structuring arguments

Structuring Arguments

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning – the process of generalizing on the basis of a number of specific examples

Ex. I get hives after eating crawdads.

My mouth swells when I eat clams.Shrimp triggers my asthma.

I am allergic to shellfish

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning – the process of reaching a conclusion by assuming a general principle (called the major premise) and then applying that principle to a specific case (called the minor premise).

Ex. I am allergic to shellfish Lobster is a type of shellfish Lobster will cause me to have an allergic reaction. This is called a syllogism.

Syllogisms

All humans are mortal.Socrates is a human being.Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Enthymemes

Syllogisms that leave out the middle (and obvious)

minor premise = Enthymemes

We’d better cancel the picnic because it is going to rain.

I’ll buy a PC laptop instead of a Mac because it’s cheaper.

If you can construct sound inductive or deductive arguments and present them clearly in words or images, you will influence most audience.

The Toulmin Argument

British Philosopher Stephen Toulmin, The Uses of Argument (1958) describes how ordinary people make reasonable arguments.

Because this system acknowledges qualifiers (sometimes, often, unless, almost) it is not as airtight as formal logic – using syllogisms.

But because of that, it has become a practical tool for understanding and shaping arguments in the real world.

Making Claims

Debatable and controversial statements or assertions that you hope to prove.

Arguments depend on conditions set by others – your audience or readers.

Claims that are worth arguing tend to be controversial – there is no point worrying about points on which most people agree. Claims should be debatable, able to be demonstrated using logic or evidence.

Making Claims

Many claims are developed through questions:

Question: What should NASA’s next goal be? Should the space agency establish a permanent moon base? Should NASA launch more robotic interstellar probes? Can NASA even afford to send people to Mars?

Statement: NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars.

Offering Evidence and Good Reasons

Claims need evidence and good reasons to support it. Claim: Campus needs more officially designated spaces for parking

bicycles.Evidence: Personal experience: At least twice a week for two terms, I was

unable to find a designated space for my bike. Anecdotes: Several friends told similar stories. One even sold her

bike as a result. Facts: I found out that the ratio of car to bike parking spaces was 100

to 1, whereas the ratio of cars to biker registered on campus was 25 to 1.

Authorities: The campus police chief has indicated in an interview with the college newspaper that she believed a problem existed for students who tried to park bicycles legally.

Determining Warrants

The logical and persuasive connection between a claim and the reason and data supporting it.

Reason (so) Claim

(since) Warrant

The mushroom is poisonous So don’t eat it! Since eating poisonous things is dangerous

Determining Warrants Continued

The warrant tells readers what your often unstated assumptions are.

When you state a warrant accurately, you

sometimes expose a fatal flaw in an argument.

I don’t like grades So grades should be abolished

Since what I don’t like should be abolished

Stating and then examining a warrant can help you determine the grounds on which you want to make a

case.

Enthymeme: Flat taxes are fairer than progressive taxes because they treat all taxpayers in the same way.

Warrants: Treating people equitably is the American way.All people should be treated in the same way.

Issues with the warrant: If it is inequitable than why are federal and state income taxes progressive?

Stating and then examining a warrant can help you determine the grounds on which you want to make a

case.

Enthymeme: Progressive taxes are fairer than flat taxes because people with more income can afford to pay more, benefit more from government, and can shelter more of their income from taxes.

Warrants: People should be taxed according to their ability to pay.

People who benefit more from government and can shelter more of their income from taxes should be taxed at higher rates.

Offering Evidence: Backing

Claims and Warrants = skeleton of an argument

The bulk of a writer’s work – the richest, most interesting part- remains to be done after the argument is outlined.

Offering Evidence - Backing

Enthymeme: NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars because Americans need a unifying national goal.

Warrant: What unifies the nation ought to be a national priority.

Backing: On a personal level, Americans want to be part of something bigger than themselves (Emotional appeal as evidence)

In a country as regionally, racially, and culturally diverse as the United States, common purposes and values help make the nation stronger (Ethical appeal as evidence).

In the past, big government investments such as the Tennessee Valley

Authority, Hoover Dam, and Apollo moon program enabled many – though not all – Americans to work toward common goals. (Logical appeal)

In addition to evidence to support your warrant (backing), you’ll needevidence to support your claim:

Enthymeme:NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars because Americans now need a unifying national goal.

Evidence: The American people are politically divided along lines of race, ethnicity,

religion, gender, and class (Facts as evidence). A common challenge or problem often unites people to accomplish great

things (Emotional appeal as evidence) Successfully managing a Mars mission would require the cooperation of

the entire nation – and generate tens of thousands of jobs (Logical appeal as evidence)

A human expedition to Mars would be a valuable scientific project for the

nation to pursue (Appeal to values as evidence.)

Using Qualifiers

Qualifiers make writing more precise and honest:

Few More or less OftenIt is possible In some cases PerhapsRarely Many It seemsIn the main Possibly SomeRoutinely It may be MostIf it were so Sometimes In

generalOne might argue Under these conditions

For the most part

Qualifiers

Never assume that readers understand the limits you have in mind. By spelling out the terms of the claim as precisely as possible, you’ll have less work to do, and your argument will seem more reasonable.

Your ACT scores are So (it is likely) you willin the 98th percentile get into a good college

High ACT scores are an important factor in college admissions

Qualifiers

Unqualified Claim: People who don’t go to college earn less than other who do.

Qualified Claim: In most cases, people who don’t go to college earn less than those who do.

Unqualified Claim: Welfare programs should be cut.

Qualified Claim: Ineffective federal welfare programs should be identified, modified, and if necessary, eliminated.

Understanding Conditions of Rebuttal

Claim: The federal government should support the arts.

Argument in brief: The federal government should support the arts because it also supports the military.

Warrant: If the federal government can support the military, then it can also support other programs.

Rebuttal: Just because we support the military we should support

anything?

Revised Argument: If the federal government can spend huge amounts of money on the military, then it can afford to spend moderate amounts on arts programs.

Outline of the Toulmin Argument

Claim: The federal government should ban smoking.

Qualifier: The ban would be limited to public spaces.

Good Reasons: Smoking causes serious diseases in smokers.Nonsmokers are endangered by secondhand smoke.

Warrants: The constitution promises to “promote the general welfare”Citizens are entitles to protection from harmful actions by others


Backing: The United States is based on a political system that is supposed to serve the basic needs of its people, including their heath.

Evidence: Numbers of deaths attributed to secondhand

smoke.Lawsuits recently won against large tobacco companies, citing the need to reparation for smoking-related health care costs.Examples of bans already imposed in many public places.

Authority: Cite the surgeon general.


Conditions of Rebuttal: Smokers have rights too.Smoking laws should be left to the states.Such a ban could not be enforced.

Response: The ban applies to public places, smokers can

smoke in private.The power of the federal government to impose other restrictions on smoking (such as warning labels on cigarettes and bans on cigarette advertisements on television) has survived legal challenges. The experience of New York City, which has imposed such a ban, suggests that enforcement would not be a significant problem.

What Toulmin Teaches

Claims should be stated clearly and qualified carefully.

Claims should be supported with evidence and good reasons.

Claims and reasons should be based on assumptions that readers will likely accept.

Effective arguments respectfully anticipate objections readers might offer.

Skeleton Outline of THOUGHT – not essay

Major Claim (Thesis) Minor Claim

Evidence Warrant & Backing

Evidence Warrant & Backing

Minor Claim Evidence

Warrant & Backing Evidence

Warrant & Backing

The Five Paragraph Essay

You are more than likely very familiar with the following format:

Introduction: Thesis and three reasons.Body Paragraph One: Discuss reason

number one.Body Paragraph Two: Discuss reason

number two.Body Paragraph Three: Discuss reason

number three.Conclusion: Summarize.


Why do teachers teach the five paragraph essay ?

To introduce the students to the IBC formatSo that students divide their paper into

paragraphs based on individual reasonsWhy five? Two reasons + CA Rebuttal =

Done!Students need training wheels of basic essay

structure before experimenting with other formats.


Although the five-paragraph essay format does provide a basic organizational structure, there are many potential problems. To list a few:

Most newspaper editorials, magazine essays, scholarly articles, and other examples of writing of this general type don’t have five paragraphs.

The reader usually needs some sort of context for the thesis, some idea of why he or she should be interested in reading about this now. In general this format doesn’t do much to engage the reader.

Such essays are usually too short to require a summary at the end. The summary repeats ideas that the reader has just read about and hasn’t had time to forget.

The format encourages too much repetition—often the same three phrases are repeated in the introduction, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion. The reader gets bored.

If you follow this format too strictly, you are letting the form generate the content. In other words, you are putting far more emphasis on how you organize the content than on what you want to say, the purpose you have in mind, and what your readers need.

Five Paragraph Essay

Contrary to what anyone will tell you – an essay does not NEED to be five paragraphs long.

Paragraphs function to they help the reader understand the text by

organizing it into groups of ideas that work together

they help the eye return to the proper place in the text after looking away for a brief moment. A text without enough breaks is difficult to read because you keep losing your place.

Introductions

Your introduction is like a signpost or a map at the beginning of a trail. It tells readers where you are going to take them, what ideas you will explore, and what they will see along the way. It should create a feeling of anticipation and interest.

Ask yourself:What is my main idea or thesis?Who are my readers? What do they know and believe?Why is my idea important here and now?How do I want my readers to respond?Why is my idea important here and now?

Body

The body of the essay moves the reader along toward the destination or goal. It might have one paragraph, but usually it has several. Each paragraph is related to one of the points you want to show the readers along the way. Some points may take more than one paragraph to develop completely. There should be connections and transitions between the points you show the reader.

Ask yourself: What points do I want to make to help my readers understand

my idea? What examples can I use to help the reader understand each

point? What evidence do I have that each point is true? How can I keep the reader interested in following my ideas? What is this paragraph about? What does this paragraph do for the reader?

Conclusion

The conclusion is the end of the journey. It looks back on the points you have shown the reader, and reinforces, but does not necessarily repeat, the main idea. It also should create a feeling of ending, a farewell to the reader.

Ask yourself:How has the reader's mind been changed by

following my points and examples?If we continued this journey, where would we go

next?If the reader ignores the points you have made, what

might happen?

High School vs. College Expectations

High School Essays University-level Essays

Topic often broad or generalThesis must be stated in one sentence Five-paragraph essay with three main pointsIntroduction (with thesis statement), body, and conclusion

In-depth analysis of focused topicThesis indicates that the essay will explain and give evidence for its claims, but no specific lengthNo fixed format; the number of paragraphs depends on the argumentIBC format, but thesis may not be in the introduction

DeductiveThesis

Inductive

Thesis

Classical Oration

Structure of argument devised by Greek and Roman rhetoricians 2000 years ago for presenting cases in courts or making speeches to a senate.

Still influences our attitudes toward persuasion because oration taught speakers and writers to think of arguments as debates that have winners and losers.

Structure of Classical Oration

Exordium: The speaker/writer tries to win the attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject or problem

Narratio: The speaker/writer presents the facts of the case, explaining what happened when, who is involved, and so on. The narration puts an argument in context.

Partitio: The speaker/writer divides up the subject, explaining what the claim is, what the key issues are, and in what order the subject will be treated.

Structure of Classical Oration continued

Confirmatio: The speaker/writer offers detailed support for the claim, using both logical reasoning and factual evidence.

Refutatio: The speaker/writer acknowledges and then refutes opposing claims or evidence

Peroratio: The speaker/writer summarizes the case and moves the audience to action.

Benefits of Classical Oration

The structure is powerful because it covers all the bases: readers or listeners want to know what your subject is, how you intend to cover it, and what evidence you have to offer.

Begins with presenting a pleasing ethos Concludes with enough pathos to win an

audience over completely

Updated Version of Classical Oration

Introduction:Gains reader’s interest and willingness to

listenEstablishes your qualifications to write about

your topicEstablishes some common ground with your

audienceDemonstrates that you’re fair and

evenhandedStates your claim

Updated Version Continued

BackgroundPresents any necessary information, including personal

narrative, that’s important to your argument

Lines of ArgumentPresents good reasons, including logical and emotional

appeals, in support of your claim Alternative ArgumentsExamines alternative points of view and opposing argumentsNotes the advantages and disadvantages of these viewsExplains why your view is better than others

Updated Version continued

ConclusionSummarizes the argumentElaborates on the implications of your claimMakes clear what you want the audience to

think or doReinforces your credibility and perhaps offers

and emotional appeal

Example: Declaration of Independence

Exordium – “When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the

political bands which have connected them with another…” “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal…” Narratio – “He has…” Establishes what King George has done. Partitio – “The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and

usurpations.” Confirmatio – “Long train of abuses and usurpations.” Refutatio – “We warned them” “We have reminded them” “We have appealed to their native justice” Peroratio – “That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be FREE and INDEPENDENT STATES:

Rogerian Argument

Carl Rogers, psychologist, developed non-confrontational principles of discussion, later applied to public situations.

Rogers believed people involved in disputes

should not respond to each other until they could fully, fairly, and even sympathetically state the other person’s position.

Rogerian Structure Introduction - State the problem you hope to

resolve. By presenting your issue as a problem you raise the possibility of positive change. Often opponents will want to solve the same problem.

Summary of Opposing Views - As accurately and neutrally as possible, state the views of the people with whom you disagree. By doing this you show that you are capable of listening without judging and have given a fair hearing to people who think differently from you.

Statement of Understanding - Also called the statement of validity. Show that you understand that there are situations in which these views are valid. Which parts of the opposing argument s do you concede? Under which conditions might you share these views?

Rogerian Structure Statement of Your Position - Now that readers

have seen that you’ve given full consideration to views other than your own, they should be prepared to listen fairly to your views. State your position.

Statement of Contexts - Describe situations in which you hope your views will be honored. By showing that your position has merit in specific contexts, you recognize that people won’t agree with you all of the time. However, opponents are allowed to agree in part and share common ground.

Statement of Benefits - Appeal to the self-interest of your opponents by showing how they would benefit from accepting your position; this concludes your essay on a hopeful, positive note.

Benefits of Rogerian Argument

The key is a willingness to think about opposing positions and to describe them fairly.

Example: Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream”

speech. “When we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from

every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual, ‘Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!’”

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