant?s alue set. 4imilarly, past$oriented (be"aior description)

interie:s may proide important indicators of public serice motiation (5olino and

9urn7ey, &* #arson, et al, &+), on t"e assumption t"at past be"aior is a li7ely indicator

of future be"aior. or e/ample, in t"eir recommendations for selecting "ealt" care

employees, #arson et al (&+) recommend see7ing out indiiduals t"at "ae preiously

engaged in actiities t"at demonstrate "ig" leels of public serice motiation, suc" as

olunteering for community or campus actiities t"at demonstrate altruism or identification

:it" t"e organi;ation?s mission.

inally, it is also important to proide ob see7ers :it" t"e opportunity to ma7e an

assessment about :"et"er t"e obHorgani;ation :ill be a good fit for t"eir personal alues.

Employment interie:s and realistic ob preie:s proide important opportunities for ob

see7ers to learn more about t"e culture and alues of t"e organi;ation and to ma7e t"e


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decision as to :"et"er suc" alues matc" t"eir o:n pre$e/isting alues. 3ob see7ers s"ould be

encouraged to rely upon t"eir alues as a means for ealuating :"et"er to :or7 in a particular

organi;ation and s"ould be gien opportunities to learn about t"e alues of t"e organi;ation

(5o:en, Ledford and !at"an, 2112 #able and 3udge, 211). As #"atman (2112)

recommends, =indiiduals and organi;ations oug"t to get as muc" information as possible

about eac" ot"er during t"e selection process>(p '2).

Tactic 1: Use public service motivation as a selection criterion for entry into

public service employment.

Sociali#ation to Public Service

4ociali;ation into public serice alues communicates to organi;ational ne:comers

t"e alues t"at are a critical part of t"e organi;ational identity and "o: suc" alues are

translated into acceptable be"aior (5rief and Boto:idlo, 21' #"atman, 2112). Employee

sociali;ation s"ould introduce ne: employees to t"e "istory, mission, goals, obecties and

norms of public organi;ations and s"ould demonstrate "o: public serice goals are met

t"roug" t"e design of public policy and t"e deliery of public serices (8im, &+ 8lein and

%eaer, &).

4ociali;ation is a process t"at begins s"ortly after ne: employees oin t"e

organi;ation, as ne: members are freGuently ery eager to learn appropriate be"aiors and

=fit in> (#ooper$9"omas and Anderson,&&). ormal trainings, orientations, social eents,

and readings (#ooper$9"omas, an ianen, and Anderson, & Par7yn, &) proide t"e

ne:comer :it" specific information about "o: role reGuirements and organi;ational conte/t

align :it" t"e employees? public serice motiation.

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4ociali;ation occurs t"roug" formal mentoring programs and informal social

interactions in t"e :or7place. Bentoring, a 7ey factor in t"e transmission of alues (%ilson

and Elman, 211), allo:s ne: employees to see "o: more tenured colleagues integrate

public serice motiation into t"eir o:n be"aiours, encouraging ne: employees to ta7e t"eir

be"aioural cues from t"eir e/perienced colleagues (#"atman, 2112). 9"e %orld 5an7

matc"es young professionals :it" a peer :"o "as a year?s tenure :it"in t"e 5an7, as :ell as a

more senior mentor.

Informal interactions t"at allo: ne: employees to obsere t"eir co$:or7ers and

superisors also proide important cues about organi;ational alues and e/pectations

(Baslac", 4c"aufeli, and Leiter, &2 stroff and 8o;lo:7si, 211& 4a7s and As"fort",

211-). Employees s"ould be gien ample opportunity to s"ado: and obsere ot"er :or7ers,

not only peers, but also longer tenured co$:or7ers. In addition, senior members of t"e

organi;ation s"ould be "eld accountable for t"e sociali;ation of ne: members. #ooper$

9"omas and Anderson (&&) obsere t"at military sociali;ation is carried out by instructors

:"ose performance is ealuated on t"eir recruits? 7no:ledge of military alues. 9"ey

conclude by suggesting t"at sociali;ation of ne:comers :ould be en"anced if ne:comers?

colleagues and superisors are not only gien training on "o: to sociali;e ne:comers, but

per"aps =Jmore radically, t"at t"e rate and success of ne:comers? adustment contributed to

colleagues? performance ealuations> (p. *).

Tactic 2: Provide formal and informal opportunities for newcomers to learn

about organizational values and expectations for employee behavior that

reflect public service values.

Public Service Motivation as a $riterion in Appraisal Systems


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Public serice alues s"ould also be used in t"e appraisal system, promoting internal

consistency across "uman resource processes. Until recently performance appraisal systems

"ae focused on ob performance resulting from a formal ob analysis, including t"e

accomplis"ment of specific tas7s and duties specified in a ob description. 6o:eer, suc" ob

related appraisals rignore many of t"e non$tas7 related be"aiors t"at may be associated :it"

public serice (is:esaran and nes, & %elbourne, 3o"nson, Ere;, 211').

rgani;ations are paying increasing attention to t"e importance of non$ob be"aiors

suc" as pro$social be"aiors, in performance appraisal systems. 9"e United 4tates Barine

#orps uses an on$going system of performance ratings (fitness reports) t"at include not only

tec"nical proficiency but also conduct0 =t"e adoption of core alues in "isH"er life> (Par7yn,

&, p. &*2). In a case study of goernment employees, Paarlberg and Perry (&-) obsered

t"at managers in "ig" performing :or7 units often focused on deeloping performance

appraisals t"at principled goals, suc" as "onesty, team:or7, commitment to t"e customer,

and being a good ste:ard of t"e installation?s resources. In t"e lemis" goernment four core

alues "ae been defined$$collaboration, continuous improement, client orientation,

reliabilityK:"ic" are part of t"e competency frame:or7 and are found in t"e competency

profiles of all public serants (5rans and 6ondeg"em, &+).

Tactic : !evelop performance appraisals and performance monitoring

systems that include observations of behaviors that reflect and encourage

public service motivation.

$reating and $onveying Meaning and Purpose in the %ob

3ob design may also strengt"en t"e relations"ip bet:een public serice alues and

performance by en"ancing employees? understanding of t"e social significance of t"eir :or7

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and improing t"e clarity of goals (4cott and Panday, &+). 5ot" tactics may strengt"en

employees? e/isting public serice alues and en"ance t"e relations"ip bet:een suc" alues

and t"eir be"aiors (rant, &-).

Promoting Social Significance of the %ob

ne of t"e ob c"aracteristics t"at motiates employees is ob$significance, t"e e/tent

to :"ic" t"e ob affects t"e :ell being of ot"ers (6ac7man and ld"am, 21'). As rant

(&-) obseres, =Jmany employees describe t"e purpose of t"eir :or7 in terms of ma7ing a

positie difference in ot"ers? lies> (p. *1*). Bany are attracted to goernment :or7 because

of t"eir desire to sere (Den"ardt, 211*). Doing :or7 t"at affects t"e "ealt" and :ell$being of

ot"er people encourages a person to beliee t"at "is :or7 is :ort":"ile or important :it"in

"is system of alues. or e/ample, studies of teac"ers suggest t"at teac"ers are largely

motiated by t"eir ability to see and 7no: t"ey are responsible for improements in students

(8elley, 2111). 4imilarly, in a study of firefig"ters, Lee and ls"fs7i (&&) found t"at

firefig"ters? commitment to t"eir ob, :"ic" entails obligations to sere t"e community, is t"e

maor factor in leading to t"eir e/traordinary efforts. Baynard$Boody and Bus"eno (&*)

proide ric" stories of t"e comple/ :ays t"at cops, teac"ers and counselors Mline :or7ers or

street leel bureaucrats =Jmade t"eir :or7 "arder, more unpleasant, and less officially

successful to respond to t"e needs of t"e people in front of t"em> (p. 21).

9"e e/tent to :"ic" indiiduals perceie t"eir obs to be meaningful may be

dependent on t"e e/tent to :"ic" employees are able to connect to t"e impact t"ey are "aing

on t"e beneficiaries of t"eir :or7 (rant, &-), redefining obs as a collection of

relations"ips as :ell as a collection of tas7s. 4tudies of American federal employees "ae

found positie relations"ips bet:een customer orientation and employees? ob satisfaction,

motiation, and support for organi;ational c"ange (Lee, #ayer and Lan, & Paarlberg,

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&-). 9"e same eidence "as been found in a researc" on t"e motiation and satisfaction of

public serants in t"e Binistry of inance in 5elgium (andenabeele et al., &+).

!umerous public sector obs proide opportunities for employees to "ae a direct

impact on t"e lies of ot"ers by improing t"e "ealt" and safety of ot"ers, or by promoting

social or economic deelopment of beneficiaries. 6o:eer, public serice obs are often not

structured in :ays t"at allo: employees to see t"e prosocial impact of t"eir :or7 (rant,

fort"coming(a)). 6ac7man et al (21-+) encourage organi;ations to structure tas7s in :ays t"at

allo: employees to interact and communicate :it" serice beneficiaries. 9"ey propose t"at

organi;ations ta7e steps to identify clearly :"o are beneficiaries of organi;ational serices,

establis" opportunities for direct contact bet:een employee and serice beneficiary, and

proide clear criteria and c"annels for beneficiaries to proide feedbac7 on employee

performance. 9"e %orld 5an7 offers a rassroots Immersion Program t"at allo:s young

professionals to obsere first$"and t"e eeryday lies of t"e poor. 5re"m and ates (211-)

found t"at in t"ose situations in :"ic" goernment employees, suc" as social :or7ers or

police officers on t"e beat, came into regular contact :it" serice recipients, serice recipients

e/erted more influence oer employee be"aior t"an superisors did.

4uc" interactions encourage employees to e/perience increased understanding of t"e

significance of t"eir ob (6ac7man and ld"am, 21'). In addition, contact bet:een

employees and t"ose :"o benefit from t"eir :or7 may lead to "ig"er affectie commitment

by increasing identification :it" beneficiaries, en"ancing employee?s empat"y and fostering

serice recipient li7eability (5rief and Boto:idlo, 21' Baynard$Booney and Bus"eno,

&*). %"ile it may be impossible to directly connect all employees :it" direct serice

beneficiaries, s"aring stories or ignettes t"at coney t"e social significance of t"e :or7 may

also positiely impact employee?s attitudes and be"aiors (rant, fort"coming (b)).

Ultimately, social interactions :it" serice beneficiaries may proide a face for employees?

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public serice alues, translating abstract organi;ational goals into significant action

(Paarlberg, &-).

%"ile :e "ae focused on t"e serice aspect of goernment employment, many

employees are attracted to goernment serice because of t"eir interest in influencing t"e

broader public policy process. Leisin7 (&) Guotes a Dutc" secretary general :"o see7s to

s"o: employees "o: t"eir actions "ae influenced t"e policy process. =%"at motiates

indiiduals at :or7 is t"e :is" to see :"at t"eir efforts "ae produced, for instance to find

t"eir te/t in a communication :"ic" t"e Binister sends to t"e parliament. 9"ey :is" to see

t"eir stamp on some piece of policy ma7ing> (p. ').

Tactic ": #dentify beneficiaries of $obs% establish opportunities for direct

contact between employee and beneficiary% and provide clear channels for

service beneficiary feedbac&.

Setting $lear Public Service &oals

oal$setting t"eory posits t"at conscious and :ell$specified goalsKdefined as t"e

obect or aim of an action to attain a particular standardKpositiely affect t"e actions of

employees. Early goal$setting researc" proided strong support t"at specific and c"allenging

goals are associated :it" "ig"er leels of performance (Loc7e and Lat"am, &&). 6o:eer,

goernment employees often :or7 in obs in :"ic" t"ere are diffuse goals (#"un and ainey,

&+) or goals t"at are difficult to ac"iee in t"e s"ort run.

Employee commitment to goals :ill be influenced by t"e e/tent to :"ic" employees

perceie t"at goals are consistent :it" t"eiralues. . Indiiduals :"o "ig"ly alue public

serice :ill loo7 for situations in :"ic" t"ey can enact suc" alues, set "ig" goals for

t"emseles, and be "ig"ly committed to suc" goals. In t"ose situations in :"ic" goals are

assigned (Loc7e, Lat"am, and Ere;, 21'), indiiduals may not accept assigned goals if suc"

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assigned goals are perceied as not being important or inconsistent :it" indiidual alues

(4teers and Porter, 21-). or e/ample,employees may e/perience conflict bet:een t"e

bureaucratic pressures to close a case and t"eir professional responsibilities to proide "ig"

Guality serices. It is t"erefore important to clearly articulate goals t"at are consistent :it"

employees? e/isting public serice alues.

Banagers play important roles in interpreting broad goals in terms of functional and

:or7 unit routines t"at reflect public serice motiation (Paarlberg and Perry, &-). In doing

so, managers enable employees to see "o: t"eir indiidual tas7s connect to t"e larger mission

of t"e organi;ation, reinforcing employees? public serice motiation. In some cases,

"o:eer, :"ere t"e social alue of t"e :or7 may be controersial or t"e :or7 p"ysically

=dirty,> managers may play important roles in "elping :or7ers to transcend suc" negatie

perceptions by infusing t"e :or7 :it" positie alues or emp"asi;ing t"e positie aspects of

t"e ob oer t"e negatie (As"fort", et al, &-). or e/ample, usterson describes "o:

nuclear scientists cope :it" t"eir controersial profession by emp"asi;ing "o: t"eir :or7

en"ances rat"er t"an t"reatens :orld peace (as cited in As"fort", et al, &-). 4uc" reframing

of organi;ation goals allo:s t"e indiidual to respond to goals t"at are consistent :it"

personal and professional alues. In addition, employees may benefit from t"e opportunity to

discuss t"ese potential conflicts (Baynard$Booney and Bus"eno, &* in;ant, 211').

Tactic ': #nterpret broad public service missions in terms of clear and

meaningful wor& expectations.

$reating a Supportive 'or( )nvironment

%or7 place c"aracteristics, suc" as structure of t"e :or7 enironment, t"e nature of

informal relations"ips, and incentie systems may also s"ape t"e relations"ips bet:een

employees? public serice motiation and t"eir performance. 5ot" formal and informal

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organi;ational practices and e/periences s"ape employees? beliefs about t"e terms of t"e

employee$organi;ation e/c"ange relations"ips (ousseau and reller, 211) and t"e degree to

:"ic" employees perceie t"at organi;ational practices are supportie of t"eir alues.

)mpo*ering and Participatory 'or( Structures

#entrali;ed patterns of decision ma7ing may ma7e it difficult for employees to see

"o: t"eir efforts contribute to t"e mission of t"e organi;ation (4cott and Pandey, &+) .

Boyni"an and Pandey?s (&-) study of state$leel employees suggests t"at perceptions of

bureaucracy and red tape may frustrate employees? public serice motiations. Employees

may perceie t"at comple/ control and regulatory systems may ta7e a:ay from t"e =real>

:or7 of responding to citi;ens? needs (4c":ab and #ummings, 21-), leading t"em to beliee

t"at t"ey are unable to act upon t"eir public serice motiation. As Baynard$Booney and

Bus"eno (&*) obsered, in some cases, =Jt"e :or7ers sa: t"e rules and superisors as

obstacles to doing :"at :as rig"t and fair for t"eir clients> (p 2').

Employee input into setting goals may encourage :or7ers to find strategies t"at are

more effectie, energi;e be"aior and increase employees? perceptions t"at t"ey can

effectiely accomplis" t"eir goals (4pector, 21' 4ta: and 5oettger, 211). In a study of

teac"er empo:erment, Dee, 6en7in, and #ir7a (&*) found t"at increased participation in

:or7place decision ma7ing proides a "eig"tened sense of coniction of t"e importance of

one?s :or7 and t"e belief t"at t"eir :or7 :ill "ae a significant impact on t"e lies of ot"ers.

Leisin7 (&) suggests t"at it is important t"at employees be inoled in not ust tec"nical

decisions, but also issues t"at relate to t"e core public sering aspects of t"eir ob. or

e/ample, teac"ers could be inoled in decisions t"at inole meeting t"e multicultural needs

of c"ildren and t"eir families, and t"at nurses could proide input in "o: to proide medical

care to t"e uninsured.

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Allo:ing employees to ta7e an increased role in organi;ational decision ma7ing to

allo: t"em to act upon t"eir public serice motiation reGuires more t"an t"e use of

participatory management tec"niGues, suc" as Guality circles or management by obecties.

9ruly enabling indiiduals to act upon t"eir public serice motiation reGuires empo:ering

employees to ta7e action, by proiding access to information, support, resources and

opportunity to learn and deelop (#onger and 8anungo, 21''). esearc" "as s"o:n t"at

direct as :ell as indirect forms of staff participation "ae been an important strategy in public

management reforms (arn"am, 6ondeg"em, and 6orton, &+).

Tactic (: !evelop wor& structures that enhance self)regulation through

empowerment and participatory decision)ma&ing.

$ooperative Interpersonal elationships

Perry and Porter (21'&) suggest t"at relations"ips bet:een employees and t"eir co$

:or7ers and superisors "ae t"e largest impact on employee performance. %"ile muc" of

t"e literature on =relational> ob design "as largely focused on t"e motiating influence of

serice beneficiaries, employees are also strongly motiated by professional relations"ips

:it" co$:or7ers (8elley, 2111 Paarlberg, &- in;ant, 211'). As %ilson (21'1) describes,

=Peer e/pectations are bot" a source of motiation and a force defining :"at are acceptable

and unacceptable tas7s.> (p. -). #re:son (211-) finds t"at organi;ational commitment is

partly dependent on t"e sense of trust and affiliation t"e :or7er "as :it" fello: employees.

ne of t"e important aspects of :or7place climate is :or7group esprit c"aracteri;ed

by cooperation, friendliness, :armt" and trust in co$:or7ers (5rief and Boto:idlo, 21'

3ones and 3ames, 21-1). Beaningful interactions promote dignity, self appreciation, and

:ort"iness (8a"n, 211) and reinforce professional identity and:or7place alues. (5re"m

and ates, 211- Baynard$Booney and Bus"eno, &* Paarlberg, &-). A In a study of

:"istle blo:ing among American police officers, ot":ell and 5ald:in (&-) found t"at a

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friendly, team oriented climate en"anced officer?s :illingness to consider t"eir et"ical alues

and be :illing to =blo: t"e :"istle> on unet"ical be"aiors :it"in t"eir departments. In

addition, supportie :or7 enironment may also positiely influence employees? interactions

:it" serice beneficiaries (eorge, 211+).

rgani;ational leaders can ta7e arious steps to create a cooperatie :or7

enironment. irst, employees and managers can be proided :it" training to deelop and

improe t"eir interpersonal and social s7ills, as :ell as team building s7ills (Baslac",

4c"aufeli, Leiter, &2). It is particularly important t"at managers be a:are of "o: to address

conflict :it" employees in :ays t"at are respectful and supportie. 4econd, organi;ational

leaders and managers must be attune to t"e :or7place climate and able to proactiely

interene :"en necessary. 9"ird, organi;ational leaders can be attentie to "o: :or7place

practices reflect t"e organi;ational mission. An organi;ation :it" a mission to improe

community Guality of life may be perceied as being insincere if it promotes :or7 place

practices t"at e/ploit its employees. Employees s"ould be inoled in discussions of t"e

Guality of :or7 life. inally, as noted earlier, employees may greatly benefit from formal

opportunities to tal7 and s"are t"eir :or7place e/periences, especially t"ose e/periences t"at

may be stressful or inole conflict (As"fort" et al, &-, Baynard$Booney N Bus"eno,

&* in;ant, 211').

Tactic *: +ommit to creating a supportive wor&place environment that models

and reinforces public service motivation.

Align Incentives *ith Intrinsic Motivations

rgani;ations "ae long been conceied as systems of eGuilibrium in :"ic" people

contribute t"eir effort in return for inducements from t"e organi;ation (5arnard, 21*' Barc"

2


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and 4imon, 21+' 8no7e and %rig"t$Isa7, 21'&). urt"ermore, t"e oining of people and

inducement or incenties is not random. Indiiduals select organi;ations t"at reflect a mi/ of

moties t"at are suited to t"eir predispositions (8no7e and %rig"t$Isa7, 21'&).

Despite t"e compelling logic t"at t"e eGuilibrium organi;ations establis" :it" t"eir

employees may be imperiled if incenties are altered (ousseau and reller, 211),

organi;ations routinely c"ange t"eir incentie structures. 9"e c"anges are often e/ternally

induced, suc" as :"en citi;ens demand greater performance accountability from public

serants. Among t"e problems of e/ternally induced c"anges in incentie systems is t"at t"ey

are often unstable because of bot" t"e turmoil t"ey create among internal sta7e"olders and

limitations in t"e po:er of t"e ne: incenties. 9"e introduction of performance$related pay in

public organi;ations, for e/ample, often falls s"ort as an incentie because of t"e lac7 of

commitment of sufficient budgetary resources to t"e ne: incenties (Perry, 21'1).

Tactic ,: +reate and maintain incentives that align organizational mission and

employee predispositions.

Alt"oug" t"e optimal design for financial incenties is "ard to specify in general, t"e

eidence suggests compensation systems t"at offer lo:$po:ered incentie pay are most

effectie for re:arding public serice (5urgess and atto, &*). 9"e incentie proided by

base compensation is typically underalued and under appreciated in public serice :or7, but

researc" suggests t"at compensation must meet standards t"at are drien by e/ternal and

internal labor mar7ets. Public serices must be able to pay enoug" to "ire t"e most productie

:or7ers and retain t"e "ig"est output :or7ers (La;ear, 2111). 5ut recent researc" (5oras,

&&) indicates t"at internal dispersion in payK:"at is more freGuently called salary

compression in t"e public sectorKis an important design feature. 5oras?s findings conerge

:it" La;ear?s (2111) conclusions t"at pay gro:t" from promotions is an effectie :ay to

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discriminate bet:een "ig" and lo: performers. 9"e essence of t"is argument is t"at public

pay can be sacrificial, but at e/tremes it impedes attracting and retaining "ig" Guality staff.

In addition in public organi;ations, compensation system design must balance logics

of conseGuentiality and appropriateness (Barc" and lsen, 21'1). inancial incentie systems

typically rest on t"e assumption t"at indiiduals are self$interested and employee self$interest

and organi;ational goals are best aligned t"roug" t"e distribution of e/trinsic re:ards

(Dec7op, Bangel N #ir7a, 2111 erraro, Pfeffer N 4utton, &+ "os"al, &+). 6o:eer,

t"eories about public serice motiation assume t"at indiiduals are =internally motied> by

intrinsic re:ards of public serice (Perry N %ise, 211). A gro:ing body of researc" on

motiation suggests t"at :"ile some indiiduals are self$interested and motiated by

indiidualistic, rational, and material motiations, ot"ers are motiated by e/periences and

identities t"at t"ey receie from being =ot"er motiated,> suc" as t"e ability to ma7e social

contributions or t"e social acceptance of complying :it" normatie alues (#"et7oic", &*

erraro, Pfeffer N 4utton, &+ rey N sterlo", &+ "os"al, &+).

%ide pay dispersion t"at results from pay for performance systems may conflict :it"

employees? public serice alues, resulting in little or no lin7 bet:een performance and pay

(Dec7op, Bangel N #ir7a, 2111). or e/ample, e/trinsic re:ards may signal s:itc"ing alue

from normatie alues to an e/pectation t"at =doing oneCs duty :it"out e/tra pay is not

enoug" (rey N sterlo", &+). In a study of public utility employees, pay for performance

negated organi;ational citi;ens"ip be"aior for t"ose employees :it" lo: alue commitment

(Dec7off, Bangel N #ir7a, 2111). %"en employee and employer interests are not aligned, t"e

=performance pay lin7 is t"e main employment e/c"ange> (p. &&) per"aps proiding a

disincentie for employees to engage in e/tra role be"aiors. or t"ose :"o "ae "ig" leels

of alue commitment pay for performance "ad no statistically significant impact on

performance. %e beliee it is in relatiely rare instances, suc" as t"ose reported by Dec7off,

2


17/43

Bangel and #ir7a (2111) and #o"en and Burnane (21'+), t"at performance$related pay

=cro:ds in> rat"er t"an cro:ds out intrinsic motiation.

Anot"er e/ception to t"e inunction to aoid performance$related pay (in contrast to

pay lin7ed to promotions) is t"at t"ere is t"e limited eidence t"at pro$social organi;ational

be"aiours may be influenced by t"e e/istence of group$based incentie plans, suc" as profit

s"aring and gains"aring (Dec7op, Bangel #irca, 2111 %elbourne and #able, 211+). In a

study of sc"ool$based incentie systems in t"ree U4 sc"ool systems, for e/ample, 8elley

(2111) found t"at sc"ool$based incentie en"ance teac"er performance by encouraging

professional interactions, :"ic" also sere as an effectie intrinsic motiation.

Tactic -: !esign compensation systems to emphasize long)term attractiveness

to employees and avoid performance)related pay that might crowd out

intrinsic motivations.

Integrating Public Service into +rgani#ational Mission and Strategy

rgani;ational ideologyKmanifested t"roug" mission and strategyKcan play a 7ey

role in s"aping employee be"aior (9"ompson and 5underson, &+). As 5arnard (21*')

notes, =...foresig"t, long purposes, "ig" ideals, are t"e basis for t"e persistence of cooperationO

(p &'&). Indiiduals :ill commit to an organi;ation and :or7 "ard to ac"iee its goals :"en

t"ey perceie t"at t"ere is a matc" bet:een t"e organi;ation?s ideology, manifested t"roug"

mission, ision and leaders"ip practices, and t"e indiidual?s alues. #reating suc" an

alignment occurs by articulating organi;ational mission t"at clearly reflects indiidual public

serice alues and fostering leaders"ip t"at can effectiely communicate and model suc"

alues.

!ase Mission and ,ision on )mployees Aspirations and ,alues

2-


18/43

or t"e last decade, public organi;ations "ae increasingly been pus"ed to deelop

mission statements t"at describe t"e purpose of t"e organi;ation and its ision. In contrast to

:or7 goals, compelling missions are broad, Gualitatie statements about t"e organi;ation?s

purpose, rat"er t"an Guantifiable production or financial measures. Bission statements t"at

energi;e employees are built upon common alues, flo:ing from employees? deeper alues

and beliefs (Den"ardt, 211*). or e/ample, during t"e closure of t"e oc7y lats !uclear

%eapons Plant, employees :ere motiated by a clear ision of a positie future t"at e/tended

:ell beyond eac" employee?s tenure :it" t"e organi;ation. Employees :ere motiated to

:or7 to:ards closing t"e plant and losing t"eir obs by a compelling ision of a clean and safe

landscape :it" no nuclear contamination (#ameron and Laine, &). Employees respond to

organi;ational mission statements and ot"er strategic communications only to t"e e/tent t"at

suc" documents communicate alues t"at fall :it"in employees =;one of e/isting alues>

(Paarlberg and Perry, &-).

%"ile it is important t"at public serice alues be communicated t"roug" formal

mission statements, alues are also transmitted t"roug" informal means, suc" as

organi;ational stories, myt"s, and symbols (DiIulio and DiIulio, 211 9rice and 5eyer,

2112). In describing "o: leaders infuse day$to$day be"aior :it" meaning and purpose,

4el;nic7 (21+-) describes t"e =elaboration of socially integrating myt"s> t"at use t"e language

of =uplift and idealism> to describe :"at is distinctie about t"e =aims and met"ods> of t"e

organi;ation (p. 2+2). Baynard$Boody and Bus"eno (&*) described "o: case reie:s in

staff meetings proided t"e conte/t for social :or7 staff and superisors to use story telling to

discuss dilemmas and e/periences in :ays t"at "eig"tened t"e possibility for =responsible

action.> During t"e closure of t"e oc7y lats !uclear %eapons Plant, leaders used isual

images to ma7e t"e goal of safe closure of t"e nuclear facility come alie. rgani;ational

leaders produced a before and after rendition of t"eir closed plant to motiate employees. In

addition, t"ey used acts, suc" as t"e demolition of 7ey buildings, to symboli;e t"eir mission of

2'


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a closed facility (#ameron and Laine, &). DiIulio and DiIulio (211) described t"e more

mundane use of logos and symbols on t$s"irts, ball caps and mugs as motiating :ays to

communicate t"e mission of t"e organi;ation.

Tactic 1: /rticulate and symbolize organization mission and vision in ways

that connect with employees0 zone of existing public service values.

Promote ,alue-!ased .eadership

In conceptuali;ing t"e relations"ip bet:een leaders"ip and et"ical be"aior, %imbus"

and 4"epard (211) suggest t"at t"e be"aior of organi;ational leaders and superisors is t"e

primary influence on employee be"aior. Employees :ill do :"at t"ey see t"eir superisors

do, rat"er t"an :"at t"e policy manual dictates. %"en faced :it" an et"ical dilemma at :or7,

indiiduals are most li7ely to consult t"eir =boss> rat"er t"an colleagues outside of t"e

:or7place (Posner and 4c"midt, 21'-).

An important leer to promote public serice alues is alue$based leaders"ip,

encompassing processes of serant, transformational, spiritual and aut"entic leaders"ip

(Aolio and ardner, &+). 9"ese alue$based models of leaders"ip inole processes by

:"ic" leaders communicate alues t"at raise follo:ers? consciousness about ideali;ed goals

and t"en get follo:ers to transcend t"eir o:n self$interest for t"e sa7e of larger goals. 9"ey

communicate "ig" e/pectations and inspire follo:ers to become part of larger goals,

stimulating follo:ers not only to c"ange t"eir o:n belief systems, but also to be creatie

problem solers (5ass, 21'+).

alue$based leaders communicate goals and alues, and model be"aiors t"at are

consistent :it" public serice alues. 9"ey raise t"eir follo:ers consciousness about ideali;ed

goals, by articulating "ig" standards of moral and et"ical conduct, and acting as prosocial

role models. Leaders :"o s"ape alues :it"in an organi;ation e/"ibit sincere and sustained

21


20/43

commitment to alues and c"annel t"eir ambitions into t"e success of t"e organi;ation and t"e

people around t"em (Aolio and ardner, &+). 9"ey deelop e/pectations of reciprocity by

offering respect and empat"y for follo:ers, as :ell as proiding follo:ers :it" t"e tools and

s7ills to gro:. In addition, alue$based leaders lead by e/ample, modelling =Jtransparent

decision ma7ing, confidence, optimism, "ope and resilience, and consistency bet:een t"eir

:ords and deeds> (Aolio and ardner, &+, p. *& ).alue$based leaders"ip reGuires t"at

organi;ations select indiiduals for positions of leaders"ip :"o e/"ibit alues t"at transcend

indiidual self$interest, suc" as social ustice, eGuality, beneolence, "onesty, and loyalty

(Aolio and arnder, &+).

Tactic 11: ncourage and reward the development of leaders who communicate and

model public service values.

$reating societal .egitimacy for Public Service

Up until t"is point, our strategies to influence t"e performance of public employees

"ae focused on indiidual leel strategies t"at eit"er select indiiduals :it" suc" alues or

employ organi;ational processes and practices to lin7 public serice alues and be"aior. ur

final strategy is to proactiely increase societal support for public serice alues and

management practices t"at support suc" alues. 9"ese strategies reGuire t"at organi;ational

leaders possess isionary s7ills to deelop broad understanding of t"e problem and proposed

solutions and political s7ills to turn a proposed solution into a specific policy or program

(#rosby and 5ryson, &+).

Fostering Institutional Societal Support for Public Service

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Indiiduals learn alues t"roug" social interactions in families, religious organi;ations,

(lanagan, et al., 211'), professional societies (Boyni"an and Pandey, &- Perry, 211-) and

educational institutions and programs (alston, &2). or e/ample, Perry (211-) finds t"at

professional affiliations are positiely related to ciic duty and self$sacrifice. Professions "ae

long adanced et"ical and moral norms of social ustice, t"e common good, and obligation to

public serice. Attac"ments to professional associations may also "elp sustain participation in

public by proiding on$going opportunities for participants to act upon t"eir public serice

motiation (Planty, 5o;ic7 and egnier, &). Anot"er group t"at "as a direct sta7e in

"eig"tening attention to public serice is labor unions. %"ile labor unions "ae often ta7en a

defensie position in relation to public serice, t"ere are clear e/amples of labor unions

deeloping a ne: ision on t"e public serice and :or7ing in a positie partners"ip :it"

goernment (arn"am, 6orton N %"ite, &+). If labor unions :ere to put public serice on

t"eir institutional agendas, it :ould increase t"e li7eli"ood of broader e/ternal legitimacy.

In educational settings, bot" formal ciic education and t"e discussion of ciics in

ot"er curricula may be associated :it" acceptance of democratic principles, political

participation, and a broader concern :it" societal issues (alston, &2) . An open classroom

climate seemed to be an essential element of any form of ciic education (6oog"e and 4tolle,

&*). Public leaders can en"ance t"e public serice alues of future generations of public

sector :or7ers t"roug" partners"ips :it" ot"er institutions t"at e/plicitly promote t"e

inclusion of public serice alues.

Tactic 12: oster institutional support for the incorporation of public service

values into professional and educational curriculum.

Providing +pportunities for /evelopmental )0periences

&2


22/43

Qout" e/periences contribute to a large e/tent to t"e s"aping of political attitudes and

be"aiors among adults (4tolle and 6oog"e, &). Early inolement in serice may

promote continued commitment to serice and an interest in public affairs by sociali;ing

yout" into public serice roles, creating a =ciic identity> and proiding opportunities to

practice coordinated action to:ards a common good (Qouniss, BcLellan and Qates, 211-

Planty, 5o;ic7 and egnier, &). Participation in oluntary groups and moements

introduces yout" to ideologies t"at transcend indiidual self$interests.

Early interactions :it" public serice beneficiaries also "elp young people to create a

connection :it" ot"ers by allo:ing t"em to see beneficiaries as indiiduals :it" comple/

needs t"at are connected to larger structural issues, fostering a commitment to not only

particular groups, but to broader policy issues (Planty, 5o;ic7 and egnier, &). 4uc"

deelopmental serice e/periences allo: yout" to internali;e pro$social motiations t"at may

materiali;e as public serice motiation in t"e :or7place. or e/ample, t"e Internationale

5ou:orde (International 5uilding Boement) "as built t"ousands of "ouses, c"urc"es,

sc"ools and medical centres, :"ile raising t"e social consciousness of yout" and proiding an

opportunity to e/press t"eir solidarity :it" t"e underpriileged.

Leaders can "elp facilitate suc" e/periences by deeloping partners"ips :it"

secondary and post$secondary institutions t"at encourage meaningful student interns"ips,

olunteerism, and serice learning e/periences (6ouston, &+ Le:is and ran7, &&).

4ome nations "ae long reGuired national serice (4"erraden and Bc5ride, &-), and

ot"er suc" "ae "ae proided opportunities for yout" to engage in serice t"roug" seeral

formal initiaties. In Europe t"e Qout" Partners"ip see7s to promote participation and

citi;ens"ip, :"ile in t"e United 4tate, a series of presidential initiaties , suc" as President

8ennedy?s Peace #orps, President 5us"?s 9"ousand Points of Lig"t, and President #linton?s

Ameri#orps (Perry and 9"omson, &), "ae also promoted public serice. 9"e U.4.

Presidential Banagement ello:s Program attracts young employees :"o "ae a clear

&&


23/43

interest in serice and public policy into goernment by offering early career opportunities for

young professionals. oernment leaders can ensure t"e e/istence of suc" national serice

leaders by engaging in political adocacy on be"alf of suc" initiaties, and :"en possible,

sponsoring serice members.

Tactic 1: /dvocate for and provide opportunities for pre)service experiences.

/iscuss the ole of Public Service Across the Society

ne facet of creating e/ternal legitimacy for public serice is to ma7e public serice

an acceptable topic for discussion across t"e society. Unli7e t"e period in t"e United 4tates

after President 8ennedy?s election :"en public serice :as :idely discussed and alued,

public r"etoric and discourse in many parts of t"e :orld "as been indifferent and sometimes

"ostile to open discussion and debate about public serice.

Alt"oug" :e do not beliee t"at public serice :ill mobili;e mass participation, :e

beliee some steps can be ta7en to create climates more receptie for public serice. Effort by

groups suc" as t"e U.4.$based Partners"ip for Public 4erice is an organi;ed effort to eleate

debate about t"e role of public serice in society. 3ust as President 8ennedy "elped to eleate

public regard for public serice in an earlier era, political leaders must also be called to ta7e

positionsKespecially to articulate t"e case for public serice. 9"e genre of =political

biograp"y> and campaign manifesto "as become a necessity for political candidates in recent

years. 9"ese media (see, for e/ample, Lieberman, &) could be anot"er a means for

establis"ing a more faorable climate. Bass mediaKne:spapers, teleision, :eblogsKcould

also facilitate :ider debate about public serice.

Tactic 1": 3ring public service to the attention of the broader society.

&*


24/43

$onclusion

n$going c"anges in t"e nature of :or7 and t"e c"aracteristics of t"e labor pool, as

:ell as declining resources aailable to support goernment actiities, are pus"ing

goernment agencies across t"e globe to become more effectie in attracting, retaining, and

motiating employees (Perry, Besc", and Paarlberg, &). %"ile many efforts to improe

t"e performance of goernment employees and t"eir respectie organi;ations "ae focused on

increased material incenties and bureaucratic efforts to control employee actions, :e "ae

proposed 2 tactics to improe performance t"roug" managing t"e alues t"at motiate public

sector employees. 9able 2 summari;es t"ese tactics. 9"ese tactics encourage managers at all

leels of t"e organi;ation to use management tools and processes to promote public serice

motiation. #onstructing systems t"at promote and support public serice motiation inoles

radical c"anges from past practice and are not :it"out costs. %e conclude :it" some general

remar7s.

irst, t"ere may also be a dar7 side to alues management. #reating a :or7force :it"

s"ared public serice alues in"erently limits t"e diersity of perspecties :it"in an

organi;ation and may create an enironment in :"ic" indiiduals get lost in t"e collectie

(Alesson, N %illmott, && 8reiner, 6ollensbe, and 4"eep, &). Employees may also feel

t"at efforts to tap into t"eir core alues are manipulatie and perceie t"at t"ey are being

=engineered.> Pressure to engage in pro$social be"aiors may lead to oerload, increased ob

stress, and tension bet:een :or7 and "ome life (5olino and 9urnley, &+). or e/ample

igoda$adot (&) finds t"at in "er study of Israeli sc"ool teac"ers t"at almost t"ree$

fourt"s felt strong pressure to engage in :"at "ad once been considered =e/tra> be"aiors.

Banagers :"o attempt to lead based upon strong alues also run t"e ris7 of being accused of

="ypocrisy> :"en employees perceie t"at managers are iolating organi;ation alues (#"a

&


25/43

and Edmondson, &). Also, t"ere are times t"at een :"en leaders are true to an et"ical set

of alues, t"ey may lac7 t"e legitimacy to positiely influence follo:ers. Eagly (&+)

suggests t"at follo:ers are less li7ely to accord :omen and minority leaders t"e ability to

promote alues on t"eir be"alf. inally, alt"oug" :e "ae largely emp"asi;ed t"e motiating

influence of positie organi;ational missions, sometimes indiiduals in public organi;ations

must engage in unpleasant :or7K:or7 t"at is p"ysically or socially =dirty> or :or7 t"at

inflicts "arm on ot"ersKin order to ac"iee a larger societal good (As"fort", et al, &-

Bolins7y and Bargolis, &+). In t"ese conte/ts, employees :"o are motiated by a strong

alue set t"at emp"asi;es serice to ot"ers may e/perience great conflict.

4econd, :e caution t"at no one tactic :ill improe indiidual or organi;ational

performanceKtactics "ae reinforcing and synergistic effects (#ombs et al, &). or

e/ample, a strong public serice ideology :ill only be effectie if employees s"are t"ese

public serice alues. 4imilarly, recruiting and "iring employees :it" strong public serice

alues :ill only positiely motiate employees if employees perceie t"at t"eir tas7s are

significant and t"at t"ey :or7 in enironments t"at proide t"em :it" t"e opportunities to act

upon t"eir motiations. As noted earlier, people :"o oin an organi;ation :it" a strong

commitment to serice become frustrated and angry :"en t"eir desire to sere is constrained

by institutional and organi;ational rules (Boyni"an and Pandey, &-). Implementing public

serice motiation reGuires integration of recruitment, selection, and appraisal of indiiduals

:it" ob design, organi;ational culture and social relations"ips, incenties systems and

organi;ational strategy. In doing so, public serice becomes part of all organi;ation strategic

initiaties. 4c"olars and practitioners :ill need to :or7 toget"er to better understand t"ese

comple/ interactions.

inally, t"e process of managing public serice alues reGuires a ne: set of s7ill sets

for organi;ational leaders. In addition, to t"e traditional s7ill set reGuired to effectiely plan

and control organi;ational actiities, alues management reGuires t"at organi;ational leaders

&+


26/43

also be adept at a myriad of social actiities. alues management reGuires t"at leaders be able

to translate comple/ and often ague goals, be adept at using stories and ot"er symbols to tap

into employeesC core public serice alues, and "ae "ig" leels of social intelligence to be

sensitie to and comfortable facilitating social interactions in t"e :or7place.

&


27/43

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28/43

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41/43

Table 21 Summary of Strategies and Tactics for Applying Public Service Motivation

Unit of

Analysis

4trategy 9actics

Individual #ntegrate P@4

into ?=4

processes

@elect based upon existing P@4

@ocialize individuals into expectations of Public

service behavior

Utilize performance appraisals that include

observations of behaviors that reflect public

service motivations

%ob +reate and

convey

meaning and

purpose in the

$obs

+onvey significance of $ob

stablish clear goals in line with existing public

service motivations

'or(

environment

+reate a

supporting

wor&

environment

for P@4

+reate wor& structures that enhance self)

regulation

!esign incentive systems that offer long)term

reinforcement of intrinsic motivations and donEt

crowd out intrinsic motivations.

ncourage wor& place interactions that facilitate

public service motivation

+rgani#ation #ntegrate

public service

into mission8

strategy8 and

/rticulate organization vision and action reflects

commitment to public service motivations

!evelop value )based leadership

2


42/43

leadership of

organization

Society >btain

external

legitimacy for

public service

Partner with societal institutions to promote

public service motivations.

/dvocate for and provide opportunities for pre)

service experiences

Use a variety of mass media mediums to bring

public service to the attention of a broader

society

&


43/43

strategies for applying public service motivation

Documents