比治山大学現代文化学部紀要，第8号， 2∞1 Bul. Hijiyama Univ. No.8， 2∞l 85

Student Autonomy: Taking the lnitial Steps to Promote

Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL

Classroom

Damon E. Chapman & Jason Williams， City University， Bellevue， Washington

Abstract

This paper analyzes current research on student autonomy as one method to improve and promote

language learning in the ]apanese EFL c1assroom. 1t first discusses the problems of student learning in

general， then defines the concept of student autonomy， while reviewing the general theoretical

approaches to it. Steps to promote and implement actual student autonomy are then detailed and

learning strategies in the EFL c1assroom， as one area of focus in learner autonomy， are discussed.

Then the roles of teachers in the autonomous environment are reviewed， stressing teacher

responsibilities as well as the benefits of handing over more control in the learning process to the

students themselves.

要 t::::::. 目

本論文は，日本のEFL授業において言語学習を改善し促進する手段としての「学生の自律性Jにつ

いて，現行の諸研究を分析するo まず，学生の学習に関する諸問題について考察し，続いて，論理的

なアプローチ全般を視野に入れて「学生の自律性」についての基本概念を定義する o 次に，現実に

「学生の自律Jを促し，かっそれを形作るためのステップを詳細に記述し，さらに，学習者の自律性

に関する分野の中で関心が持たれているEFL授業での学習方略について議論する D 最後に，自律的な

環境における教師の役割について概観する。なお，ここでは，学習過程において，より多くの主導性

を学生自身に委ねることの利点とならんで 教師の責任の重要性が強調されている O

Intr，倒uction

As Willing (1987) stated so succinctly，“Every teacher has encountered students who， although

intelligent and adequately exposed to apparently useful and meaningful material， nevertheless seem to

learn very little" (p. 273). Never has this been more true than in recent years and there has been

increased dissatisfaction with the level of academic ability on the part of university students in ]apan.

Originating from virtually unlimited sources， apathy seems rampant. Scholars ponder the reasons for

this situation by asking if it is a lack of sufficient knowledge (either from the materials or the

instructors)? Is it a lack of motivation (again， either on the part of the students， or the instructors)?

Or could it be the lack of student's ability to learn， whether in the c1ass or independently? While the

causes may be expansive， recent research has suggested it is a lack of ability or desire on the part of

students to become actively involved in their learning (see Scharle & Szabo， 2∞0). Active is the key

word here. Students tend to give the teachers almost total control over their learning methods，

86 Damon E. Chapman

especially in Asian cultures， and while not necessarily disinterested in the subject or learning in

general， seem hesitant in taking an active and demanding role in their own learning.

One source of the problem can be attributed to environment and learner attitude， but， for foreign

instructors， the problem may be related to culture. For example， ]apanese students rely heavily on the

teacher and view the teacher as being responsible for virtually all aspects of the learning process.

They are seldom pro-active， though it should not be assumed that this is a fault only of the students.

The culture in ]apan places a higher level of respect on the instructor than does many Western

cultures. Students in ]apan usually depend on the teacher to set goals and make decisions about

learning when， this paper will argue， they must come to realize (with the t回 cher'shelp) that 1白 rning

depends as much on them as it does on the instructor. With respect to language learning in ]apan，

another negative factor is the education system in general which tends to emphasize reading， grammar

and rote memorization over oral communication. Additionally， teachers may not be teaching the skills

necessary for students to become active and independent learners. Are instructors following specific，

planned and effective learning strategies? (Note the stress on learning strategies， as opposed to

teaching strategies). Pedagogical theory argues that students should learn to understand their place in

the learning process， inc1uding the ability to select and judge resources and materials for themselves.

Students， furthermore， must set appropriate goals and objectives. With so many potential root causes

of p∞r academic performance in c1assrooms， volumes of analysis could be written as to what the

causes are. This paper， on the other hand， wil11imit its focus to student autonomy.

Increasing student autonomy aims to overcome many of the problems mentioned above. The

ultimate goal of increased student autonomy is to have the students take more control and understand

their role in the success or failure of their learning strategies. To explain this simple concept， Willing

(1987) notes the following about learners in language c1assr∞ms:“Given the inevitable limitations on

time and resources for teaching specific language content， it is now c1ear that learners could benefit

greatly in the long run if a substantial proportion of the

Student Autonomy: Taking the lnitial Steps to Promote lncreased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL Classr∞m 87

Learner Autonomy: A Definiti∞. General ThE拘ryand Programs for Its Promoti∞

This section will focus on general theory and steps in promoting autonomy as well as specific

programs designed to promote autonomy. (The reader should note that the terms ‘learner autonomy'

and ‘student autonomy' are synonymous， and should be considered as one in the same. Researchers

use either or both of these terms in their research.) The most commonly accepted definition of learner

autonomy is“the ability to take charge of one's own learning" (Holec， 1981， p. 3). A more thorough

interpretation of this definition pertaining to second language learning is given by Bergen (as cited by

Dam and Little， 1998):

Learner autonomy is characterized by the readiness to take charge of one's own learning

in the service of one's needs and purposes. This entails a capacity and willingness to act

independently and in co-operation with others， as a socially responsible person. An

autonomous learner is an active participant in the social process of learning， but also an

active interpreter of new information in terms of what he/she already and uniquely

knows (p. 127).

This definition suggests that the ability of learners to become autonomous is not only a matter of

capacity， but also of learner attitude and motivation. Furthermore， while learning is a social process，

this definition also suggests that the individual always retain his I her independence. In short， the

student must be proactive in both the inter-and intra -personallearning processes. Searle and Szabo

(2000) further this definition by adding that autonomy occurs when students accept the notion that

their own efforts are important and act accordingly， become willing to cooperate with other learners

and the teachers， consciously monitor their own progress， and make an effort to use available

opportunities to their benefit. Many researchers have proposed general theories and steps to bring

about this development.

Dam and Little (1998) describe promoting autonomy as a proce鉛 thatallows the learner to assume

control of more and more aspects of learning as time progre岱es.They propose a three-part lesson to

support this idea. The first step consists of teacher initiated and directed activities that promote

learner awareness of how the learner can influence learning. This inc1udes teaching the learning

process and specific learning strategies， establishing teacher and student roles and responsibilities， and

providing a learning envir

88 Damon E. Chapman

sharing information with the learners， maintaining consistent control of the learning process， and

delegating tasks and decisions. These are steps the teachers must take to make the transition for

dependence to independence a smooth one. Finally， they list the three stages of autonomy promotion

that must be followed. The first stage is raising awareness， where the students begin to look at their

old ways of learning as well as at new ones. This includes finding out about students' learning styles，

habits and attitudes， increasing confidence， introducing learning strategies， community building and

self-monitoring. The next stage is the changing of attitudes， where learners practice and make

habitual the items learned in stage one. This includes activities to sustain student interest and self-

confidence， having students practice learning strategies， and further developing group cohesion and

self-monitoring. The final stage is the transferring of roles from teacher to student， which entails the

handing over of roles traditionally held by the teacher. Steps in this stage include letting the students

handle classroom devices， allowing students to prepare and choose material， peer monitoring and

correction， and including the students in discussions about the learning process. If the prerequisites

are met， the teacher roles completed and the stages followed， learner autonomy will ultimately be

achieved. Scharle and Szabo also provide over 100 activities to be used in each stage of promoting

autonomy.

Murphey and Jacobs (2∞0) propose a related angle on learner autonomy in what they call Critical

Collaborative Autonomy. They propose that autonomy does not mean learning in isolation， but can be

developed more quickly if it is taught via guided cooperative learning in which the students work with

peers. Learning to be autonomous in groups not only accelerates acquisition of autonomy， they assert，

but it also changes individual and group attitudes. Students can more readily identify with each other，

and peers who show ability serve as positive role models (although noted later， in language classrooms

this can be achieved by pairing students with low-level communicative abilities up with students much

more fluent in the target language). This allows students to learn better from each other. They base

this idea on two key concepts:“positive interdependence" and “individual acco

Student Autonomy: Taking the Initial Steps to Promote Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL CIa田r∞m 89

Szabo (2000) is that most steps take place under the guise of students learning how to promote

individual autonomy via a student group with student -led initiatives， not teacher-led initiatives. When

summarized， the various theoretical approaches offer similar approaches toward the promotion and

implementation of learner autonomy， and can be summarized by the following five levels and

Level L伺merAction Con:飽nt Pr，∞錨S

1 Awaren白 S Learners are taught the Learners identify strategy implications pedagogical goals and content of tasks and identify their preferred content of the materials they use. learning styles / strategies.

2 Involvement Learners are involved in selecting Learners make choices frorn among a their personal goals from a range choice of options.

of choices.

3 Intervention Learners become engaged in Learners make modifications and modifying and adapting the adapt new tasks to their learning objectives and content of the program. learning program.

4 Cr，伺.tion Learners set their own personal Learnerscr回 tetheir own original goals and study objectives. asks and materials.

5 Tran配endence Learners move out of the context Learners， themselves， become 。fthe classroom and rnake instructors and researchers. connections between the content of the classroom and the world outside.

Figure 1: Lear間 rActions in t尚 Pr，∞lOti∞ofLearner Autonomv

accompanying actions seen in Figureれ (seeNunan， 1997b).

Promoting Learner Autonomy in the Lar唱uageClassr∞m

Given these general theories and approaches intended to promote learner autonomy， many

researchers has developed specific programs designed for use in the language classroom (cf. Benson &

Voller， 1997). One five component， autonomy-based course developed by Cotterall (1995) was offered

to language students at Victoria University in Wellington， New Zealand. The five components make up

an overall strategy for fostering autonomy and are centered on the ‘learners' understanding of how

language learning pr∞eeds， the language used to discuss the pr∞ess and records for charting it， the

support provided for the learners， and learners' access to resources and feedback" (p. 221). These

components include a learner-teacher dialogue， a language study theme， replication of authentic， real-

life communicative encounters， increased student self-assessment and， lastly， self-access to alternative

learning materials.

The first component， a learner-teacher dialogue， is meant to provide frequent opportunities for

students to ask teachers questions and receive feedback. The intention of the design is to aid the

students in understanding the language learning process. The next component is learning a language

study theme， which involves presenting concepts of language learning to the students in order to

90 Damon E. Chapman

encourage them to take some initiative in learning and to understand what they can and should do to

learn. The third component is making c1ass materials and tasks that replicate authentic encounters

and experiences. This is to aid the students in making a link between c1ass practice and real-world

needs， thus making the students appreciate learning more and become more involved in it. Students

could be active in creating the scenarios used for practicing the target language most appropriate to

them (university-age situations， etc.). The next component is a student record booklet to help them

develop self-assessment and reflection abilities， two of the key components in learner autonomy. The

final component is a self-access center that provides a selection of self-study material to the students

so that they have the means and materials to develop personalized learning and， therefore， increased

autonomy. In her work， Cotterall discovered that each of the five components promoted autonomy in

learners， mainly because each individual step provided a place for discussion about the learning

process. She also notes that student-teacher communication was the most important part of the

components because it allowed students themselves to become aware of what they were doing.

This research was further developed and Cotterall (2∞0) later presented five principles to guide the

design of English language courses. The principles are more detailed and explicit than the previous

components and each was specifically developed to foster autonomy. The five principles relate to

learner goals， a simplified model of the language learning process， authentic course tasks， the teaching

of language learning strategies and promotion of student reflection on learning. It was conc1uded that

the principles did promote autonomy in that they increased student motivation， taught students how to

solve their own problems， and let them assess their past and future learning experiences via reflection.

Students became independent learners because the principles supported instruction and provided

guidance to the students without taking away student decision mak白ι

Aret陥 Stu偽ntsWilli明?

Regardless of the perspective or theory followed， independent learning and learner autonomy are

only feasible when students have both the willingness and the ability to act independently (cf. Searle &

Szabo， 2000; Dam & Little， 1998). In order to help learners begin to grasp an understanding of their

own awareness， of their own motivation and， in turn， their disposition toward learning， students need to

practice student awareness. This was the first step noted above for successful implementation of

learner autonomy. While this paper makes no attempt to detail伺 chstep in implementing a leamer

autonomy program， the step of increasing self-awareness， also known as ‘dawning metacognition'

(Murphey & Jacobs， 2∞0) is being addre岱edbeαuse it is believed to be a prerequisite to any and

every autonomous approach. As Littlewood (1997) further notes，“students' willingness to act

independently depends on the level of their motivation and confidence; [and] students' ability to act

independently depends on the level of their knowledge and skills" (p. 82). Knowledge and ski1ls are

key parts of learning strategies that can be easily tested， while motivation and confidence may be

much more difficult to gauge.

Self-awareness can be described as grasping an understanding of learner abilities， study habits，

dispositions， attitudes， goals， etc. After all， if the student comes to c1ass or any learning environment

with a negative and / or reliant disposition， that must be one of the first obstac1es to over come. As

noted by Sheerin (1997)，“it is important to distinguish between [the leamers'] disposition and ability

Student Autonomy: Taking the lnitial Steps to Promote Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL Classr∞m 91

because a learner may be disposed to be independent in an activity . . . but lack the technical ability" to

carry it out (p. 57). When that happens， the student could be characterized as an independent leamer

INDEPENDENCE

DTI:淑溜:TIONTO:Analyze one's own strengths / weaknesses， language needs Set achievable targets and overall objectives

Plan a program of work to achieve the objectives set

Exercise choice， select materials and activities

Work without supervision

Evaluate one's own progress

14

つL-qdA吐

FDFO

DEPENDENCE

7.

8.

9.

10. 11.

12.

ABILITYTO: Analyze one's own strengths / weaknesses， language needs

Set achievable targets and overall objectives

Plan a program of work to achieve the objectives set

Exercise choice， select materials and activities

Work without supervision

Evaluate one's own progress

Figure 2: Activities Involved in Inc給同町蜘tLeaming (ShE矧in，1997)

in intention but not in actual practice. Figure 2 gives several activities that may be used to measure

l回 rnerawareness. Viewing each activity on a continuum between dependence (on the teacher)， and

independence， students can learn about their own motivation and disposition toward learning.

Learning student attitudesαn be done， in its simplest form， by asking the students direct1y. One

such questionnaire for this task was done by Willing (1989) and breaks down attitudes toward learning

styles into four areas:‘Communicative';‘Authority-Oriented'; 'Concrete'; and ‘Analytical.' Sample

statements indicative of the ‘Authority-Oriented' style are:

• Ilike the teacher to explain everything to us.

• 1 want to write everything in my notebook.

・ In English cJass， Ilike to learn by readinι • Ilike to learn English words by seeing them.

b. It's good for me to find out my own mistakes

wherever possible.

b. 1 want to find out for myself what 1 have to do

to learn better English.

b. 1 want to choose for myself what exercises

to do and what b∞ks to read， etc.

b. 1 think speaking activities in pairs or groups

are useful， even when the teacher isn't listening to my group.

b. Tests can't tell you everything. Y ou know

yourself百you'vebeen learning well.

a. 1 think it is the teacher's job to correct all my mistakes.

a. 1 want my teacher to tell me what 1 have to do to learn

better English.

a. My teacher should tell me what exercises to do and

what books to read， etc.

a. 1 don't think it's useful to do speaking activities in pairs

or groups if the teacher isn't listening to my group all

thetime.

a. The teacher should give us lots of tests and tell us how

well we've learned.

FゆJre3: A ttitudinal Statements on Ir由開花蜘tLeaming (see Sh随 rin，1997)

92 Darnon E. Chapman

Sheerin (1997) goes a step further and offers the following attitudinaJ statements that relate to factors

1 -6 in Figure 2. Students would ch∞se which statements from two choices that best apply to them (by

circ1ing 'a' or ‘b' in Figure #3 below) :

As previously noted， it is not the intention to detail every step in implementing learner autonomy in

this paper. But instructors must be aware that learner training (done by teachers to students in the

c1assroom) is not learner deveJopment. Learner development is cognitive and affective development

that reinforces self-awareness as a learner and a willingness and ability to manage one's own learning.

Utilizing self-awareness tactics like those mentioned above is a useful， if not required， first step.

Learner Autonomy in Asian Classr，α)f1lS

Advancing the very limited area of work done on learner autonomy in Asia， Lee (1998) developed

guidelines for a self -directed learning program that was offered outside of regular English language

c1asses at one Hong Kong university. Stemming from interests in self-awareness， it was found that

self-direction is a way of organizing learning so that it promotes autonomy. Several key factors are

needed in order to develop learners' self-direction， inc1uding student voluntariness， learner choice over

pace and materials， flexibility in allowing students to change their program， teacher and peer support，

and a self-access center. This approach differs from previous ones in that it specifiαlly notes learner

choice over the pace of learning. Who better understands the pace of language comprehension then

the learners themselves? After using the guidelines and addressing each factor during the course， it

was conc1uded that self-direction in and of itself does not guarantee learner success， but it does lead

towards greater student autonomy. It was also noted that the areas of strategy training， teacher

counseling， student choice and student collaboration need to be further addressed (Lee， 1998).

Embracing many of the ideas for implementing autonomy proposed by Murphey and Jacobs (20∞) ，

inc1uding socialization，“dawning metacognition，" initiation and gradual expansion of student-made

decisions， and， lastly， practicing collaborative autonomy (see previous discussion)， work done by

Brajcich (2000) focuses on the Japanese EFL c1assroom and gives several pragmatic tips. To aid in

student ref]ection and evaluation， it is suggested that students keep a diary in English of their learning

experiences. To increase motivation， Brajcich endorses giving students projects outside of c1ass (e.g.

English correspondence with pen pals， etc.). Giving students non -lesson activities to do in the

c1assroom is also encouraged， such as calling role and writing instructions on the board. In short， give

the students hands on practice. At the c1assroom level， he encourages the use of English only in c1ass，

to help the students feel comfortable in the target language. Stressing fluency over accuracy in

communication further helps make students less likely to worry about making mistakes in c1ass and， as

a result， more willing to participate.

In related research， a detailed university course was developed and im

Student Autonomy: Taking the Initial Ste戸 toPromote Incrl回 sedLearner Autonomy in the University EFL Classr，∞m 93

interpersonal interaction. The students assume the role of planner， director and evaluator of learning，

and the teachers assume the role of facilitators of learning. Students choose materials from a

community bank and the c1ass environment is responsive to changes in students'“needs， preferences

and interests" Oohnson， et al.， 1998， p. 82). Researchers are anticipating positive results from this

program when they are published in the near future.

Lar唱uageLearning Strategies

While there are numerous components necessary to promote autonomy， and this paper has

highlighted the need to take the first step (that of increasing learner self-awareness)， little work on

other areas has been done， with one exception: language learning strategies. Learners can not be

expected to improve their own learning， and therefore increase learner autonomy， if they do not have a

c1ear understanding of what strategies cater to their individual study habits and needs. Language

learning strategies can generally be described as tools and steps that aid learners in comprehendinι

producing and recalling the target language. Numerous detailed strategies have been developed and

identified to improve language learning， as well as providing a categorization of such learning

strategies to aid instructors and learners find those which are most effective. The most commonly

accepted categories and strategies are those identified by Oxford (1990) in her Strategy 1nventory of

Language Learning (S1LL). The six general categories of learning strategies identified are: memory，

cognitive， compensation， metacognitive， affective and social.

These categories can be broken down into two general areas: direct and indirect learning strategies，

depending on their relationship to the target language. The first area is the “direct" language learning

strategies: those that directly involve the target language. These are the memory， cognitive and

compensation strategies. Such strategies require mental pr∞essing of the language， but the memory，

cognitive and compensation strategies each do this mental processing differently， and for different

purposes. 1n brief， memory strategies have a specific function: they help students store and retrieve

new information. This is done via very simple tasks， inc1uding a personal arrangement of items in a

c1ear order， or simply reviewing one's notes.“These principles all involve meaning. For the purpose of

learning a new language， the arrangement and associations must be personally meaningful to the

learner， and the material to be reviewed must have significance" (Oxford， 1990， p. 39).

Cognitive strategies allow the students to understand and produce the target language by many

different means. “...Cognitive strategies are unified by a common function: manipulation or

transformation of the target language by the learner' (Oxford， 1990， p. 43)

94 Damon E. Chapman

Therefore， metacognitive strategies are actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices and which

provide a way for learners to c∞rdinate their own learning pr∞ess" (Oxford， 1990， p. 136).

Such strategies are labeled “indirect" beαuse they offer support and the ability to manage leaming

the target language without always directly involving the target language. The next category，

affective strategies， c1early demonstrates this. Strategies that help the learner regulate his / her

emotions， attitude and motivation serve this affective function. A learner with negative feelings or

attitudes will struggle much more than a learner with a motivated and positive outlook， which only

adds to the enjoyment of learning the language. Such strategies are c10sely related to social strategies，

which help students learn through interaction with others. As Oxford (1990) so c1early notes，

“Langauge is a form of social behavior; it is communication， and communication occurs between and

among people. Learning a language thus involves people， and appropriate social strategies are very

important in the process" (p. 144). With this general description of the known， categorized learning

strategies， it must be asked what research has been done in order to understand the connection

between such learning strategies and increased learner autonomy. Unfortunately， very little.

Research on the various effects of strategies on language learning inc1ude Nunan's (1997a)

investigation on the impact of strategy training on language students' motivation， knowledge of

learning strategies， the usage and perceived usefulness of strategies. The experimental group in the

study received training in 15 learning strategies and results showed that， overall， the experimental

group out-performed the control groups in motivation， knowledge of strategies and in perceived utility

of strategies. The author conc1uded that prior knowledge of and experience using strategies and the

amount of attention placed on each strategy in c1ass also affected the results. The report also noted

that learner training (teaching students how to study) does indeed make a difference in learning and

autonomy in the three previously mentioned areas (motivation， knowledge of learning strategies，

usage and perceived usefulness of strategies) .

La開 uageLearni開 Strategiesin Asian Classr，αxns

Working on language learning in ]apan， Mochizuki (1999) attempted to find the general kinds of

learning strategies that students use in learning English at the university level. Using Oxford's SILL

as a guide， he found that the students used compensation strategies most and affective strategies the

least. He also discovered that more proficient students use cognitive and metacognitive strategies

more frequently than less proficient students. He also tested and discovered that the students' major，

personal motivation， enjoyment of English learning and gender influenced students' choice of

strategies. While student self-evaluations were shown to be less than reliable， this study is beneficial in

that it shows what general categories of strategies learners in EFL in ]apan are using.

Robbins (1996) studied two different methods of direct language strategy instruction on students in

East Asia. Direct instruction involves teaching students the s関cificnames of strategies， using specific

strategies on an assigned task， and informing students of the value and purpose of the strategies. The

two models studied were the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) and the

Problem Solving Method. The CALLA method is designed to help students with academic， not social，

language use. It integrates learning strategies within content-based second language instruction.

There are five stages for both students and teachers to go through. Teachers must prepare the

Student Autonomy: Taking the Initial Steps to Promote Increased Learner Autonomy in the University EFL Classr∞m 95

students by activating background knowledge， presenting the strategies， practicing the use of

strategies and giving feedback， evaluating strategy use and supporting strategy use by students.

Students must attend c1ass， participate in c1ass and apply the strategies with guidance. They must

then assess the strategies themselves and use the strategies independently (factors which promote

increased student autonomy) .

The Problem Solving Method stresses that students should not only know the strategies， but also

know “when， why and how" to use them (Robbins， 1996， p. 3). 1t c1assifies strategies to be used in four

basic thought processes: planning， monitoring， problem solving and evaluating. This method also

places emphasis on more than one option or strategy for solving a problem. 1n both cases， strategies

were introduced and taught to the students， strategy use and instruction was continued via specific

tasks (see the S1LL， in Oxford， 1990) and independent learning was supported as the teacher reduced

the prompting of strategies and allowed students to ch∞se the ones they preferred. The students

responded highly to the strategy instruction and to the cooperative learning aspects of each model.

The author terms the final outcome of the study as “cooperatively independent learners" (Robbins，

1996， p. 29) .

Increased Student Autonomy: Decreased Teacher Authority?

Res回 rchhas c1early indicated that student autonomy has many benefits for language learners. The

students themselves will become less reliant on the teachers and learn how to study and develop on

their own. This will aid them in improving their English aptitude and raising their self -confidence.

The students will also become more aware of and understand their own learning processes. This will

allow them to take the skills and strategies learned form this research and apply them to other areas of

learning. They will also gain the skills necessary to perpetuate their learning after they have moved

past formal instruction.

There are many ways that teachers involved can also benefit by addressing the issue of their own

learners' autonomy. First， by producing more motivated and autonomous students， teachers should

also have c1ass time freed up as the students are able to manage their own learning and solve many of

their own problems. 1nstead of having to meet the individual needs of each student in a limited time，

the students will be able to meet many of their own needs. The freed up time will allow the teachers to

focus on more complex and necessary material and spend less in -c1ass time on individual student

needs. Those needs can be met by the student or in individual， group or peer counseling.

Effective language learning requires not just focusing on the learners， but on the role of the teacher

in this process. Language learning must involve learning about oneself as a language learner and

learning to function as a language user independent of the teachers' guidance. Vital to understanding

this is understanding the teachers' position and multiple factors that affect the role of the teacher in

autonomy theory. First of all teachers serve three unique roles: facilitator， counselorand resource (for

a thorough discussion of these roles， see Voller， 1997). 1n short， to promote autonomy， teachers

facilitate learning and move it more in the direction of self-directed， self-instructional and

individualized， autonomous learning. On an individual teacher-learner basis， teachers become

counselors to whom students turn to through the various stages of learning to become more

autonomous. Lastly， we are resources. By default， the position of instructor places us in the position of

96 Damon E. Chapman

being the ‘expert' on the subject， able to disseminate knowledge， information and language ability to

the willing， yet uneducated leamers. While fulfilling these roles， three assumptions must be noted:

1. Language learning is an interpretative pr∞e岱 andinherently involves the

teacher relinquishing some amount of control to the learner.

2. Teachers must ensure that their own， personalized teaching techniques and

practices reflect the above point， and that this is done through continual

‘negotiation' with the learner.

3. Lastly， teachers must self-monitor their own teaching. Never stop evolving teaching

methods and tactics.

While understanding and following these assumptions， teachers， in their ‘negotiation' with learners，

bring three attributes with them: self-awareness， belie乙anddesire. Self-awareness on the pa此 ofthe

teachers themselves is understanding that they are learners themselves and they should never stop

self -evaluation of their own performance (Teachers never stop learning!). Next is a profound belief

in the learner's ability. Lastly is the desire to“foster the development of learner autonomy in the

c1assroom and be prepared to live through the consequences for [their] own practice" (Breen & Mann，

1997， p. 146).

As a further step toward helping teachers determine if the implementation of learner autonomy is

within their own capability， Breen & Mann (1997) offer six different c1assroom actions : be a resource;

share decisions; facilitate collaborative evaluation; manage the risks; be patient and opportunistic; and

lastly， get support. These actions should be reviewed by instructors by asking themselves the

following: As a resource， can 1 fulfill the needs of both my students' emerging needs with respect to

increased learner autonomy as well as my own needs as the initiator of such a learning approach? Will

1 be able to share decisions with the students， thereby giving away small but incremental pieces of the

authority and control 1 have in the learning process? Will 1 be able to guide the students succe岱 fully，

and fairly， toward creating collaborative evaluations that enable the learners to judge themselves

accurately， both on an individual basis and any group-based tasks or situations? Do 1 have the

capacity to manage the risks involved in giving up my authority? Am 1 a patient facilitator of new

learning theories? Will 1 manage the chance that some learners w

Summary

Promoting autonomy is a gradual and lengthy process that involves many steps. Developing

independent learners will involve gathering information from students， informing them of what is

happening and what they can do to contribute， teaching strategies and techniques， and slowly

transferring roles from teacher to learner. The information to be gathered willlikely inc1ude an

inventory of how they currently study， the methods of study they are familiar with--even if they do

not use them， and their goals. The learning strategies instructors use will inc1ude improving those that

Student Autonomy: Taking the Initial Steps to Promote Incr聞記dL回rnerAutonomy in the University EFL Classr∞m CJ7

the students currently know and use， as well as teaching new ones.

Teachers must help students recognize their existing aptitudes and habits， promote confidence and

incr回 semotivation by stressing the skills and abilities the students already have (via self-awareness，

as previously discussed). After this， teachers must introduce and teach learning strategies， as well as

build communities of learners and instruct them in self -monitoring. This will aid in changing their

attitudes to where the students automatically practice and habituate the new material， thus becoming

less dependent on the teacher.

1n Japan， keeping culture in mind when promoting autonomy inherently requires taking into account

the limitations imposed by the Japanese education system. This should not， however， prevent

instructors from increasing learner autonomy for language learning， but instead encourage

opportunities for autonomous cultural understanding as well. This author， for example， hopes to teach

his students to discover alternative cultural understandings of established stereotypes and assumptions

of other nationalities， religions， ethnicity's and gender roles. 1ncreased learner autonomy should be

considered as a way to potentially turn students into“authors of their own worlds" (Pennycook， 1997，

p. 53). Each of these must be addressed in some way. Learner autonomy involves making students

aware of what they can and should do and then gradually guiding them to do so. It is a lengthy

process. Autonomy can be promoted within a regular class or in addition to it. Ways to promote

autonomy must also be tailored to fit each individual teaching environment.

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