streamlined lca study of apple packaging systems...contents 1 introduction 1 1.1 introducing life...

Environmental Resources Management Eaton House, Wallbrook Court,

North Hinksey Lane Oxford OX2 0QS

Telephone 01865 384800 Facsimile 01865 384848 Email [email protected] http://www.ermuk.com

FINAL REPORT

Marks & Spencer Plc

Streamlined LCA Study of Apple Packaging Systems

January 2003

FINAL REPORT

Marks & Spencer Plc

Streamlined LCA Study of Apple Packaging Systems

January 2003

Reference 8819

This report has been prepared by Environmental Resources Management the trading name of Environmental Resources Management Limited, with all reasonable skill, care and diligence within the terms of the Contract with the client, incorporating our General Terms and Conditions of Business and taking account of the resources devoted to it by agreement with the client. We disclaim any responsibility to the client and others in respect of any matters outside the scope of the above. This report is confidential to the client and we accept no responsibility of whatsoever nature to third parties to whom this report, or any part thereof, is made known. Any such party relies on the report at their own risk.

In line with our company environmental policy we purchase paper for our documents only from ISO 14001 certified or EMAS verified manufacturers. This includes paper with the Nordic Environmental Label.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT MARKS & SPENCER PLC

I

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Introduction This report details the results of the Streamlined Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Study conducted for Marks and Spencer Plc. The purpose of the study is to determine the energy and waste footprint of three different apple packaging systems. The 'cradle-to-grave' energy consumption and waste generation for each packaging system has been identified and quantified and environmental profiles produced. The study quantifies the energy and waste footprint resulting from the production of raw materials and energy, the manufacture, transport and sale, and the use of the packaging. Energy consumption associated with the packaging has been traced back to resources extracted from the environment. Energy consumption has therefore been reported as extracted energy and relates to the calorific value of the resources extracted. Waste that can be attributed to the packaging or failure of the packaging at each stage of the life cycle has been determined.

Life Cycle Waste and Energy Profiles Table 1 details the waste generated from each life cycle stage for each packaging type. The results show that the loose packaging systems result in the largest amount of total waste but the least amount of non-biodegradable waste, compared with the ‘four pack’ systems. In terms of total waste, there is no significant difference between the biodegradable and non-biodegradable systems. Table 2 details the extracted energy consumption from each life cycle stage for each packaging type. The results show that the biodegradable ‘four pack’ system results in lower energy consumption than the other two systems. However, the loose system performs better than the non-biodegradable ‘four pack’ system. The better performance of the biodegradable ‘four pack’ system is due to the lower energy requirements of packaging production.


II

Table 1 Life Cycle Waste Profiles for the Three Packaging Systems per Tonne of Apples Purchased

Life Cycle Stage Loose kg

Non-biodegradable Four Pack kg

Biodegradable Four Pack kg

Packaging Production 18.4 4.4 3.9Transport to Packing Plant 0.0 0 0.0Packaging Plant 79.9 55.6 55.6Transport to Distribution Centre 0.0 0 0.0Distribution Centre 0.0 0 0.0Transport to Retail Outlet 0.0 0 0.0Retail 89.9 51.1 51.1Transport by Customer 0.0 0 0.0Customer Use 9.2 17.51 17.5Other 2.46 2.5Burden Associated with the Production of Wasted Apples

4.9 3.9 3.9

Total 202.2 135.0 134.4Recycling Benefit -16.4 0.0 0.0

System Total 185.9 135.0 134.4Non-biodegradable Waste 5.7 26.7 13.5

Packaging Waste 66 25 25

Table 2 Life Cycle Energy Profiles for the Three Packaging Systems per Tonne of Apples Purchased

Life Cycle Stage Loose MJ

Non-biodegradable Four Pack MJ

Biodegradable Four Pack MJ

Packaging Production 2342 2060 1408Transport to Packing Plant 5 35 2Packaging Plant 85 122 122Transport to Distribution Centre 5 35 35Distribution Centre 8 63 63Transport to Retail Outlet 7 75 75Retail 108 49 49Transport by Customer 21 79 79Customer Use 0 0 0Other 0 0Burden Associated with the Production of Wasted Apples

730 587 587

Total 3310 3104 2419Recycling Benefit -492 0 0

System Total 2818 3104 2419System Total Excluding Allocation

Concerns (Distribution Centre, Retail and Customer Transport)

2681 2913 2229


III

Conclusions The assumptions used in this study with regard to the lifetime of reusable plastic boxes, the implications of using biodegradable plastic trays (we assumed that their performance is equal to that of non-biodegradable trays), the benefit of recycling card, the allocation of store energy, the allocation of distribution centre energy and customer transport lead to uncertainty with regard to the conclusions that can be drawn from the study. Accepting these uncertainties, the main conclusions that can be drawn are:

• biodegradable apple trays and the use of reusable plastic boxes provide significant benefit with regard to extracted energy consumption; and

• the use of ‘four packs’ results in less waste. The results of this study demonstrate that an increase in point of sale packaging does not necessarily result in more waste or in higher energy consumption across the life cycle.

CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 INTRODUCING LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT 1 1.1.1 Streamlined LCAs 1 1.2 THE JUSTIFICATION FOR USING A LIFE CYCLE APPROACH 2

2 GOAL AND SCOPE OF THE LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT 3

2.1 THE SYSTEM BOUNDARIES 3

3 LOOSE APPLE PACKAGING 5

3.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 5 3.2 MATERIAL FLOWS 5 3.3 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH APPLE PRODUCTION 6 3.4 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH MANUFACTURE OF APPLE PACKAGING 7 3.4.1 Euro-box 7 3.4.2 Apple Layers 7 3.5 PACKAGING PLANT ENERGY CONSUMPTION 8 3.6 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSPORT 8 3.7 DISTRIBUTION CENTRE 8 3.8 TRANSPORT FROM DISTRIBUTION CENTRE TO RETAIL OUTLET 8 3.9 PRODUCE AND CARRIER BAG MANUFACTURE 9 3.10 RETAIL OUTLET 9 3.11 TRANSPORT FROM RETAIL OUTLET 9 3.12 CONSUMER USE 10 3.13 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH WASTED APPLES 10 3.14 BENEFIT OF RECYCLING EURO-BOXES 10

4 NON-BIODEGRADABLE ‘FOUR PACK’ 11

4.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 11 4.2 MATERIAL FLOW 11 4.3 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH APPLE PRODUCTION 12 4.4 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH MANUFACTURE OF APPLE PACKAGING 13 4.4.1 Euro-crate 13 4.4.2 Apple Trays 13 4.4.3 uPVC Film 14 4.4.4 Labels 14 4.5 PACKAGING PLANT ENERGY CONSUMPTION 14 4.6 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSPORT 14 4.7 DISTRIBUTION CENTRE 15 4.8 TRANSPORT FROM DISTRIBUTION CENTRE TO RETAIL OUTLET 15 4.9 CARRIER BAG MANUFACTURE 16 4.10 RETAIL OUTLET 16 4.11 TRANSPORT FROM RETAIL OUTLET 16 4.12 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH WASTED APPLES 17

5 BIODEGRADABLE FOUR PACK 18

5.1 MATERIAL FLOW 18 5.2 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH APPLE PRODUCTION 19 5.3 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH MANUFACTURE OF APPLE PACKAGING 20 5.3.1 Euro-crate 20 5.3.2 Apple Trays 20 5.3.3 Biodegradable Film 21 5.3.4 Labels 21 5.4 PACKAGING PLANT ENERGY CONSUMPTION 21 5.5 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSPORT 21 5.6 DISTRIBUTION CENTRE 22 5.7 TRANSPORT FROM DISTRIBUTION CENTRE TO RETAIL OUTLET 22 5.8 CARRIER BAG MANUFACTURE 23 5.9 RETAIL OUTLET 23 5.10 TRANSPORT FROM RETAIL OUTLET 23 5.11 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRODUCTION OF WASTED APPLES 24

6 LIFE CYCLE WASTE PROFILE 25

7 LIFE CYCLE ENERGY PROFILE 26

8 CONCLUSIONS 27


1

1 INTRODUCTION

This report details the results of the Streamlined Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Study conducted for Marks and Spencer (M&S) Plc. The purpose of the study is to determine the energy and waste footprint of three different apple packaging systems. The 'cradle-to-grave' energy consumption and waste generation for each packaging systems has been identified and quantified and environmental profiles produced. The study quantifies the energy and waste footprint resulting from the production of raw materials and energy, the manufacture, transport and sale, and the use of the packaging. Energy consumption associated with the packaging has been traced back to resources extracted from the environment. Energy consumption has therefore been reported as extracted energy and relates to the calorific value of the resources extracted. Waste that can be attributed to the packaging or failure of the packaging at each stage of the life cycle has been determined.

1.1 INTRODUCING LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Business interacts with the environment through a number of routes: the production and supply of materials and energies they use; their business operations; the disposal of wastes, and the use and disposal of their products. At each of these stages in the life cycle, natural resources are consumed and emissions (to air, water and land) are released to the environment. This view of a business is referred to as the environmental footprint. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a standardised methodology allowing practitioners to trace back to the environment all of the resources consumed and all of the emissions to air, water and land at each stage in the manufacture, use and disposal of products. These exchanges with the environment are then related to potential environmental impacts such as global warming, resource depletion and ozone depletion.

1.1.1 Streamlined LCAs

In streamlined LCA, the study scope is restricted in order to target specific issues or aspects of the footprint. Restricting the extent of the system studied, the resolution of the data collected or the range of environmental impacts/issues to be addressed facilitates the use of LCA as a management tool.


2

Streamlined LCAs provide valuable information about key stages of the life cycle or specific issues, such as the energy, global warming and resource depletion footprint of a company, without requiring the resources of a full LCA.

1.2 THE JUSTIFICATION FOR USING A LIFE CYCLE APPROACH

By taking a life cycle approach, the benefits and dis-benefits of packaging choice can be realised. Packaging provides a positive service in protecting food and goods during storage, distribution, retail and storage in the home. This service results in environmental benefit as it protects the resources that have been expended in producing the product it protects. However, the manufacture and use of packaging results in environmental impact. To make informed decisions regarding the use of packaging, it is essential to have a complete picture of packaging systems, both of the packaging itself and the product it is going to contain. Only LCA can provide this holistic function. The balance of environmental impact between packaging and product is not the only factor in making packaging decisions. Both packaging and product serve economic functions, they generate income, and point of sale packaging provides an advertising function to assist in the sale of the product. An objective of managers, with regard to the environmental performance of packaging systems, is to minimize the environmental impacts while maintaining or improving the advertising and protection functions of the packaging.


3

2 GOAL AND SCOPE OF THE LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

The objective of the study was to quantify the life time energy consumption and waste generation for three packaging systems for apples. The study determined the significance of each life cycle stage and informs Marks and Spencer Plc. of the implications of packaging choices for the life cycle energy and waste burden associated with each packaging system. The scope defines the boundaries of the systems to be studied, the data required, the functional unit and any assumptions and limitations. The packaging systems to be assessed were specified by M&S as:

• loose apples; • non-biodegradable ‘four pack’; and • biodegradable ‘four pack’.

The study will be used to inform packaging choice. This study has not been subjected to external peer review. The functional unit for the study was the purchase of 1000 kg of apples by the consumer.

2.1 THE SYSTEM BOUNDARIES

The system boundary separates the system of interest from the technosphere (the economic system outside the system of interest) and the natural environment. Defining the system boundary addresses what is included and excluded from the system under study. The system diagram for the three packaging systems is provided graphically in Figure 2.1. The following life cycle stages have been included:

• extraction of resources and production of materials; • transport; • packing; • distribution and retail; • consumer transport; and • use.


4

End of life disposal has been excluded due to the insignificance of energy consumption associated with disposal in comparison with other life cycle stages, and because waste has been assessed as the end point.

Figure 2.1 System diagram

ENVIRONMENT: RESOURCES AS EXTRACTED ENERGY

WASTE

ENERGY

SUPPL Y

SYSTEMS

OTHER

P RODUCT

S YS TEMS

T

T

T

T

Distribution Centre

Retail

Consumer Use

Packaging Production

PackingProduction of

Wasted Apples

Recycling Benefit

-ve Energy-ve Waste


5

3 LOOSE APPLE PACKAGING

3.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

Bulk apples are delivered to the packing plant (Worldwide Fruit) where they are packaged in euro boxes in layers of apples separated by trays and transported to an M&S distribution centre. The apples are dispatched from the distribution centre to M&S stores where they are placed on display. The packaging is either baled for recycling or placed in a bin for collection and disposal. Customers select and bag the apples, in plastic produce bags. At the pay counter, customers pack the bagged apples, in a carrier bag, with other shopping and then transport them home. Unselected apples are placed in a bin for collection and disposal. Once home, the customer disposes of the bags and consumes the apples, rejecting spoiled apples. Rejection may occur due to damage whilst in transport to the home or damage prior to purchase. Table 3.1 details the packaging components associated with the loose apple system.

Table 3.1 Weight of Packaging Components

Packaging Unit Weight g Material Eurobox 376 Recycled Cardboard Apple tray/layer 35 EPS Produce bag 3 Polyethylene Carrier bag 20 Polyethylene

3.2 MATERIAL FLOWS

Following the collection of data from Marks & Spencer and from suppliers, material flow diagrams have been generated, see Figure 3.1. The diagrams detail the flow of materials and wastes associated with the loose apple system.


6

Figure 3.1 Loose Apple System

3.3 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH APPLE PRODUCTION

To determine the benefits of reducing wastage using packaging, it is important to know the value of the product in comparison with the packaging. Using data for the production of apples in the United States (Costs and Returns for Fresh Market Apples, 1996, Conventional Production Practices North Eastern United States; Rutgers, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station), it has been possible to determine the extracted energy that is associated with the production of a tonne of apples, see Table 3.2. Using this data for every tonne of apples purchased by the customer, 6149 MJ of extracted energy is consumed in the production of apples. The energy content of the apples has been ignored, as it is negligible (0.0002 MJ per kg).

Table 3.2 Burdens Associated with Apple Growing per Tonne of Apples Produced

Input Quantity kg Extracted Energy Consumed MJ

Solid Waste Produced kg

Diesel 24 1350 0 Lime 168 1091 37 Pesticides 11 2520 0 Fertiliser 40 472 0 Grade outs 111 Total 243 5433 148

Apple Flow

32.05 Kg31.41 Kg31.41 Kg

0.64 Kg0.00 Kg31.41 Kg

Eurobox Flow

Total Waste = 48.33

200km200km

5.88 Kg5.85 Kg5.85 Kg

0.03 Kg0.00 Kg5.85 Kg

Layer Flow

Total Waste = 6.77

200km200km

0.00 Kg9.17 Kg

Bag flowLoose Bag 3 5 Kg

C. Bag 4.17 Kg

Loose Bag 5 Kg

C. Bag 4.17 Kg

Loose Bag 5 Kg

C. Bag 4.17 Kg

Total Waste = 10.42

200km

16.28 Kg

0.89 Kg

1.25 Kg

1131.86 Kg1052.63 Kg1052.63 Kg

79.23 Kg0.00 Kg52.63 Kg

1000 Kg

Total Waste = 131.86

200km

Customer Store Distribution Centre

Packaging plant

Apple Growing

Store Distribution Centre

Packaging plant

Box Production


Packaging plant

Layer Production

Bag Production

Distribution CentreStoreCustomer

Apple Flow

32.05 Kg31.41 Kg31.41 Kg

0.64 Kg0.00 Kg31.41 Kg

Eurobox Flow

Total Waste = 48.33

200km200km

5.88 Kg5.85 Kg5.85 Kg

0.03 Kg0.00 Kg5.85 Kg

Layer Flow

Total Waste = 6.77

200km200km

0.00 Kg9.17 Kg

Bag flowLoose Bag 3 5 Kg

C. Bag 4.17 Kg

Loose Bag 5 Kg

C. Bag 4.17 Kg

Loose Bag 5 Kg

C. Bag 4.17 Kg

Total Waste = 10.42

200km

16.28 Kg

0.89 Kg

1.25 Kg

1131.86 Kg1052.63 Kg1052.63 Kg

79.23 Kg0.00 Kg52.63 Kg

1000 Kg

Total Waste = 131.86

200km


Packaging plant

Apple Growing


Packaging plant

Box Production


Packaging plant

Layer Production

Bag Production

Distribution CentreStoreCustomer


7

3.4 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH MANUFACTURE OF APPLE PACKAGING

3.4.1 Euro-box

The euro-box is produced from recycled fibres. For the production of euro-boxes, we have used life cycle data for the production of cardboard boxes with offset printing, see Table 3.3. In this process, 20% of the cardboard is lost. Therefore, for a 1 kg box, 1.2 kg cardboard is needed. Below, the extracted energy consumption and solid waste generation associated with the manufacture of a euro box, is presented in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Euro-box Manufacture

Energy Contributor Energy MJ per kg of boxes

Solid Waste kg per kg of boxes

Cardboard (recycled) 18.5 0.194Fabrication 7.1 0.314

Total 25.6 0.508Source: BUWAL 250 1996 (Adjusted for UK electricity) The solid waste burden associated with the production of the 32.05 kg of euro-boxes entering the packing plant per tonne of apples purchased by the customer equates to 16.28 kg. The extracted energy burden associated with the production of the 32.05 kg of euro-boxes entering the packing plant per tonne of apples purchased by the customer equates to 820.48 MJ.

3.4.2 Apple Layers

The apple layers/trays used for packing apples for M&S are made out of moulded plastic foam or moulded cardboard. This study is concerned with foam trays. Data from APME detailing the energy requirements and solid waste generation associated with the production of thermoformed expanded polystyrene products has been used (Eco-profiles of the European Plastics Industry: Report 10, 1997). Extracted energy per kg of EPS packaging is 103.79 MJ. Solid waste generation is 0.152 kg per kg of EPS packaging. The solid waste burden associated with the production of the 5.88 kg of apple layers entering the packing plant equates to 0.89 kg. The extracted energy burden associated with the production of the 5.88 kg of apple layers entering the packing plant equates to 610 MJ.


8

3.5 PACKAGING PLANT ENERGY CONSUMPTION

The packing of apples in euro-boxes consumes 0.24 MJ electricity per box. For every tonne of apples purchased by the customer, 83.5 filled boxes leave the packing plant. The filling of these boxes consumes 85.4 MJ extracted energy.

3.6 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSPORT

For the purposes of this study, it has been assumed that the apples and packaging materials are transported 200 miles to the packing plant. For the purposes of bulk transport, we have used an extracted energy use of 0.608MJ per tonne-km.

Table 3.4 Transport Energy Use

Component From-To Weight kg

Distance km

Tonne-km Energy MJ

Euro-box Manufacture to Packaging Plant 32.05 200 6.41 3.90 Tray/layer Manufacture to Packaging Plant 5.88 200 1.176 0.72 4.61 Euro-box Packing Plant to Distribution centre 31.41 200 6.282 3.82 Tray/layer Packing Plant to Distribution centre 5.85 200 1.17 0.71 4.53

3.7 DISTRIBUTION CENTRE

In total all M&S distribution centres use 42 million kWh of electricity and 39 million kWh of gas. This equates to a total extracted energy of 226 million kWh or 814 million MJ. For the purposes of this study, energy use has been allocated on a value basis. Total sales of goods amounted to £7269 million, of which foods accounted for £3421 millions. At the distribution centre, apple packaging accounts for 3.4% of the gross weight of packaged apples. At a unit cost of £1.99 per kg, the value of the packaged apples transferred at the distribution centre is £2094.74, of which 3.4% can be allocated to the packaging, or £74.61. Therefore, 8.36 MJ of extracted energy can be allocated to the packaging (0.112 MJ per £).

3.8 TRANSPORT FROM DISTRIBUTION CENTRE TO RETAIL OUTLET

The distribution of one box of apples to an M&S retail outlet uses 0.046 kg diesel. This equates to 2.45 MJ extracted energy per box. On a mass allocation basis, apples would account for 96.6% of this. On this basis, each kg of apples consumes 0.188 MJ of extracted energy and packaging and each kg of packaging consumes 0.007 MJ of extracted energy.


9

The transport of apples from the distribution centre to the store consumes 198 MJ. The transport of packaging consumed 6.95 MJ.

3.9 PRODUCE AND CARRIER BAG MANUFACTURE

The average customer purchases two carrier bags of food shopping (9.6 kg of food) and the average weight of loose apples purchased is 600 g. An average carrier bag weighs 20g and a produce bag weighs 3g. This equates to 5.5g of polyethylene bag packaging (3g of produce bag and 2.5g of carrier bag) for every 600g of apples purchased. The purchase of 1000 kg of apples would require 9.17 kg of bags. Using APME data for the production of film (Eco-profiles of the European Plastics Industry: Report 10, 1997), 99.4 MJ extracted energy per kg and 0.136 kg solid waste per kg, this bag usage equates to 911.5 MJ extracted energy and 1.25 kg of solid waste.

3.10 RETAIL OUTLET

For the purposes of this study, energy use has been allocated on a value basis, see Table 2.6. Total sales of goods amounted to £7269 million, of which foods accounted for £3421 million.

Table 3.5 Store Energy Use

Fuel Total GWh Extracted Energy GWh Extracted Energy kWh/£

Oil 4 5 0.001 Gas 175 196 0.027 Electricity 637 2726 0.375

Total 2927 0.403

At a unit cost of £1.99 per kg, the value of the packaged apples entering the store is £2095, of which 3.4% can be allocated to the packaging, or £74.61. Therefore the extracted energy associated with packaging is 30 kWh or 108 MJ.

3.11 TRANSPORT FROM RETAIL OUTLET

It has been assumed that the majority of shoppers use the car to go shopping. An average travel distance of 7 miles and an average shop of 9.6 kg has been assumed (M&S estimate). This equates to 1.2 km/kg of shopping. Using extracted energy data for car travel, 4.93 MJ/km, the weight of loose produce bags associated with one tonne of apples is 3.5 kg. This equates to 20.7 MJ of extracted energy associated with packaging.


10

3.12 CONSUMER USE

For the purposes of this study, no energy burden is allocated to the use and disposal of the packaging. The customer disposes of 9.17 kg of packaging waste (produce and carrier bags).

3.13 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH WASTED APPLES

Apple wastage totalled 131.36 kg per tonne of apples purchased. This equates to 729.7 MJ extracted energy and 4.86 kg of solid waste (apple grade outs not included).

3.14 BENEFIT OF RECYCLING EURO-BOXES

Both M&S and Worldwide Fruit recycle euro-boxes. If we assume that the recycled cardboard offsets the use of virgin wood pulp, then the production burden for that virgin pulp is avoided. On a weight for weight basis, the recycling of 1 kg of cardboard would offset 30.1 MJ of extracted energy. M&S recycle approximately 50% of cardboard and Worldwide Fruit 100%. This equates to 16.35 kg of recycled cardboard per tonne of apples purchased and provides an offset extracted energy burden of 492 MJ.


11

4 NON-BIODEGRADABLE ‘FOUR PACK’

4.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

Bulk apples are delivered to the packhouse (Worldwide Fruit) where they are packed four per plastic foam tray, wrapped in plastic film and labelled. These ‘four packs’ are placed in Euro-crates and transported to an M&S distribution centre. The apples are dispatched from the distribution centre to M&S stores where they are placed on display. The euro-crates are returned for reuse. ‘four packs’ that are unable to be sold are placed in a bin, by M&S staff, for collection and disposal. The ‘four packs’ of apples are selected, packed with other shopping in carrier bags and transported home by the customer. Once home the customer disposes of the packaging and consumes the apples. Table 4.1 details the packaging components for the ‘four pack’ system.

Table 4.1 Weight of Packaging Components per ‘Four Pack’

Packaging Unit Weight g Material Euro-crate 1850 Polypropylene Apple tray 4 EPS Film 3 PVC Label <1 Paper Carrier bag 20 Polyethylene

4.2 MATERIAL FLOW

Following the collection of data from M&S and suppliers material flow diagrams have been generated, see Figure 4.1. The diagrams detail the flow of materials and wastes associated with the loose apple system.


12

Figure 4.1 ‘Four Pack’ Material Flow


To determine the benefits of reducing wastage using packaging, it is important to know the value of the product in comparison with the packaging. Using data for the production of apples in the United States (Costs and Returns for Fresh Market Apples, 1996, Conventional Production Practices North Eastern United States; Rutgers, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station) it has been possible to determine the extracted energy hat is associated with the production of a tonne of apples, see Table 4.2. Using this data, for every tonne of apples purchased by the customer 6149 MJ of extracted energy is consumed in the production of apples. The energy content of the apples has been ignored, as it is negligible (0.0002 MJ per kg).

Apple FlowDistribution

CentreStore

1105.75 Kg1050.42 Kg Packaging plant

1050.42 Kg

55.29 Kg0.00 Kg50.42 Kg

Apple Growing

Customer 1000 Kg

Total Waste = 105.71 200km

Film Flow

269.9 Kg

Crate Flow

7.00 KgTray Flow

6.67 Kg

5.53 Kg5.25 Kg5.25 Kg

0.28 Kg0.00 Kg0.25 Kg

Total Waste = 6.93 200km200km

5.00 Kg

5.00.. Kg

Distribution Centre

StoreCustomer Packaging plant

Film Production

1.4 Kg

Bag flowDistribution

CentreBag

Production

0.00 Kg4.17 Kg

C. Bag 4.17 Kg C. Bag 4.17 Kg C. Bag 4.17 Kg

Total Waste = 4.77

200km

StoreCustomer

0.6 Kg

Total Waste = 8.05

7.04 Kg7.00 Kg

0.04 Kg0.00 Kg0.34 Kg 200km200km

6.67 Kg 1.01 Kg

Tray Production


Packaging plant

Label Flow

Total Waste = 2.65Kg

1.75 Kg

Distribution Centre

1.75 KgPackaging

Plant

1.75 Kg

0.00 Kg0.08 Kg 200km200km

1.67 Kg

167 Kg

Label Production

0.9 Kg

Customer Store

Distribution Centre

269.9KgPackaging

Plant

269.9 KgCrate

Production200km200km

0.5 Kg

Store2.46 Kg

Total waste = 2.96


CentreStore


1050.42 Kg

55.29 Kg0.00 Kg50.42 Kg

Apple Growing

Customer 1000 Kg


Film Flow

269.9 Kg

Crate Flow

7.00 KgTray Flow

6.67 Kg

5.53 Kg5.25 Kg5.25 Kg

0.28 Kg0.00 Kg0.25 Kg


5.00 Kg

5.00.. Kg

Distribution Centre


Film Production

1.4 Kg


CentreBag

Production

0.00 Kg4.17 Kg


Total Waste = 4.77

200km

StoreCustomer

0.6 Kg

Total Waste = 8.05

7.04 Kg7.00 Kg

0.04 Kg0.00 Kg0.34 Kg 200km200km

6.67 Kg 1.01 Kg

Tray Production


Packaging plant

Label Flow


1.75 Kg

Distribution Centre

1.75 KgPackaging

Plant

1.75 Kg

0.00 Kg0.08 Kg 200km200km

1.67 Kg

167 Kg

Label Production

0.9 Kg

Customer Store

Distribution Centre

269.9KgPackaging

Plant

269.9 KgCrate


0.5 Kg

Store2.46 Kg

Total waste = 2.96


13


Input Quantity kg Extracted Energy consumed MJ

Solid Waste produced kg

Diesel 24 1350 0 Lime 168 1091 37 Pesticides 11 2520 0 Fertiliser 40 472 0 Grade outs 111 Total 243 5433 148


4.4.1 Euro-crate

The euro-crate is produced from polypropylene. The production of one kilogram of moulded polypropylene product consumes 124.9 MJ and results in the generation of 0.1918 kg of solid waste (APME, Eco-profiles of the European Plastics Industry: Report 10, 1997). The solid waste burden associated with the production of the 269.9 kg of Euro-crates entering the packing plant per tonne of apples purchased by the customer equates to 51.76 kg. The extracted energy burden associated with the production of the 269.9 kg of euro-crates entering the packing plant per tonne of apples purchased by the customer equates to 33 711 MJ. However, the euro-crates are reused numerous times, so the energy and waste burden should be allocated on a lifetime basis (number of uses). If we assume a lifetime of 100 uses, energy consumption associated with the crates per tonne of apples would be 337 MJ and solid waste would be 0.51 kg.

4.4.2 Apple Trays

The apple trays used for packing apples for M&S are made out of moulded polystyrene plastic foam. Data from APME detailing the energy requirements and solid waste generation associated with the production of thermoformed expanded polystyrene products has been used (Eco-profiles of the European Plastics Industry: Report 10, 1997). Extracted energy per kg of EPS packaging is 103.79 MJ and solid waste generation is 0.152 kg per kg of EPS packaging. The solid waste burden associated with the production of the 7.04 kg of trays entering the packing plant equates to 1.01 kg. The extracted energy burden associated with the production of the 7.04 kg of trays entering the packing plant equates to 730.7 MJ.


14

4.4.3 uPVC Film

Data from APME detailing the energy requirements and solid waste generation associated with the production of PVC film products have been used (Eco-profiles of the European Plastics Industry: Report 10, 1997). Extracted energy per kg of uPVC film is 75.462 MJ and solid waste generation is 0.249 kg per kg of uPVC packaging. The solid waste burden associated with the production of the 5.53 kg of film entering the packing plant equates to 1.38 kg. The extracted energy burden associated with the production of the 5.53 kg of film entering the packing plant equates to 417.3 MJ.

4.4.4 Labels

The extracted energy, 91.5 MJ/kg, and solid waste generation, 0.51 kg/kg, for ‘paper- coated bleached’ (Pira International, PEMS Software) has been used to estimate the energy associated with the labels. For the 1.75 kg of labels, this equates to 160.1 MJ of extracted energy and 0.89 kg of solid waste.


The film sealing and packing of apple trays consumes 0.018 MJ electricity per ‘four pack’. For every tonne of apples purchased by the customer, 1750.7 ‘four packs’ leave the packing plant. The filling of these consumes 122 MJ extracted energy.


For the purposes of this study, it has been assumed that the apples and packaging materials are transported 200 miles to the packing plant. For the purposes of bulk transport, we have used an extracted energy use of 0.608MJ per tonne-km.


15


Component From-To Weightkg

Distance km

Tonne-km Energy MJ

Euro-crate/100 Manufacture to Packaging Plant 2.7 200 0.54 0.33Tray Manufacture to Packaging Plant 7.04 200 1.408 0.856Film Manufacture to Packaging Plant 5.53 200 1.106 0.67Label Manufacture to Packaging Plant 1.75 200 0.35 0.21

Total 2.1Euro-crate Packing Plant to Distribution centre 269.9 200 53.98 32.82Tray Packing Plant to Distribution centre 7.0 200 1.4 0.851Film Packing Plant to Distribution centre 5.25 200 1.05 0.64Label Packing Plant to Distribution centre 1.75 200 0.35 0.21

Total 34.52


In total, all M&S distribution centres use 42 million kWh of electricity and 39 million kWh of gas. This equates to a total extracted energy of 226 million kWh or 814 million MJ. For the purposes of this study, energy use has been allocated on a value basis. Total sales of goods amounted to £7269 million, of which foods accounted for £3421 million. At the distribution centre, apple packaging accounts for 21.5% of the gross weight of packaged apples. At a unit cost of £1.49 per ‘four pack’, the value of the packaged apples transferred at the distribution centre (1750.7 packs) is £2609, of which 21.5% can be allocated to the packaging, or £560.8. Therefore 62.81 MJ of extracted energy can be allocated to the packaging (0.112 MJ per £).


The distribution of one box of apples to an M&S retail outlet uses 0.046 kg of diesel. This equates to 2.45 MJ of extracted energy per box. A loaded box has a gross weight of 9.15 kg and contains 7.3 kg of apples. On a mass allocation basis, 79% of the energy consumption would be attributed to apples and the remaining 21% to packaging. For every tonne of apples purchased by the customer, 145.9 boxes of apples are dispatched to the stores. This equates to 75.1 MJ of which is attributable to the packaging.


16

4.9 CARRIER BAG MANUFACTURE

The average customer purchases two carrier bags of food shopping (9.6 kg of food) and on average one ‘four pack’ of apples. An average carrier bag weighs 20 g. This equates to 2.5 g of polyethylene bag packaging for every pack of apples purchased. The purchase of 1000 kg of apples would require 4.17 kg of bags. Using APME data for the production of film (Eco-profiles of the European Plastics Industry: Report 10, 1997), 99.4 MJ of extracted energy per kg and 0.136 kg of solid waste per kg, this bag usage equates to 414.5 MJ extracted energy and 0.57 kg of solid waste.

4.10 RETAIL OUTLET

For the purposes of this study, energy use has been allocated on a value basis (see Table 4.4). Total sales of goods amounted to £7269 million, of which foods accounted for £3421 million.


Fuel Total million kWh

Extracted Energy million kWh

Extracted Energy kWh/£

Oil 4 5 0.001 Gas 175 196 0.027 Electricity 637 2726 0.375

Total 2927 0.403

At a unit cost of £1.49 per pack, the value of the packaged apples displayed in the store is £2608, of which 1.3 % can be allocated to the packaging, or £33.91. Therefore, the extracted energy associated with packaging is 13.6kWh or 49.2 MJ. The crates have not been included in this calculation as the ’four packs’ are removed from these prior to display.


It has been assumed that the majority of shoppers use the car to go shopping. An average travel distance of 7 miles and an average shop of 9.6 kg has been assumed (M&S estimate). This equates to 1.2 km/kg of shopping. Using extracted energy data for car travel, 4.93 MJ/km, the weight of packaging (not including carrier bag) associated with one tonne of apples is 13.3 kg. This equates to 78.68 MJ of extracted energy associated with packaging.


17

4.12 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH WASTED APPLES

Apple wastage totalled 105.71 kg per tonne of apples purchased. This equates to 587.2 MJ extracted energy and 3.91 kg of solid waste (apple grade outs not included).


18

5 BIODEGRADABLE FOUR PACK

Bulk apples are delivered to the packhouse (Worldwide Fruit) where they are packed four per plastic foam tray, wrapped in plastic film and labelled. These ‘four packs’ are placed in euro-crates and transported to an M&S distribution centre. The apples are dispatched from the distribution centre to M&S stores where they are placed on display. The euro-crates are returned for reuse. The ‘Four Packs’ of apples are selected, packed with other shopping in carrier bags and transported home by the customer. Once home the customer disposes of the packaging and consumes the apples. Unselected/damaged/past display date ‘four packs’ are placed in a bin, by M&S staff, for collection and disposal. Table 5.1 details the packaging components for the ‘four pack’ system.

Table 5.1 Weight of Packaging Components per ‘Four Pack’

Packaging Unit Weight g Material Euro-crate 1850 Polypropylene Apple tray 4 Biodegradable Film 3 Biodegradable Label <1 Paper Carrier bag 20 Polyethylene

5.1 MATERIAL FLOW

Following the collection of data from Marks and Spencer and suppliers, material flow diagrams have been generated, see Figure 5.1. The diagrams detail the flow of materials and wastes associated with the loose apple system.


19

Figure 5.1 ‘Four Pack’ Material Flow


To determine the benefits of reducing wastage using packaging, it is important to know the value of the product in comparison with the packaging. Using data for the production of apples in the US (Costs and Returns for Fresh Market Apples, 1996, Conventional Production Practices North Eastern United States; Rutgers, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station), it has been possible to determine the extracted energy and that is associated with the production of a tonne of apples, see Table 2.1. Using this data, for every tonne of apples purchased by the customer 6149 MJ of extracted energy is consumed in the production of apples. The energy content of the apples has been ignored, as it is negligible (0.0002 MJ per kg).


CentreStore


1050.42 Kg

55.29 Kg0.00 Kg50.42 Kg

Apple Growing

Customer 1000 Kg


Film Flow

269.9 Kg

Crate Flow

7.00 KgTray Flow

6.67 Kg

5.53 Kg5.25 Kg5.25 Kg

0.28 Kg0.00 Kg0.25 Kg


5.00 Kg

5.00.. Kg

Distribution Centre


Film Production

1.3 Kg


CentreBag

Production

0.00 Kg4.17 Kg


Total Waste = 4.77

200km

StoreCustomer

0.6 Kg

Total Waste = 7.95

7.04 Kg7.00 Kg

0.04 Kg0.00 Kg0.34 Kg 200km200km

6.67 Kg 0.9 Kg

Tray Production


Packaging plant

Label Flow


1.75 Kg

Distribution Centre

1.75 KgPackaging

Plant

1.75 Kg

0.00 Kg0.08 Kg 200km200km

1.67 Kg

167 Kg

Label Production

0.8 Kg

Customer Store

Distribution Centre

269.9KgPackaging

Plant

269.9 KgCrate


0.5 Kg

Store2.46 Kg

Total waste = 2.96


CentreStore


1050.42 Kg

55.29 Kg0.00 Kg50.42 Kg

Apple Growing

Customer 1000 Kg


Film Flow

269.9 Kg

Crate Flow

7.00 KgTray Flow

6.67 Kg

5.53 Kg5.25 Kg5.25 Kg

0.28 Kg0.00 Kg0.25 Kg


5.00 Kg

5.00.. Kg

Distribution Centre


Film Production

1.3 Kg


CentreBag

Production

0.00 Kg4.17 Kg


Total Waste = 4.77

200km

StoreCustomer

0.6 Kg

Total Waste = 7.95

7.04 Kg7.00 Kg

0.04 Kg0.00 Kg0.34 Kg 200km200km

6.67 Kg 0.9 Kg

Tray Production


Packaging plant

Label Flow


1.75 Kg

Distribution Centre

1.75 KgPackaging

Plant

1.75 Kg

0.00 Kg0.08 Kg 200km200km

1.67 Kg

167 Kg

Label Production

0.8 Kg

Customer Store

Distribution Centre

269.9KgPackaging

Plant

269.9 KgCrate


0.5 Kg

Store2.46 Kg

Total waste = 2.96


20


Input Quantity kg Extracted Energy consumed MJ

Solid Waste produced kg

Diesel 24 1350 0Lime 168 1091 37Pesticides 11 2520 0Fertiliser 40 472 0Grade outs 111Total 243 5433 148


5.3.1 Euro-crate

The euro crate is produced from polypropylene. The production of one kilogram of moulded Polypropylene product consumes 124.9 MJ and results in the generation of 0.1918 kg of solid waste (APME). The solid waste burden associated with the production of the 269.9 of Euro-crates entering the packing plant per tonne of apples purchased by the customer equates to 51.8. The extracted energy burden associated with the production of the 269.9 euro-crates entering the packing plant, per tonne of apples purchased by the customer equates to 33 711 MJ. However, the euro-crates are reused numerous times. For this reason, the energy and waste burden should be allocated on a lifetime basis (number of uses). If we assume a lifetime of 100 uses, energy consumption associated with the crates per tonne of apples would be 337MJ and solid waste would be 0.52 kg.

5.3.2 Apple Trays

The apple trays used for packing apples for M&S are made out of biodegradeable thermo plastic produced from starch. Data from Novamont S.p.A., detailing the energy requirements and waste generation associated with the production of thermoformed products, have been used. Extracted energy per kg of packaging is 22.78 MJ. Waste generation is 0.17 kg per kg of foam packaging (0.11 kg of special waste and 0.07 kg of non-dangerous waste). For the purposes of this study, this waste has been treated as solid waste. The waste burden associated with the production of the 7.04 kg of trays entering the packing plant equates to 1.22 kg.


21

The extracted energy burden associated with the production of the 7.04 kg of trays entering the packing plant equates to 160.37 MJ.

5.3.3 Biodegradable Film

Data from Novamont S.p.A., detailing the energy requirements and solid waste generation associated with the production of biodegradable film products, have been used. Extracted energy per kg of film packaging is 60.73 MJ. Waste generation is 0.13 kg per kg of film packaging (0.06 kg of special waste and 0.07 kg of non-dangerous waste). For the purposes of this study, this waste has been treated as solid waste. The solid waste burden associated with the production of the 5.53 kg of film entering the packing plant equates to 0.73 kg. The extracted energy burden associated with the production of the 5.53 kg of film entering the packing plant equates to 335.84 MJ.

5.3.4 Labels

The extracted energy and solid waste generation for the production of ‘paper- coated bleached’ (Pira) (91.5 MJ/kg and 0.51 kg), has been used to estimate the energy associated with the labels. For the 1.75 kg of labels, this equates to 160.12 MJ of extracted energy and 0.89 kg of solid waste.


The film sealing and packing of apple trays consumes 0.018 MJ electricity per ‘four pack’. For every tonne of apples purchased by the customer 1751 ‘four packs’ leave the packing plant. The filling of these consumes 122 MJ extracted energy.


For the purposes of this study, it has been assumed that the apples and packaging materials are transported 200 miles to the packing plant. For the purposes of bulk transport, we have used an extracted energy use of 0.608 MJ per tonne-km.


22


Component From-To Weight Kg

Distance km

tonne -km Energy MJ

Euro-crate/100 Manufacture to Packaging Plant 2.7 200 0.54 0.33 Tray Manufacture to Packaging Plant 7.04 200 1.408 0.856 Film Manufacture to Packaging Plant 5.53 200 1.106 0.67 Label Manufacture to Packaging Plant 1.75 200 0.35 0.21

Total 2.1 Euro-crate Packing Plant to Distribution centre 269.9 200 53.98 32.82 Tray Packing Plant to Distribution centre 7.0 200 1.4 0.851 Film Packing Plant to Distribution centre 5.25 200 1.05 0.64 Label Packing Plant to Distribution centre 1.75 200 0.35 0.21

Total 34.52


M&S distribution centres use 42 million kWh of electricity and 39 million kWh of gas. This equates to a total extracted energy of 226 million kWh or 814 million MJ. For the purposes of this study, energy use has been allocated on a value basis. Total sales of goods amounted to £7269 million, of which foods accounted for £3421 million. At the distribution centre, apple packaging accounts for 21.5% of the gross weight of packaged apples. At a unit cost of £1.49 per ‘four pack’, the value of the packaged apples transferred at the distribution centre (1750.7 packs) is £2609, of which 21.5% can be allocated to the packaging, or £560.8. Therefore, 62.81 MJ of extracted energy can be allocated to the packaging (0.112 MJ per £).


The distribution of one box of apples to an M&S retail outlet uses 0.046 kg of diesel. This equates to 2.45 MJ extracted energy per box. A loaded box has a gross weight of 9.15 kg and contains 7.3 kg of apples. On a mass allocation basis 79%, of the energy consumption would be attributed to apples and the remaining 21% to packaging. For every tonne of apples purchased by the customer, 145.9 boxes of apples are dispatched to the stores. This equates to 75.1 MJ of which is attributable to the packaging.


23

5.8 CARRIER BAG MANUFACTURE

The average customer purchases two carrier bags of food shopping (9.6 kg of food) and on average one ‘four pack’ of apples. An average carrier bag weighs 20 g. This equates to 2.75 g of polyethylene bag packaging for every pack of apples purchased. The purchase of 1000 kg of apples would require 4.17 kg of bags. Using APME data for the production of film, 99.4 MJ of extracted energy per kg and 0.136 kg of solid waste per kg, this bag usage equates to 414.5 MJ of extracted energy and 0.57 kg of solid waste.

5.9 RETAIL OUTLET

For the purposes of this study, energy use has been allocated on a value basis, see Table 2.6. Total sales of goods amounted to £7268.6 million, of which foods accounted for £3420.5 million.


Fuel Total million kWh

Extracted Energy million kWh

Extracted Energy kWh/£

Oil 4 5 0.001 Gas 175 196 0.027 Electricity 637 2726 0.375 Total 2,927 0.403

At a unit cost of £1.49 per pack, the value of the packaged apples displayed in the store is £2608, of which 1.3 % can be allocated to the packaging, or £33.91. Therefore the extracted energy associated with packaging is 13.6 kWh or 49.2 MJ. The crates have not been included in this calculation as the ’four packs’ are removed from these prior to display.


It has been assumed that the majority of shoppers use the car to go shopping. An average travel distance of 7 miles and an average shop of 9.6 kg has been assumed (M&S estimate). This equates to 1.2 km/kg of shopping. Using extracted energy data for car travel, 4.93 MJ/km, the weight of packaging (not including carrier bag) associated with one tonne of apples is 13.3 kg. This equates to 78.68 MJ of extracted energy associated with packaging.


24

5.11 BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRODUCTION OF WASTED APPLES

Apple wastage totalled 105.71 kg per tonne of apples purchased. This equates to 587.2 MJ of extracted energy and 3.91 kg of solid waste (apple grade outs not included).


25

6 LIFE CYCLE WASTE PROFILE

The table below details the waste generated from each life cycle stage for each packaging type. The results show that the loose packaging systems results in the largest amount of total waste but the least amount of non-biodegradable waste, compared with the ‘four pack’ systems. In terms of total waste, there is no significant difference between the biodegradable and non-biodegradable systems. The difference in the waste from the loose system compared with the ‘four pack’ system is due to both apple wastage and packaging wastage. The apple waste, per tonne of apples purchased, for the loose system is 132 kg (65% of total waste), and for the ‘four pack’ systems it is 106 kg (78% of total waste). The packaging waste associated with the loose system is 66 kg and the packaging waste associated with the ‘four pack’ systems is 25 kg. Should a change from cardboard to plastic crates occur for the loose apple system, the packaging wastage would be less than that of the ‘four pack’ systems and total waste would be similar to that of the ‘four pack’ systems.

Table 6.1 Life Cycle Waste Profiles for the Three Packaging Systems per Tonne of Apples Purchased

Life Cycle Stage Loose Kg

Non-biodegradable 4 Pack kg

Biodegradable Four Pack kg

Packaging Production 18.4 4.4 3.9Transport to Packing Plant 0.0 0 0.0Packaging Plant 79.9 55.6 55.6Transport to Distribution Centre 0.0 0 0.0Distribution Centre 0.0 0 0.0Transport to Retail Outlet 0.0 0 0.0Retail 89.9 51.1 51.1Transport by Customer 0.0 0 0.0Customer Use 9.2 17.51 17.5Other 2.46 2.5Burden Associated with the Production of Wasted apples

4.9 3.9 3.9

Total 202.2 135.0 134.4Recycling Benefit -16.4 0.0 0.0

System Total 185.9 135.0 134.4Non-biodegradable Waste 5.7 26.7 13.5

Packaging Waste 66 25 25


26

7 LIFE CYCLE ENERGY PROFILE

The table below details the extracted energy consumption from each life cycle stage for each packaging type. The results show that the biodegradable ‘four pack’ system results in lower energy consumption than the other two systems. However, the loose system performs better than the non-biodegradable ‘four pack’ system. The better performance of the biodegradable ‘four pack’ system is due to the lower energy requirements of packaging production. The biggest single contributor to extracted energy consumption for the biodegradable packaging system is the production of the wasted apples (587 MJ). For the non-biodegradable system, the biggest contributor is the production of the polystyrene apple trays (692 MJ). For the loose system, the biggest contributor is the production of the cardboard boxes (820 MJ), although this is offset (depending on the recycling benefit allocated) by recycling the cardboard.

Table 7.1 Life Cycle Energy Profiles for the Three Packaging Systems

Life Cycle Stage Loose MJ

Non-biodegradable Four Pack MJ

Biodegradable Four Pack MJ

Packaging Production 2342 2060 1408Transport to Packing Plant 5 35 2Packaging Plant 85 122 122Transport to Distribution Centre 5 35 35Distribution Centre 8 63 63Transport to Retail Outlet 7 75 75Retail 108 49 49Transport by Customer 21 79 79Customer Use 0 0 0Other 0 0Burden Associated with the Production of Wasted apples

730 587 587

Total 3310 3104 2419Recycling Benefit -492 0 0

System Total 2818 3104 2419System Total Excluding Allocation

Concerns ( Distribution Centre, Retail and Customer Transport)

2681 2913 2229


27

8 CONCLUSIONS

The assumptions used in this study lead to uncertainty with regard to the conclusions that can be drawn from the study with regard to. These assumptions include:

• lifetime of reusable plastic boxes; • the implications of using biodegradable plastic trays (we assumed that

their performance is equal to that of non-biodegradable trays); • benefit of recycling card; • allocation of store energy; • allocation of distribution centre energy; and • customer transport.

The main conclusions that can be drawn are:

• biodegradable apple trays and the use of reusable plastic boxes provide significant benefit with regard to extracted energy consumption; and

• the use of ‘four packs’ results in less waste. The results of this study demonstrate that more point of sale packaging does not necessarily result in more waste, or in higher energy consumption. In terms of comparison with the product, the production of packaging consumes less than half the energy that has been consumed in the production of the apples, for which it is used to protect. In terms of the total life cycle of the product, this percentage would be reduced dramatically if customer transport burden and the burdens associated with the distribution centre and retail were excluded. A strong argument exists for their exclusion as the energy consumption might be better attributed to the product.

streamlined lca study of apple packaging systems...contents 1 introduction 1 1.1 introducing life...

Documents