studies on chinese religion in postwar japan

STUDIES ON CHINESE RELIGION IN POSTWAR JAPANAuthor(s): Gotō KimpeiReviewed work(s):Source: Monumenta Serica, Vol. 15, No. 2 (1956), pp. 463-511Published by: Monumenta Serica InstituteStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40703029 .Accessed: 08/11/2011 13:42

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STUDIES ON CHINESE RELIGION IN POSTWAR JAPAN1

Goto Kimpei ̂ H ^ ψ

The following survey is, on the whole, limited to China proper and to the time before the establishment of the Republic. It does, however, include the various fields of activity and influence connected with organized religion, such as literature and art. Since lack of space prevents us from listing any but the more important contributions in this vast field of study, the reader is referred to the more detailed accounts of current bibliographies such as τκ |fc 8S>d 3t IK g $| (Bibliography of contributions in the field of religion) , published in ^^W^u (Journal of Religious Studies), and S:^·^^·^^· ^cmnm-^Wcmmmmm- (Bibliography of literature, philosophy and history, No. IV- the science of religion),2 compiled and published by the Science Council of Japan H %l Ijï $ç # fg. For studies on Buddhism, in particular, one should consult $& |fc H fâ 3c IK @ $k (Bibliography of Buddhist studies) published in $$ g£ ̂ Ijï (Journal of the History of Buddhism) and $J ̂ H ψζ $t (Studies in Buddhism). On religions other than Buddhism, no bibliographies have been published, except in some special fields.

A survey similar to the present one was compiled some years ago by Kubo Noritada |g |g $l·3 This report is indebted to that excellent study for many valuable suggestions.

PART I. Ancient Religion

Formerly, reconstructions of the ancient religion of China had to rely almost exclusively on the traditional literary sources, which one sometimes tried to elucidate with the help of certain ethnological data. Now the science of ancient Chinese epigraphy, which is

1) The English translation of the titles of Japanese articles given in this report does not always agree with the translation sometimes added in the periodicals where these articles were published.

2) Hõzõkan fëPfg, Kyoto, 1955. 3) Sjfio^S^KÈOwT^E (Recent studies in the religious history ot

China); $.mmm Vol. 58, No. 6, 1950.

463

464 GOTO KIMPEI

gradually coming into its own, is more and more put to use in order to gain more adequate and concrete notions on ancient Chinese religion. In particular, the oracle bone inscriptions, themselves the product of a ritual which was a formal part of the function of government of the Yin-Shang rulers, are beginning to yield their wealth of ancient religious lore.

An attempt to clarify the form of divination used by the ancient shamans in the tortoise oracle of the Yin dynasty was made by Kaizuka Shigeki ̂ ^ j^g Hf.4 He studied it in connection with the method of divination by plant stalks used in the Chou dynasty. The various kinds of sacrifices to the deceased father and mother of the king, the founder of the dynasty and other ancestors of the royal house, nature spirits and deserving ministers of State etc., mentioned in the bone inscriptions, and their contents were the object of a valuable book by Shima Kunio S #IS H entitled £ jjE h g£ φ ffl %- Ψ Ψ hioI^dÂ-íA study of the oracle bones with reference to the rites in the Yin period- Part I).5 He discusses the various theories concerning these sacrifices and tries to synthesize them. Shirakawa Shizuka Q JH S?6 inquires into the relation existing between the sacrifice i fe, which had its place in the system of ancestor worship, and the laws of succession of the Yin dynasty.7 An enlarged notion of ancestor worship is proposed by Okada Yoshizaburõ [89 H^£||58 who has recourse to totemistic ideas in this connection.

One of the most prominent scholars in this field is Katõ Jõken M Ü 9 R· He attempts to shed light on the history of religious ideas and their influence on ancient society by means of character analysis. Thus he is led, in ψ 0 IS Í& Ü & © * äl (Development

4) | ^S (Tortoise oracle and the divination by plant stalks) ', JÜJ} mm No. 15-4, 1947.

5) Hirosaki Univ. & fü :* ̂ , 1953. 6) :JC ΪΒ ̂f (On i &, a rite in the ancestor- worship of the Yin dynasty) . fft $$

Vol. 2, No. 4, 1950. 7) There are also passages dealing with religion in ancient China in other

articles of the same author, such asRfÇ<DJSj££íRef!I (Sacrificial burial and slave system in the Yin dynasty) ;£fàfê*Â£;ft^W32$T#a^No. 2, 1954, and lôîUilâof i (On the royal clan and the form of government of the Yin); i&ft* Vol. 3, No. 1, 1954.

8) ffltfòKfèu òm^òCOmBK^^X (The worship ot the ancestors ot the Yin dynasty); &# Vol. 33, No. 5, 1950.

STUDIES ON CHINESE RELIGION IN POSTWAR JAPAN 465

of primitive concepts in China),9 to look for the origin of the important idea of U jjjg in the ancient belief in taboos. By investi- gating series of terms connected with religion, drawn from ancient literature and from oracle bone and metal inscriptions, he tries to determine the character of religious government in ancient China, arriving at the conclusion that the men in control of the government and of the cultural heritage of ancient China were- hunchbacked sorcerers MM-10 An etymological explanation of the latter two characters is offered by the author in another article.11

The same method of character analysis is being applied by a number of scholars. Among them Ikeda Suetoshi ffe H 5^ % îj is conspicuous by a series of essays on the ancient religious system of China.12 The application of this method is also bearing noteworthy results in the study of ancient myths and legends.13 On the whole, though the new method is fundamentally sound and promising, there is no denying the fact that the guiding principles of ancient Chinese linguistics, as well as of character analysis have to be placed on a

9) Seiryu-sha KffiiL Tokyo, 1951. See Goto Motomi ffSB, "Studies in Chinese Philosophy in postwar Japan," in Monumento, Serica XIV (1949-1955), pp. 170-171.

10) φ HI 'S ft © υ? WC t ,ϋίΙ (Religion and thought in ancient China) ; -~ - s* *- > ·Ρ^Κ· 0 ^ tfc Ä íí Ã ft !S JE II H li (Harvard-Yenching Dõshisha Eastern Cultural Lectures No. 3) , 1954.

11) M? (On hunchback sibyls m ancient China) ; |g κ ti M H SR No. 1, 1955. 12) W?E (Notes on the character szu); 0*φ1$#| No. 2, 1951. W7^-^.

(An etymological study of the characters ti and t'ien - Ancestor worship and nature worship in ancient China); Jg Μ ̂^ 3C*£ß ßBf No. 3, 1953. gglîÇ·^ (An etymological study of the characters ti and t'ien, continued - the religious system of ancient China) ;fÇ No. 3, 1952. £8$Κΐί&δβ£0βΐΒ (The origin of the hearth-festival in Chinese religion); ̂gfcSf^g No. 134, 1953. ̂ tgg^ (A study of the characters 3g gwen and (ft p'ak) ; Κ IS *? ft No. 3, 1953. gg gft % (On the origin of lung or the Chinese dragon) ; J[[ Jj φ No. 6, 1953. fg gg (Notes on the character miao [ancestral temple]); Ç#^ No. 3, 1954. Sf1^ (Some considerations on the establishment of shih [impersonators of the dead at the sacrifices] - its religious significance and its primitive form); Sâ^^^^o^^^ No. 5, 1954. # ίΚΑ'ϋΑ^Ι (On the offerings of ssu, hsien, kuan and the k'uei- shih - the rites of ancestor-gods, as seen in the section " Ta-tsung-po " of the chou-u mm*mi&); mm-x^-it^^mm no. β, ΐ954. mm^mmmm (On the common origin of wu-lou [northwest corner of the house] and chung-liu [house-god]); 0 * φ 0<p#$g No. 6, 1955.

10) A bibliographical account 01 studies on Chinese mythology is planned as part of a bibliography of postwar Japanese studies in Chinese folklore.

466 GOTO KIMPEI

still more solid, objective basis if studies in this field are expected to yield, not merely theories or hypotheses, but proven facts.

On the popular religion of the Chou dynasty, two studies have been made on the basis of the Shih-ching by Matsumoto Masaaki

ι PART II. Taoism

In contrast to Buddhism, the systematic, scientific study of Taoism was long neglected and only came into its own after the war. Before that it was left to the amateurs and given serious treatment by scholars only in connection with other subjects, particularly Buddhism. In 1950 the H ;£ M ife H # (" Institution for Taoistic Research") was founded, and in the following year publication of the periodical ^ ~jj ̂ |fe (The Journal of Eastern Religions) as the organ of the Society was started. Hereby Taoist studies were given a mighty impulse.15

Studies on Taoist Scriptwres

On the literature of primitive Taoism, we have some detailed bibliographical studies by Fukui Köjun jj@ ̂ Jg Jig.16 The investigation of the Taoist Canon, the Tao-tsang Jg |^, has been relatively neglected.17 Here, too, until quite recently the chief contribution was due

14) S ft %k jjS Κ & ft £ ? IB iß V Χ α Κ ο V^ X (Seasonable rhythms in ancient times) ; "M ft ̂ 3S Vol. 33, Nos. 1-2, 1950, 51, and M fÇ Κ & tt £ if M © ? ffî Κ ο V^ Χ (On the marriage season in the Chou dynasty) ; ^ Jj gf f§fc No. 3, 4-5, 1953-1954.

15) The results of studies on Taoism in Japan and elsewhere up to 1950 are indicated, and the direction of their future development forecast, in the article 3iifeBï5E0f!jÎpJ (Trends in the study of Taoism) by Sakai Tadao S#S*; "M^^WC No. 1, 1951. This section of our survey is also indebted to that excellent essay.

16) iiee©Sff3S (A study of the Ling-pao-ching in the canon of religious Taoism) ; Κ ft ® Mffl % No. 4, 1950. ̂ ■& * * Τ W - Η # (On the T'im-kuan- chang-pen Ch' ien-yu-erh-pai - an early Taoist book by Chang Ling jjg §g) ; published in his Book, Κ 8Ê JB SI & S! & (Historical Studies in oriental thought); Hõzõ-kan, ffi JR ft Kyoto, 1950. $f ilii if ̂ (Observations on the Shen-hsien-chuan) ; IJS»No. 1, 1951.

17) Some introductory essays on it were written by Kubo Noritada SISA: Ilico^t (On the Tao-tsang) ; Jg^» No. 6, 1954. % ftffi^ R»Bf ft © jlffK (The edition of the Tao-teang owned by the Imperial Household Agency, Department of Archives and Mausolea); M^MWc No. 7, 1955, etc.


to Mr. Fukui.18 By analyzing the thought contents and the form of a large number of works contained in the Tao-tsang, he arrived at the conclusion that the arrangement of the collection, which at first sight appears to be rather heterogeneous, is actually following a method of Chinese logic- Only a few months ago, a new page in the history of studies on the Tao-tsang was turned by the publication of Yoshioka Giho's ^ |ί3 ϋ g book Jt ifc || J| ̂ |£ (Historical studies of the Taoist canonical texts).19 The work consists of three parts: (1) the history of the compilation of the Tao-tsang as a whole, and of its transmission and editions; (2) a study of the history and the contents of some Taoist works of the period of the Six Dynasties and the T'ang period, notably the T'ai-shang tung- yilan shen-chou ching i& __h M $3 % Ψ BE $Ë> the Wu-shang ρί-yao $L· J^ Ift Ü» and the San-tung feng-tao k'o-chieh i-fan HSft^ISi j|g ; (3) a list of Taoist works quoted in Taoist and Buddhist literature.

A conspicuous feature of postwar efforts has been the study of the so-called Shanshu IHf, or moral tracts. Outstanding among them is Yoshioka Giho's "§ ̂ ü Ü investigation of the Kan-ying p'ien Jgi JH % (Book of rewards and punishments) and on the Kung-kuo-ko :gj ̂ fä (Table of merits and demerits),20 in which he proves the authorship of Li Ch'ang-ling ̂ J| f& of the Southern Sung dynasty for the former work. A purely bibliographical study on the Kung-kuo-ko was made by Sakai Tadao fg ̂ jj& ̂>21 The same author, making use of historical sources in the Cabinet Library ft 18 3t Jï> wrote on the life, ideas, and position of Yuan Liao-fan ;Ü Τ Ri» an outstanding representative of the moral tracts literature.22 On another moral tract, the Yin-chih lu |% pH % (On the rewards of secret good deeds) , written by the Buddhist master Yün-ku g ^ fil Sp> a popular rendition and commentary was published by Nishi- zawa Yoshiaki jg ̂ ^ |@ under the title p§£ ρ$| ̂ © ̂ ^ (A study

18) 31 ÜÜ (Analysis of the Tao-tsang). See Part II, Chap. I of his book îl^£>ii;S§ÉOSï5Ë mentioned in n. 77.

19) Taishõ Univ. ̂CIE^:^, Tokyo, 1955. 20) See Chap. II of his book glfe CD Sff % mentioned in w. 78. 21) ÏO ai fë (D W ?υ (A study of the Kung-kuo-ko) ; ^ # ̂ Ife Nos. 2-3, 1952-53. 22) ^ΤΛΟϋϋϋ^ϋϋ (The thought of Yuan Liao-fan and the moral

tracts) ; ^ ^ Ê ^ Ü J| No. 2, 1954. On the life of Yuan Liao-fan, there is also a study by Ogawa Kan'ichi ; see Part III (Buddhism), n. 175.

M.S. XV 14

468 GOTO KIMPEI

of the Yin-chih lu).23- On Pao-chüan fRfè ("Precious scrolls"), a type of popular Taoist literature, the basic contribution is by Yoshi- oka Gihõ ■£ H M S·24

Studies on the History of Taoism: From the beginning to the Six Dynasties

The development of the belief in jjt$>f[Ij (immortals, genii), a constitutive element of Taoism, is traced by Öbuchi Ninji ̂c M Î& Hf from the end of the Warring States to emperor Wu-ti of Han.25 Another tributary of primitive Taoism, the sacrifice to Heaven and Earth, is the subject of a painstaking, though somewhat diffuse study by Fukunaga Mitsushi jjg ̂ % r!· He shows the religious nature of these sacrifices on Tai-shan ^ [I] and explores the formation of the belief in them.26 - Sakai Tadao M$r &£: studies the occult and magical arts of emerging Taoism by analysing the changing meaning of the terms fangshu -jj% and tao-shu Jgflç during the Han dynasty.27- Fukui Kõjun jjg ft Jg Hg contends that Buddhist influence is clearly to be seen in the doctrines and the ritual of the early Taoist formations of the Tailing tao -j^zf^28 and the Wu-tou-mi tao ïif>f I.29 The same author makes a detailed investigation into the time of the formation of the Mou-tzu

23) Yagumo Shoten ASIE, Tokyo, 1946. 24) RISJittffcí&ttSeeífe^RcDBm (The expansion of the Pao-chüan

type of popular religion in modern Chinese society) . See Chap. I of his book mentioned in n. 78. - The contents of the Shan-shu and Pao-chüan in so far as they reflect modern popular Taoism will be dealt with on p. 213. - According to Sakai Tadao S # JS ̂ (M Jj *? Wt. No. 2, p. 93) , there are many writings of this type scattered in private Japanese collections. He thinks that brought together they might add up to the largest collection of this kind in the world.

25) ίο SB CD ^ fg; Κ ο 1λ Χ (Theories on the genii in ancient China) ; ]g # ̂ gr No. 2, 1952.

26) MmBOMfà (On the evolution of the Feng-shan Theory); Mfi^Bk. Nos. 6-7, 1954, 55.

27) /jmbWiw (Fangshu and tao-shu, religious and political art in Taoism) ; JKEM6*»*! No. 1, 1953.

28) A sect claiming, in particular, the power of healing the sick with " magical water" if 7JC. It was founded c. A.D. 180 by Chang Chiao 3g^.

29) The " sect of the five pecks of rice ", so called from the fee which new followers had to pay. Founded by Chang Ling <jg |£ at the end of the Later Han dynasty in Shu K),- Mr. Fukui's paper is entitled JgJâ g gfc bffi%k (Primitive Taoism and Buddhism) ; see Part I, Chap. 3 of his book mentioned in n. 77.

STUDIES ON CHINESE RELIGIONIN POSTWAR JAPAN 469

φ ^f-, the relation of the work to Buddhism in intellectual history, and the life of its author.30- In opposition to Mr. Fukui who makes much of the influence of Buddhism on early Taoism, Miyakawa Hisayuki g Jîl fä ]& stresses, among the factors which led to the establishment of Taoist societies mainly the general thought currents of the Han dynasty.31 Similarly, Õbuchi Ninji jzffî jg* $f also rejects the theory of a paramount influence of Buddhism. He sees the essential factor for the emergence of organized Taoism in the change of social conditions at the end of the Han dynasty and believes that the rallying of the people around the "Three Chang"32 was in the nature of an historical necessity.33

Period of the Six Dynasties

In his famous book on the religious history of the Six Dynasties,34 Miyakawa Hisayuki g ;i| $} jg gives an excellent account of the beliefs and the societies of Taoism, as well as of their relation to Confucianism and Buddhism. Elsewhere, he devotes a special study to the Mao-shan ^ 'i] sect of Taoism and tries to explain its character out of the political and social conditions of the Eastern Chin ^^ dynasty.35 He thinks that this sect played a prominent part in the establishment of the T'ang dynasty.36 - The most outstanding representative of Taoism in this period, Ko Hung Mi&» and his work Pao P'u tzu fg %'> ^ were the object of several studies by

30) φ =f> © iff % (Studies on Mou-tzu or the Li-huo lun M $k H) · See the Appendix of his book mentioned in n. 77. See Yoshioka Gihõ § |53 H g, JR jg CD ÎÏ0K?8lto^t (Recent studies on Mou-tzu) ; ^Wcítfà No. 7, 1951.- Fukui's view that the Mou-tzu originated about the middle of the third century A.D. agrees with the opinion of Maspero.

31) IKitlOS« (On the Origin of Taoist societies); MÏÏ^Wt Nos. 4-5, 1954.

32) The three Taoist leaders Chang Ling jjg gg, Chang Heng jg fÇ, and Chang Lu 3gç.

33) φΜΚ&ϋ % RM&UTTïWt® fàîL (The establishment of Taoism in China) ; Β $. * fflf 9L Nos. 81-83, 1955.

34) See below, pp. 476-477. 35) 3ΡώΐΚΗ»:03βΪΒ£ΐ£ίβ (Origin and character of the Mao-shan school

of Taoism); JK^^tfe No. 1, 1951. 36) Jg£0Í!lH£*ll|?RHS (The founding of T'ang dynasty and the Mao-

shan sect of Taoism); !$!££§ Vol. 1, No. 3, 1950.

470 GOTO KIMPEI

Makino Tatsumi 4£!&ϋ,37 Shigezawa* Toshio g^l^IIS,38 Sanaka Sõ ^r£#fc,39 and Murakami Yoshimi #Jb^^.40 Fukui Kõjun Τϋ^ΐΚΉ makes a bibliographical study of the Shen-hsien-chvxin jjifflllfljL (Biographies of immortals, traditionally ascribed to Ko Hung)41 and tries to show that the system of Taoist beliefs handed down to Ko Hung from his grand-uncle Ko Hsüan H&, was taken over by the Mao-shan ̂ |Jj society, principal of the contemporary Taoist sects.42 In another study, the author explores the relation of this brand of Taoism to Buddhism.43

From the Tang to the Yuan dynasty

With the exception of the article of Mr. Miyakawa, mentioned above, there is no study dealing directly with the Taoism of the T'ang dynasty, but there are some studies worth mentioning on Taoism during the Sung, Chin, and Yuan dynasties. Yoshioka Gihö "τ? fS3 ü H describes vividly the movement around Wang Chung- yang ΞΕΪίϋ (i.e., Wang Chia 3EJ£) and Ma Tan-yang M -ft Β (i.e., Ma Yü JSáft) which led to the establishment of the Ch'iian- chen chiao & /J| |fe sect of Taoism.44 Kubo Noritada gg ̂ jg» thinks that the fabricated story of Wang Ch'ung-yang meeting an Immortal had some bearing on the foundation of the sect.45 He criticizes and rejects46 the view that Wang was a Sung loyalist.47 The same author

37) fi#T0g8H (The autobiography of Pao P'u tzu); φΐχ^ No. 100, 1947.

88) mf'>=f-KmV Zffi - OIS (The Idea ot Unity m the Pao P'u tzu); M m CD ■# ft > tfc # No. 1, 1950.

39) M :& (D ÉË S t % (D Ά Κ (On the life and personality of Ko Hung) ; ÜC "β #11« No. 2, 1954.

40) ÄHi Illl Λ (Kuei-shen [spirits] and hsien-jen [genii] ) ; ̂ ^^gfc No. 7, 1955. 41) See above, n. 16. The author holds that the new current edition of the

work was compiled after the T'ang dynasty and is completely different from the work of Ko Hung as it existed during that period.

42) M ffi M (D m % (A study of Ko-shih too) ; IK ̂ S ffi BT 38 No. 5, 1954. 43) MRMbfflWt (Ko-shih too and Buddhism); EP K<P i#gfe¥ffl2S Vol.2,

No. 2, 1954. 44) See Chap. 3 of his book mentioned in n. 78. 45) 3E M ß§ (D jS fill i& i§ Κ ο 'λ Χ (On the story of Wang Chung-yang meeting

an "Immortal"); 1IÜ No. 6, 1948. 46) %)M±MWtM<D - SÍS (A feature of the CK'ùan-chm sect of Taoism in

its early stage of development); ^;5*<P No. 1, 1951. 47) This opinion was expressed by Ch'en Yuan Pfjg in ffiTRÍJMdfcffSK^

(New Taoist societies in the northern provinces at the beginning of the Southern Sung dynasty); Catholic University of Peking Book Series No. 8, 1941.


published a study on the beliefs, responsible leaders, etc., of the Ch'iian-chen ̂ ^ and the Chen-ta tao J|l ̂ Jj[ sects during the Chin and Yuan dynasties.48

Ming dynasty

The study of sects which had the character of, or were in collusion with, secret societies, the existence of which was hitherto veiled in obscurity, was vigorously attacked. Sakai Tadao j@ ̂ & ^ explores the historical and social forces active in the Lo-tsu chiao HfflLi^ of the Ming dynasty which under the Ch'ing reappeared under the names of Ch'ing-pang hui ̂ % ̂ or ChHng-men Lo-chiao iff P^JÜifc etc.,49 thus opening the series of noteworthy studies on the Lo-chiao ft gfc which have appeared since the war. Two articles by Tsukamoto Zenryü j|£ ;£ jj |H on the subject are of an introductory nature ; there chief merit consists in emphatically pointing to the importance of Ραο-chüan ^^ as sources for the study of recent religions in China.50 The first satisfactory treatment of the Pao- chiian type of Taoist sects was given by Yoshioka Gihõ ̂f [Hj Ü Ü who, after a bibliographical analysis, studies the various aspects of this brand of sects which persisted under various names through the Sung, Ming and Ch'ing dynasties.51 Studies on the Wu-wei chiao M M ife were published by Sawada Mizuho ̂ H flg Ü52 and Sakai Tadao iB#&5fe.53

Ch'ing dynasty To Sawada Mizuho ^ 0 ^g gj we owe some valuable contributions

on secret sects of the Ch'ing dynasty such as the Huang-tHen tao 48) ^7C0SfÇcDj!ifclfc|i|©Ofë (Character of the Taoist societies during the

Chin and Yuan periods) ;Sftifflfg±»!BÍBíâ;m8É5EÍ&*, 1951. 49) aSftFÊIBfcJSfrãíeffilgiH: (Secret Societies in present-day China) ;

published in §g fÇ φ HI Sfi 9E (Studies on modern China) , edited by Niida Noboru t # ffl S ; Kõgaku-sha fip $ tt, Tokyo, 1948.

50) ii:0JÈ2iSA^ol/^ t (On the birth and growth of the Lo-tsu chiao or the Wu-wei sect in the Ming era); f J$S No. 17, 1949. HS^îfîft^^-© IS ̂ fc (Vao-chüan and Chinese religion in modern age) ; # A SC ft W 9ß No. 1, 1951.

51) See. Chap. I of his book mentioned in n. 78> 52) fj jffí (D MS WC (A study of the Wu-wei sect founded by Lo-tsu) ; M 15 ̂ Κ

Nos. 1-2, 1951-52. 53) Η*©ΑϋΚΐο^τ (On the PFk-wei cfctoo at the end of the Ming

dynasty); 3{C^£|I!Ê» No. 3, 1954.

472 GOTO KIMPEI

jlf^cäi»54 the Pai-yang chiao Q S§ifc>55 and the Pa-kua chiao Λ# i£.56 With regard to the Pai-yang chiao, making use of the rare historical material contained in the Ling-Vai hsiao-pu jg j| /h |f, he tells the story of the measures taken against the sect by the Tao- kuang emperor in 1832. In his paper on the Pa-kwa chiao, he deals with the establishment, character, and organization of this sect.57 The I-ho t'uan j| fp g, or sect of the Boxers, were the object of many studies which deal chiefly with the political history of the movement. The religious aspects of the sect are treated in papers by Ichiko Chüzö φΐΦ Η58 and Yamamoto Sumiko lU^gl·?*.59 On the P'u-chi ̂ fßf sect and the I-kuan tao - JR îi, both popular and active sects at the end of the Ch'ing dynasty and under the Republic, both Yoshioka Gihõ ̂ [H] §| Ü60 and Kubo Noritada §g fë ,&61 wrote papers.

Studies on Taoist rites and ceremonies

For a knowledge of Taoist rites as practiced in Taoist monasteries before the war, Yoshioka Giho's "§ [Hj §| g record of his observations in the Po-yün kuan ÖIIH near Peking is indispensable.62 The

54) ÍUfflcDS^S (The Huang-t'ien tao in its earlier stage); ̂ífg?gfc Nos. 8-9, 1955.

55) mjù&WiWttèïfc (On the "white Yang" sect during the Tao-kuang era); m2r#H«No. 1, 1954.

56) Α Ά mm M (Ongm and development of the Pa-kua sect); mmmWM Vol. 55, No. 1, 1954.

57) It can now be safely said that there are many points in the Pai-lien chiao Ölg, on which the study of the Pao-chüan S @ will shed new light. About this sect's rebellion Suzuki Chüsei #p Tfc φ jE wrote in his book, J# KJ φ ÄB 5ÈL Jfl ?B (A study of the middle period of the Ch'ing dynasty); Aichi Univ. g^J^ft Toyohashi gf§, 1952.

58) m Si * (D ft £ (The character of the I-ho ch'uan); published in ffi ft φ Η Wi% (See n. 49), 1948. gfp^ffi^ (Miscellaneous studies on the I-ho cW üan) ; }g ■&MW No. 6, 1948.

59) g Si * Ο ft fê fci ο 'λ "C (On the character of the I-ho ch'üari) ; ÄL ® No. 33, 1950.

60) S^lljiD^Älfg: (Some aspects of the P'u-chi sect of Mount Wu-t'ai) ; M^mWc No. 1, 1951.

61) -MMK-d^X (On the /-ftucm too); m^Z^ftiffl^^f föl^ No. 4, 1953. 62) ill&:©ifc)t£ (The present situation ot Taoism); see Chap. 4 ot his book

mentioned in n. 78. This study, together with the one on the Ch'üan-chen chiao mentioned above in n. 44, was published in 1945 in Peking under the title Q g ÏR CD S Sfc (The Taoism of the Po-yün-kuan) .


same author tries to explain the contents of Taoist beliefs from the immensely popular charms ; he compiles a list of more than 300 charms |fc, drawn from seven Taoist works.63 Kubo Noritada glU JS& studied Buddhist influence on the monastic rules fg ̂ in force in the Ch'iian-chen chiao ̂ Ht^t and the Po-yün kuan SUIS»64 as well as those laid down in the Ch'ing-kuei hsiian-miao flf H, ̂ typ, a book compiled at the beginning of the Ch'ing dynasty.65 Articles by Natsume Ikken Jg-$ dealing with various questions concerning Taoism, such as the theory of respiration, the elixir of life, charms, etc.,66 are, unfortunately, not based on a scientific study of the sources.

Popular beliefs in Taoism

The customs centered around the worship of the god of the kitchen || % ψ are analysed by Tsuda Saukichi |HÉ/&h with regard to the background of religious and moral ideas which they reveal.67 Niida Noboru £l =R E9 β| inquires into the influence of the belief in a "divine judgment" on popular morality.68 The worship of the spirits of Hsiang Yü Ig 33, Chiang Tzu-wen jf$ -J- 3t, and Su Hou Mfë> which had a strong magical component and and was in vogue during the Six Dynasties, is the object of a study by Miya- gawa Hisayuki g Jîl fô ïëU69 On the worship of Kuan Yü MM» Harada Masami Μ Β Ε S also wrote.70 An excellent study of Taoist

63) fiRcDjgü - BI§gicoV*T:- (T'ao-chüeh, a feature of Taoist secret ritual); ;*: IE ;*: <P <P 3® No. 38, 1952.

64) g Ife CD $| m Κ ο Vï X - ft 5fc SC ft t 0 ÍT 3C ft - (On the Taoistic covenant. The mixture of foreign and indigenous cultures in China) ; ]g ̂ f g^ ̂ No. 1, 1951.

65) jg tic Jf S ^ - îfi S S # Kl o V^ "C - (Considerations of the laws of purity in Taoism: on the ChHng-kuei hsüan-miao) ; τ^^ψί% No. 136, 1953.

66) il He S ± (D H!g (Various types of Taoist monks); 0 ;£ χ ft No. 31, 1951. il3£-bift£rff:iii>£'££lKIä (Various questions on ch'i [breath] in Taoism); 0 * SC ft No. 32, 1952. ii^Kií^U-^^-CD^P^M (Various questions about tan [cinnabar] , a kind of elixir in Taoism) ; 0 * X ft No. 33, 1953. g |fe fc Κ ^ δ ί? Ο ̂ S9 M (Various questions on charms in Taoism) ; 0 ;£ 3C ft No. 35, 1955.

67) ^^-©SHMWKiásy-ôSIIÍ (Worship of the god of the kitchen in China); Μ^^Ά Vol. 32, No. 2,1949.

68) fiScfiffl] £ f$£I (The faith of Taoism and "divine judgment"); * V * y * y # No. 2, 1949.

69) ft H CD M SÄ Ü t ï ̂ Ü Ο fe (Φ (Popular shamanistic practices and the faith of the Shrines) ; see Chap. 5 of his book 7^ |g ̂ gfc ^ mentioned in n. 82.

70) Ili^fMffil^^V^XcDIlHcD^flg (On a few elements in the worship of Kuan Yü); MJS^WC Nos. 8-9, 1955.

474 GOTO KIMPEI

pictures on household utensils, showing how Taoism penetrated the everyday life of the people, was published by Kimura Eiichi fcfô H - .71 Finally, Ishihama Juntarõ Ç ig Jffi >fc JUS wrote an instructive paper on the nun Hsieh Tzu-jan ̂ g $& of the Tang dynasty turned Immortals.72

General works on Taoism

The best-known books of this kind are M$C t f$ US Ä ift - % M © S W ínW - (Taoism and its myths and legends- the popular belief in China),73 a posthumous work of Kitsu Boku β |Ü, edited by Nakano Kõkan ψ gf ££ jg, and It <!: ÎSItt (Taoism and Chinese society)74 by Kubo Noritada Hü,®». The former book makes interesting reading but is without scientific pretensions. The latter, though based on the prewar studies and thus now somewhat antiquated, can claim to be the first scientific and unbiased account of Taoism studied for its own sake. It consists of the following parts: (1) Chinese society and Taoism, (2) origin and development of Taoism, (3) present state of Taoism, (4) the Taoist Canon, (5) occult practices ̂ΦΒ and purification rites, and (6) the gods of Taoism.75

Neither in these nor any other books an attempt is made to work out a comprehensive integrated view of Taoism as a whole. There is no work yet in Japanese comparable to Max Weber's Konfuzianismus und Taoismus. The reason for this is not only to be found in the fact that up to now the amount of factual studies required for such a theoretical structure is far from sufficient, but also in the attitude of Japanese scholars traditionally shrinking from overall syntheses. A laudable exception in this respect is Kimura Eiichi Ttc # ̂ - . In his book ψΒϋ*ΟΑ8ϋΛ (Thought

71) β»©*«Ηΐον*τ:0- HJB - SBIiORfftro^t- (A problem tangential to Taoism. The magical character of the pictures adorning Chinese household utensils) ; ^ # g* gfc No. 6, 1954.

72) f§} g $ CD m (On the Taoist nun Hsieh Tzu-jan) ; S g ft if No. 31, 1949. To) Kaizõsha öJcäsAt, Tokyo, iy47. 74) Heibonsha ψ Λ It, Tokyo, 1948. 75) An excellent account ot these two books, as well as oi tnat oi Kimura

Eiichi ;fc fâ 31 - mentioned in n. 76, is given by Sakai Tadao M # J& ^ in his paper SäfiCDStäfcW^^^^V^t: (Recent studies on Taoism) ; φ m fâ' % No. 6, 1949.


and Culture of the Chinese People)76 he discusses questions like the relation between Taoism and Chinese society, and the position which Taoist culture occupies in Chinese culture in general.

Lastly, two special accounts on Taoist studies, namely, MSi<D S m 65 Ψί % (A Fundamental Study of Religious Taoism)77 and it |fc 0ff% (Studies in Taoism),78 have been published by Fukui Kõjun M^r^M and Yoshioka Gihõ lüffliJÜS respectively.79 Mr. Fukui deals chiefly with primitive Taoism and the Sacred Books of Taoism ; in an appendix, he reports on studies on Mou-tzu φ ■=£-. Mr. Yoshi- oka, for his part, treats the growth and development of modern popular Taoism as reflected in: (1) the formation of the Pao-chüan % ̂ 5 type of religion in popular society ; (2) devotional books such as the Kan-ying p'ien jgÊ JH jg and the Kung-kuo-ko 5& âã fê ; (3) the establishment of the Ch'Uan-chen tao ^^g:; and (4) the present state of Taoism exemplified by the Taoism of Po-yün kuan Õ Ä Ü· These papers together with Mr. Yoshioka's studies on the Tao-tsang (n. 19) give an adequate picture of the standard, the results, and the trends of present Taoist studies in Japan.

PART III. Buddhism

The study of Chinese Buddhism has a long and splendid tradition in Japan. After the war, this field of research showed a quick recovery and has at present reached or surpassed in volume the research performed before the war. Here as in other fields a more objective, scientific attitude is generally to be observed in recent publications. Before the war it was not uncommon that Buddhist scholars, the majority of them being Buddhist priests, showed a strong bias in favor of the sect to which they belonged. Another peculiar trait of postwar studies is a more concrete approach. As had already been done by the best scholars before the war, Buddhism is now generally studied in a less isolated way, much attention being devoted to its interdependence with the cultural and social environ- ment in which it developed.

76) Kõbundõ & £ ̂ , Tokyo, 1947. n) Kisosna mmntf Tokyo, iy&2. 78) Hõzõkan g $ξ ft, Kyoto, 1952. 79) On these two books, we have the excellent reviews by Sakai Tadao Jgj #

JS* in SÍM No. 46, and JfC^lfc No. 2,

476 GOTO KIMPEI

Associations and periodicals devoted to Buddhist studies were partly newly founded and partly reorganized after the war. The former Society for the Study of the History of Chinese Buddhism % M % ife A ^ # was amalgamated with the Society for the Study of the History of Japanese Buddhism H^ÄtASt10 f orm the Society for the Study of the History of Buddhism {$ ffe & H Ü*. The organs of these societies were also revived in 1949 in the form of the single $£ j£ & |jl (Journal of the History of Buddhism) . The research institutes of the Buddhist universities had been generally restored, and their organs had resumed publication by the year 1950. 80 In 1948, the Society for Buddhist Art #ifeii#i|-# was founded. It publishes the magazine #^!|Φ15 (Ars Buddhica). In 1950, The Research Institute of Buddhist Culture # ifc 5: fc ff 2l J3JÍ was organized, having as its organ $$ gc 3t 4fc W % (Journal of Buddhistic Culture). Finally in 1951, the Japanese Association of Indian and Buddhist Studies Η^ΡΡ^^#^:^# was started ; its periodical is called pp jg- ̂ {*$ |^t |jl ψ{ ̂g (Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies). All these groups and their periodicals, though not exclusively devoted to Chinese Buddhism, contribute much to its exploration.

History of Chinese Buddhism: From the beginning till the end of the Six Dynasties

Research on the initial period of Chinese Buddhism (from Han to the Three Kingdoms) was essentially centered on the problem of its relation to Taoism.81 With regard to the following period, reaching through the epoch of Division between North and South, the problem uppermost in the mind of the scholars was how Bud- dhism was accepted by Chinese society, and the foundations were laid for the growth of a thoroughly Chinese brand of Buddhism. Miyakawa Hisayuki g )'' fä jg makes this question the central one in his book, already mentioned, 7' ̂ Ü τκ i& jË, (History of religions in the Six Dynasties),82 in which the treatment of Buddhism, quite naturally, occupies the largest space. He places particular emphasis

80) The chief among these periodicals are listed under section I in the " List of Periodicals " at the end of this article.

öi; öee aoove, pp. 4b»-4by. 82) Kõbundõ &3Cg, Tokyo, 1948.


on the relations to Confucianism and describes in factual detail the association of the Buddhist monks with the royal houses and the nobility, the process of osmosis by which Buddhism gradually penetrated all classes of society, the foundation of Buddhist temples in mountainous districts, and the intercourse with Taoism ; and he discusses the reasons for the expansion of Buddhism. The wide range of historical sources drawn upon by the author, and his sur- passing insight, give this book a singular value and make it indispensable for any future study of its subject. In a further essay the author inquires into the attitude of lay-adherents towards the Buddhist creed, again offering a wealth of historical information.83 - Tensions between the imported thought of Buddhism and the historical and social actualities of contemporary China are discussed by Satõ Ichiro -gcJH - .1(5 in a study on Huan Hsüan ®^ and the conditions prompting Hui-yüan || g| to compose the $p P5 sfc Hit ΞΕ # g^ (On monks being exempt from homage towards the king).84 - Concerning eminent figures of contemporary Buddhism, there are studies on Tao-an gt ξ£ by Satõ Ichiro £fe $§ - g|S85 and Takamine Ryõshu ]gj ̂ Τ M>86 and on Kumarajiva by Uehara Senroku _h M 4P ü,87 Kasugai Shinya |Η^>ΙΊ88 and Tsukamoto Zenryü U· ^ ίί IM·89 Among these, the essay by Uehara, whose proper

83) Λ lã m ft Λ O ff ifc it 4Φ (Buddhist faith in the Six Dynasties) ; '% ifc £ $, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1955.

84) φΙΦΗ^^Ιί5Β|[^8 0ί}2 (Opposition between state and religion in medieval China); gjg No. 281, 1947.

») fP^Aöi^pe - »SSOSÍfcH^Mil&fpj&è: L ~C - (The theories of translation in ancient China - especially Tao-an's theory of five inevitable errors and three difficulties of translation); 0±*gSfS Vol. 4, 1953.

86) M S - S: M if ± & (D fè M - (Tao-an and the beginning of the Pure Land sect in China); fgfi% No. 6, 1951.

87) mmmnWe (On Kumarajiva); - íffÉS Vol. 22, No. 1, 1949. 88) Hft-HjiiScDTii^TL'^iP (Kumarajiva's doctrine of Abhidharma); 03

ΑΦ0Ρ ifc<PSff^ Vol. 2, No. 2, 1954.- The same author wrote also ÍfHÍ0 T if ̂ 71^ ^ Éfc § (The doctrine of Abhidharma during the Chin dynasty and the three Ch'in dynasties); i^Wc^^fU, Vol. 28, 1953; £§ξΗΐΐ07 tf # ̂ ^ $ ©#ffl (A special feature of Hsüan-tsang's doctrine of Abhidharma); EPJS;<Pf# ^^Ψί% Vol. 1, No. 2, 1953; and ÄfSHiEcDTif^^^* (The doctrine of Abhidharma of Chen-ti [Paramãrtha or Kulanãtha] ) ; EP ft ̂ i# ife * Wi % Vol. 3, No. 2, 1955. All these papers are concerned with the reception of the Abhidharma doctrine of the Gandhara school of Buddhist thought by Chinese Buddhist thinkers.

89) H '' © g ijj £f£ ft κ ο ^ X (On the date of the life of Kumarajiva) ; ft] ft *Pí# ÍS: <P if 2S Vol. 3, No. 2, 1955. This article should be read together with the corresponding paper in the author's KufflF9ï (Studies on the Chao-lun) , mentioned below.

478 GOTO KIMPEI

field is German medieval history, is a model in attitude and method and based on solid literary criticism. Concerning Tao- sheng Jit £f Ochõ Enichi i|||H wrote a brilliant study in which he attempts to elaborate clearly the position of Tao-sheng's commentary in the history of the exegesis of the Lotus sutra.90 - On Seng-chao ff· §§, Tsukamoto Zenryü |g ;φ: H g| edited, under the title Ä IraW^ù (Studies on the Chao-luri),91 the results of a cooperative undertaking of the Seminar on Medieval Chinese Thought of Kyoto University.92 Part I of the work is a critical edition of the Chao- lun, together with an annotated translation (pp. 1-112). Part II is made up of eight articles on the Chao-lun, headed by a study of Mr. Tsukamoto entitled f$ gfc ^ Jb Κ iõ I? £ H fjfò CD ííl Β (On the position of Seng-chao in the history of Chinese Buddhist thought). Part III is a lithographic reproduction of an edition of the Chao-lun, with a commentary by the monk Meng-an, preserved in the Sonkei- kaku ̂ MmM^fëmfàWWmWs- The work, besides being a useful addition on the thought of Seng-chao, is a great contribution to the study of Buddhism in the Six Dynasties.

On the Buddhism of the Northern Wei dynasty, Tsukamoto Zenryü M * # BI wrote in 1942 his master-piece 3t fjß # tfc £ iff 2Ë - At Ü M - (Studies in the history of Chinese Buddhism - the Northern Wei), where almost all important problems were exhaus- tively dealt with. Recently Tsukamoto published a book, titled ̂c^ # (Great Buddhist Stone Images),93 in which he studied the Buddhist sculpture of Yün-kang jig g} for the first time, not merely from the viewpoint of archaeology or art history, but with regard to their meaning in the history of religion, explaining them as the crystal-

90) ^líg ffè^WBj £>Í5f% (Studies in Tao-sheng's commentary to the Sadharma-pundanka) ; ^c^^c^W %^Wl No. 5, 1952.- Other equally excellent studies in intellectual history by the same author are: ^|!ISí;Jí:Í9Btft£>í<$i^ <PJS (Trends of Buddhist thought during the Six Dynasties); B^BWc^^^U No. 17, 1952 ; liigfco^i: (On the Sutra of Infinite Meaning) ; ËP Jf£ <p f# ife#W% Vol. 2, No. 2, 1954; and » £ J5fc # © JB fi (On the idea of abrupt attainment of Buddhahood); ffl JK <p '%^^m% Vol. 3, No. 1, 1954.

91) An English translation of the same work with notes was published in 1948 by W. Liebenthal under the title The Book of Chao as Vol. XIII of the monograph series of Monumento, Serica.

92) Hõzõkan m mm, Kyoto, 1955. 93) Sõgensha fj 7c Jt, Tokyo, 1954.

STUDIES ONCHINESE RELIGION IN POSTWAR JAPAN 479

lization of the faith of the Buddhist believers who had just passed through the trial of persecution.94 On the other hand, Tsukamoto Shunkõ M^$i*Ê studied the process of adoption of Buddhism by the Northern Wei dynasty both from the dogmatical and historical point of view.95

Period of the development of the so-called Chinese sects

Concerning the question of which factors brought about the formation of the Chinese Buddhist sects from the time of the end of the Six dynasties through the Sui and Tang dynasties, Yüki Reibun |§ ij& ̂t BH stresses chiefly the belief, which had become current during the Six Dynasties, that the period of the extinction of the Buddha-law was imminent.96 Tsukamoto Zenryü M ̂ II Hb on the other hand, studies some concrete historical and social phe- nomena which, according to him, paved the way for a peculiar development of Chinese Buddhism. Thus, he discerns the wide diffusion of Buddhism in society from the use which Wu-ti of the Ch'en dynasty was able to make of a tooth of Buddha in his bid for imperial power.97 The attempt of Wu-ti of the Northern Chou dynasty to suppress Buddhism, described by the same author,98 led, according to him, to the reaction after Wu-ti's death culminating in the ascendancy of Buddhism under the Sui dynasty.99 Tsukamoto also discusses the social background of the establishment of the T'ien-t'ai JZ j| sect and the Buddhist policy which the Sui prince Kuang jH, the later Yang-ti ̂̂ , found helpful in his conquest of

94) Other studies on the Yün-kang caves will be listed in the section on Buddhist art and archaeology.

95) :Jfc§t CD Äife!§?? Κ ο V> Χ (Reception of Buddhism in the Northern Wei dynasty); fiifc^ftW^ No. 1» 1951. Studies on the Pure Land sect in the Six Dynasties will be treated below. See pp. 483-485.

96) nmmRKfèv z#mföm&msL<DmviK<c>^x(Dn& (A study on the conditions surrounding the founding of the Buddhist sects in the Sui and Tang dynasties); 0 ^ffiifc^#^|g No. 19, 1954.

97) |^ (D ¥ âr t # 5P (Ch'en's ascendancy to power and the sacred bones of Buddha) ; HC # * m No. 19, 1950.

98) ikM<DJgtffiK*D'/^X (The anti-buddhist movement in the Northern Chou dynasty) ; JfC 15 * S Nos. 16, 19, 1948, 50.

99) dbifcD^^Jt^K^öffl® (The collapse of the anti-religious policy in the Northern Chou dynasty); f#ifeÊ<P Vol. 1, No. 1, 1949.

480 GOTO KIMPEI

South China.100 Buddhism under the Sui dynasty is also the subject of several papers by Yamazaki Hiroshi |ij f$ Jg.101 There is a certain contrast between the treatment of Tsukamoto, whose penetrating research and gift of intuition make him the foremost authority on the history of Chinese Buddhism but who under the surface betrays the feelings of a fervid Buddhist monk, and Yamazaki, the completely detached historian who coolly musters a host of solid arguments and draws some excellent conclusions. And his book, φ iö: l£ M # i£ © g| (The development of Buddhism in medieval China),102 though being a reprint of the 1943 edition, is still a valuable source study on the expansion of Buddhism during the Sui and T'ang dynasties.

The various Chinese sects of Buddhism: The T'ien-t'ai 55 $ sect

Tsuda Saukichi ̂ H fe 7ÈT "§ analyzes the basic thought of Chih-i 3? H> the founder of the Tien-Vai school, and finds that his interpretation of the Lotus Sutra is essentially contrary to the text as well as to the spirit of the original.103 In our view, Chih-i merely made use of the elements supplied by the Indian brand of Buddhism in order to develop a peculiarly Chinese brand of Buddhist thought. - A critical evaluation of the Tien-Vai school from the standpoint of modern philosophy of religion is given by Ishizu Shõji Ç ^t Rg β in his book ̂HJffYBHOiFF^L (Studies in the Tien-Vai doctrine

100) m<DRmi£MtB%k-7g^m(M1$)tKmi%%k (Buddhism and the conquest of south China - the Sui prince Kuang of Chin [Yang-ti] and the Buddhism of South China); BWc3tfcWf9t No. 3, 1953. The author's other article, ̂ Ü M f (I B# fÇ % It - H (Two points of interest in the foundation to the T'ien-t'ai sect), in ΕΡΙϋ<Ρ#^:^Βϊ9Ε Vol. 2> No· *> 1953, can be called a summary of this paper.

101) pFíiScDffi^ítA^^^-T (Restoration of Buddhism in the Sui dynasty) ; §gjf Vol. 1, No. 1, 1949. ßg CD Λ Ä # τΡ Κ ο V> X (On the Ta-hsing-shan ssu Temple in the Sui period); &.M No. 42, 1949. =g3E^ © Κ MM (Four Taoist and Buddhist places of worship, established by the Sui prince Kuang of Chin [Yang- ti]); 3Κ£Ε#3$ Vol. 32, No. 3, 1950. M^^mMM (Four places of worship, established by Yang-ti) ; m i¥ * S Vol. 34, Nos. 1-4, 1952. moMÏÏ t^m^M ^m (Yang-ti of Sui and Chih-i, the sage of the T'ien-t'ai); IffífUNo. 1, 1953. PfcDîg^jg^ffi^ftSfc (Buddhism and the Sui expedition against Kao- ku-li); hw', No. 49, 1953.

102) Shimizu-shoten f ^Kf jg, Tokyo, iy47. 103) Ifjgt© j£¥Ê|}£fc:o V^ X (On the mode of confession, described in the

Lotus Sutra as interpreted by Chih-i); 3fC#<Plg Vol. 31, No. 1,' 1947.


of Ultimate Reality).104 In a field where a treatment either from a dogmatic or from a merely historical standpoint has hitherto been the rule, this book must be regarded as a remarkable effort. Ando Toshio gj j^ {£ j|, in his book ̂IttÃfili (On the hsing-chu doctrine of the THen-Vai school; i.e., on the doctrine that the Buddha-nature includes both good and evil)105 and several articles,106 deals mainly with the religious doctrines of this school in more modern times. Among numerous other articles on the THen-Vai school, we may mention papers by Fujiyoshi Jikai M^nW^M»107 Satõ Tetsuei fèjHg^108 and Yüki Reibun g|g^ffi.109 Lastly, Ôkubo Kentoku * !K & M « published a book, titled ̂̂ ψί&^ίΆΒΑ (Historical studies on the doctrine of Karma in the Tien-t'ai sect).110

The Hua-yen |jl |f; sect

Studies of this school, which as the Japanese Kegon sect enjoyed great prosperity during the Nara period, were published by Kame- gawa Kyôshin H JH ifc in under the title ̂ jß gl (The teaching of Hua-yen)111 and by Hino Taidõ H gf ̂ît·112

104) Kõbundõ & £ g Tokyo, 1947. 105) Hõzõkan jSFifg Kyoto, 1953. 106) Namely, » JlltiS 0 S»- * © ff Φ fö«» * *4> £ L X- (The hete-

rodox teachings of the monk Hsia-Ch'uan Jen-yüeh [d. in 1062]); ̂ S§S Vol. 31, Nos. 3-4, 1952. B§7R©^í*El89gSf|»©»* (Teachings of Ch'uan-teng [1554-1628], a Tien-t'ai priest in the later Ming period); ̂cS^S Vol. 34, No. 3, 1954. ISÎOftÄII- »S£ <ϋ$ί&*φιυ£ U- (Chih-hsü's [1599- 1655] interpretation of hsing-chü); EPÄ* if ife<PW2£ Vol. 3, No. 1, 1954, etc.

107) ^ÜIFiSöÄfflfE (On Chih-i's doctrine of Ultimate Reality); W.J5 ^Wl No. 18, 1950.

108) HSSHÜß&OßSfiXtfSa (Origin and development of the "Three Dogmas " and the " Three Insights »); Β * » ifc * # ̂¥ S No. 15, 1950. 5ζ Χ Λ 6BíDH!SHliBtíi (The " Three Dogmas " and the " Three Views " in the thought of T'ien-t'ai Ta-Shih [Chih-i]); ffl JSîfifc^W 58 Vol. 1, No. 1, 1952. ̂ S^ÊÎO ©MSB ß ft Kl *î fr δ iffF (On the early works of T'ien-t'ai Ta-Shih); ffll§i WC^ Κ ft Vol. 3, No. 2, 1955, etc.

109) JiiiKîËèiraS^fr (The historical necessity of the four Sukhavihäras of Nan-yiieh [i.e., the monk Hui-ssu fg] and T'ien-t'ai); MJo^Wt No. 6, 1954.

110) Nagata-bunshõdõ fc ffl X g Ä Kyoto, 1953. Ill) Hyakka-en g?%, Kyoto, 1949. 112) pRmíSfrS7AÍBR©ll3SÍ&fl5^8E (Origin and development of the

Six Aspects [or Characteristics] theory in the Hua-yen doctrine); ̂c^^^ Vol. 33, No. 2, 1953.

482 GOTO KIMPEI

The Fa-hsiang fë ̂g (Hosso) or Dharmalaksana sect

On the reputed monk Hsüan-tsang 3£§ë, who founded this sect or rather introduced it in China, there are two articles by Fukaura Masabumi W?È1£3C113 and Kasugai Shinya f H^l^.114 The book, titled ÜIH|| (Hsüan-tsang San-tsang) by Maejima Shinji ΐϊ Wlfiî3fc îs a popular and reliable one.115

The Ch'an jjgt (Zen) sect

Compared with the time before the war, studies on this sect seem to have become somewhat stagnant. The interest in early Ch'an scriptures, centered around the Tun-huang findings, persevered and showed results in studies published by Masunaga Reihõ i% ̂c ff Jg,,116 Sekiguchi Jikõ IS Ρ ^ 3fe117 and others. The thought contents of the T'an-ching iftlfl, which was recovered in Tun-huang, were analysed by Nakagawa Taka ψ )'' ^.118 - The educational and cultural influence of Ch'an monks on the various classes of T'ang society was investigated by Osabe Kazuo H §β % ρ ág,119 while Yamazaki Hiroshi m flg ££ touches upon the benefits which the development of Ch'anism derived from its connections with the official hierarchy 113) -^m^mmwm-^K^^mmmjíDmmKm-t ^m^^^^t u-

(A study of Hsiian-tsang's theory of truth, with special reference to his Chinese translation of the Vidyã-mãtrasiddhi áastra of Vasubandhu); fj$ ife *|l 5Ff %, No. 1, 1949.

114) Article mentioned above in n. 88. 115) Iwanami Shoten g S β US» Tokyo, 1952.- A study of an expert on this,

the idealistic school (Hfl jgß of Buddhism, on the relation between three Chinese and a Tibetan translation of the glü^ü may be allowed to find its place here ; it is Yüki Reibun's fêí^^H, WctalcmK £ % WiMimmvfflft (Paramar- tha's version of Vasubandhu's commentary on the Mahãy ãnasamgraha : a study of its relation to other versions in the light of the Tun-huang manuscripts); jf[ # <p No. 3, 1952.

116) 'SMÏÏèWW (DW^í (Studies of the Ch'an documents hitherto presumed lost); 0;£íí$£fc*#3=$g No. 15, 1950.

117) Bj&iico^t: (On the Uheng-hsin-lun, one ot the documents tound in the caves of Tun-huang) ; EPjK^#S^W^ Vol. 1, No. 2, 1953. The numerous essays of this author on old Ch'an literature are all written from the standpoint of the doctrine of the T'ien-t'ai school.

118) «eoJSffiS&ÈOWSfc (On the formation of the T'an-ching) ; WW.mwWC «PW3E Vol. 3, No. 1, 1954. 119) JgftH^ÄSG^IKÄftHilSiV^-t (°n the activities of some eminent

Ch'an priests in the T'ang dynasty); Mmm±fâBBí&Mft$lMiW. 1950.


around the Ch'an master Ho-tse Shen-hui #üf$#.120 - More attention than formerly was paid to the development of the Ch'an sect under the Sung and later dynasties. The literature and thought of the Lin-chi gg fö branch of Ch'anism, in particular, was explored by Suzuki Taisetsu #£ ^c ̂ c jffl in his book ÊÍ©SíIi (The basic thought of Lin-chi),121 and by Rikugawa Taiun ÜJIIitlB in his book iSÄXtflSÄÄOWfL (Studies on Lin-chi and the Lin- chi lu).122 Besides, quite a number of articles concerning this field were published in |f J§| $ff % (Studies in Ch'an Buddhism) , a periodical of the Hanazono University ^ gj j^ Iji, but these seem to be of an inferior quality.

The esoteric ^ ^ or True-word sect fg. ff ̂ Tsukamoto Shunkõ jg # $£ # wrote on the introduction of

esoteric Buddhism in China and on the monks who were chiefly responsible for it.123 He does not limit himself to questions of doctrine but places the main emphasis on the relation of those prominent monks to actual society. This study is more conclusive than the author's study on the Northern Wei dynasty.124 Other contributions on this sect were published by Yamazaki Hiroshi 'l' $j g125 and Osabe Kazuo SlfP» $i·126

The Pure Land ffî ± sect

Studies on this sect are particularly flourishing, partly, because this is the most characteristically Chinese sect of Buddhism, and 120) #SSf#JSgiB^ (A study of the Ch'an monk Ho-tse Shen-hui); Mft£.

«ft* Vol. 2, 1954. 121) Chü-δ Kõ-ron Sha φ^^ΙΙ: Tokyo, 1949. 122) Kikuya Shoten g ̂ M 9 íS Tokyo, 1949. 123) #Hm:fcttS«RgSlco^t-»Afflfc*#&S, â»IS, *£<£>

fif ft- (Chinese attitude to the introduction of esoteric Buddhism- the age of Subhakara, Vagrabodhi, and Amoghava jra) ; ft S 3: ft; iff 9E No. 2, 1952. 124) See above, n. 95. 125) sfc%l^$aK~o'^X (On Pu-k'ung-san-tsang or Amoghavajra) ; }f[ ̂ Siljl

Ü M Vol. 3, 1955. 126) igCDÄina^^x. btiT^ % - ffHil (Acharya I-hsing, as an ances-

tor of the T'ien-t'ai school of esoteric Buddhism); ^gfc^ft; No. 18, 1952. j£^£ © SSftlfclt^ÄS (A view on the esoteric development of the Fa-hwa faith) ; «»20ft No. 26, 1954.

M.S. XV 15

484 GOTO KIMPEI

partly, because the two great Japanese centers of Buddhist studies, namely, Õtani ̂c^ and Ryükoku f|^ Universities, belong to its lineage. There are a number of essays in which the process of formation of the Pure Land sect during the Six Dynasties is pursued from the viewpoint of intellectual and general history. Outstanding among them are studies by Nogami Shunjõ gj Ji$ct?127 and Taka- mine Ryöshü ]g efe Τ iW>128 and particularly three articles by Tõdõ Kyõshun H^H^.129 Special studies on the Sukhävativyüha-sütra, the Sutra of the Lord of Boundless Life, were published by Nogami Shunjõ If Jk^gf»130 Tsuboi Shun-ei i^^^Sfe131 and Ogawa Kan- ichi /JnjïIJ:^·132

On the history of the sect in the T'ang dynasty, Tsukamoto Zenryü's M^WSk great work m Ψ1 © W zfctfe- # VL mm M SP © #F §B - (Chinese Buddhism in the middle period of the Tang dynasty - with special reference to Fa-chao and the doctrine of the Pure Land) published in 1933, 133 is still unsurpassed. Lately, the book has been partly supplemented by Satõ Tetsu-ei's <££ H ff jjÇ edition °f ífe M f Ρ 1$ & # lit (Praises of Nien-fo, or the repeated invocation of Buddha, by the monk Fa-chao)134 and his notes on this work.135

127) ifbitOiÜriiSE^fcioV^-t (On Bodhiruci in the Northern Wei dynasty) *ί££^ No. 3, 1954.

128) See article mentioned n. 86, and H^ - ΦΜΤ$±®(.(£> 1%m- (Hui-yüan, in the perspective of the Pure Land sect in China); ΕοΛ^ϋΑ No. 343, 1952. if - «=f*illf£±S:0$Gfi - (T'an-luan, and the founding of the Pure Land sect in China); H JB*ÎR No. 1, 1951. 129) itmmttKmv z>m±%t<D$:® t zv^m- îthxmw^t^m

M K ïft X - (Reception and formation of the Pure Land doctrine in the Northern Wei dynasty, with particular attention to image inscriptions) ; $$ gfc ]£ ft gf % No. 1, 1951. &*W«»Ä>cR^*&;ftSft#±0S» (Interpretation of the theory of Buddhahood and Buddhaland as found in the commentary to the Amitayüs sütra); #lfc£ftW9E No. 2, 1952. Λ ffi fi IB Ψ it ν *-K&',yXJ&ßif ti^^» S Wî Κ ο 'λ Χ (The non-Buddha theory as developed in North China in the first half of the sixth century), ̂ ^^^^g No. 29, 1954.

130) M^LWMMWßC (On the Chinese translation of the Sukhävativyüha- sûtra); B ##$fc^#íB No. 15, 1950.

131) mnmttKm^frfcZmmmMK-D^X (On the Suknavativyüna- sütra, translated during the Wei and Chin dynasties); f$ gt^c^^^ No. 29, 1954.

132) Itís^áfêSliPiSiíMfSSI (A T'ang manuscript of a eulogy on the Sutra of Endless Life); #^^^ Vol. 1 No. 3, 1950.

133) Published by M^^C^^^^iMW^Wi (The Academy of Oriental Culture, Kyoto Institute, i.e., the predecessor of the present M^^c^A3^^l-^Sï^H/f).

134) Kei-ka Research Institute, g ψ ;£ ft m % gff Kyoto, 1951. 135) fÈffîfàfàl&ffiMK-D^X (Commentary on the venerable Fa-chao's

'Praises of the Nim-fo'); §^$f Vol. 3 Nos. 1-2, 1952.


In the latter, he presents the contents of the copy edited by him (a Tun-huang manuscript in the Yamanouchi collection m ;£, pg ;£ Jf[ of the Ryükoku University Library) and clarifies its source value in comparison with the corresponding Pelliot and Stein manuscripts. Further studies on Nien-fo and Fa-chao are due to Shikii Shüjö fe#5f^>136 Kõchi Eigaku ̂ flfe^^,137 Fujiwara Ryõsetsu M M jg? ̂138 an(j others.

For the time from the Sung dynasty on, we have two articles139 by Ogasawara Senshü /h^|| jf . He is also the author of φ m ffî dt ife Μ Ο SFf *$t (Studies on some eminent priests of the Pure Land sect in China),140 a collection of essays on the subject, most of which had already been published before the war.

An important monograph on a monastery of the Pure Land sect is Michihata Ryöhü's Μί$&$? Ψ^£>ίΡ±ϋ:ά^ψ^ (The Pure Land sect of Buddhism in China and its Temple, Hsüan-chung ssu in Shansi).141 Making use of metal and stone inscriptions collected during the last war, the author gives a critical survey on the fate of the monastery during the 1300 years of its existence, allowing us to catch many a glimpse of the real situation of Buddhist monasteries in Chinese society.

The popularization of Buddhism during the T'ang dynasty

The process by which, from about the middle of the T'ang dynasty, Buddhism gradually developed from an aristocratic into a popular religion, was the object of two studies by Naba Toshisada

136) # a © ̂ ff H m Κ gfc X (D - % g£ (On the Samãdhi of Nien-fo, sl study on its original meaning in the doctrine of Shan-tao) ; g^ gfc gf % No. 124, 1951.

137) #a^K^ %>M t It © F3M (The problem of chanting the Buddha's name and meditation on the doctrine as expounded by the master Shan-tao); ü^ffSNo. 1, 1951.

138) ^ ff 3 t LX ®fèMW%$ (Fa-chao as the reincarnation of Shan-tao) ; Κ£*<Ρϋ*Νο. 343, 1952.

139) fpmsi&ftW±Wt<D- ̂̂ (Some aspects of the Pure Land sect of Bud- dhism in recent China); Ü£5&Ü No. 34, 1951. φ m 5SfÇ^±^C Κ fô tf £fttt (Practices of the modern Pure Land sect of Buddhism in China), US 51*1 No. 37, 1952.

140) Heirakuji-shoten, ψ £ ̂ £ ]g, Kyoto, 1951. 141) Nagata Bunsõhdõ ^ Hßt 1 St Kyoto, 1950.

486 GOTO KIMPEI

5K2£flI Jl·142 A noteworthy feature of these papers is the constant use by the author of Tun-huang manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Fujii Kiyoshi j§| =R fg writes on the education of the common people by the Buddhist monks and on the reception of Buddhism by the lower classes and their attitude towards it.143 Further studies on the introduction of Buddhist rites and ceremonies into the everyday life of the people and on Buddhism becoming a religious mass movement, were offered by Ogasawara Senshü /J» ^ M Ïl ft>lu and Michihata Ryoshü îl $jg & ft -145

Policy of the T'ang Court towards Buddhism

On this suject there are investigations by Moroto Sojun jgf β ig |&146 Fujii Kiyoshi m^ff147 and Akizuki Kan'ei gfc £ || R&.148 The latter gives a survey on the Tao-seng ko 3g ff* $5- (Regulations concerning Taoist and Buddhist monks) and makes it clear that the penal practices of the T'ang dynasty with regard to members of the Taoist and Buddhist orders were actually an application of the Tao-seng ko.

142) mmfêmffi b l>X<Dmft^U®mfàmïïl (Buddhist temples as people's lodgings in the T'ang dynasty); USE if No. 33, 1950. ß£ jp t Ü3C (Popularized lectures and peculiar style); §gÈ5 Vol. 1, Nos. 2-4, 1950.- Works on the Tien-wen literature in general will be listed in a forthcoming survey by the present writer " Studies on Chinese Literature in Postwar Japan ".

143) Bfà^i&fiKfôV ZBB: bffiWt (The people and Buddhism in the Shu district during the T'ang period); f#ifc^.^ Vol. 3, No. 4, 1953.

144) φ Μ im M b β fÇ # Ä (Chinese ethics and Buddhism in the T'ang dynasty) ; # Κ ft * Vol. 3, No. 3, 1953. φΗΦ«Κΐ*ΐ#*#**8 (Chinese Buddhist life in the medieval period); 0]Sf§SSi% Vol. 2, No. 1, 1953. 145) ïgftB&tbmWifàm - ΙΖΜ&ΜΜΚο^Χ - (T'ang Buddhism and

family ethics); 03«^#»*W^ Vol. 1, No. 2, 1953. it ft © # Jê*#S§! Ü - Sft'WSö'ifflStt - (The Buddhist non- submission to temporal power in the T'ang dynasty); EPS^^Sfc^W^ Vol. 2, No 2, 1954.

146) JS&Ki&tfäfögtSfelllCDfte!) (The Regulation of the Buddhist order in the early T'ang dynasty); £ ft Vol. 16, No. 6, 1952.

147) jg©£^SJriSfr % i$%kWcM (Policy towards Buddhism in the reign of Hsüan-tsung) ; MRJï&^M^fàM Vol. 1, 1952.

148) ig fò(D zKÏÏkfflKM't % -~ *Ê Mi (A personal view of the religious penal code of the T'ang dynasty); M~fi ̂Wt Nos. 4-5, 1954.


Recent history of Buddhism: relations of Buddhism to state and society

Studies on the recent history of Buddhism, which were formerly relatively neglected, came into vogue after the war. The results are, however, not yet completely satisfactory, partly as a consequence of the sources for this period being often superabundant. This sometimes leads even excellent authors to neglect part of the evidence or to make a doubtful selection of relevant facts so that they arrive at partial or distorted conclusions.

Tsukamoto Shunkõ jgE ;φ $t ̂ made a study on the relation of the royal family of the Southern T'ang dynasty to Buddhism.149 The last persecution of Chinese Buddhism under emperor Shih-tsung ÍBttk of the Later Chou dynasty is described by Makita Tairyö $t ES f§ Bîî as having been undertaken with the aim of reforming the Buddhist Church.150 The same author shows how Buddhism in the early Sung period adapted itself to life in a society under absolute imperial power, then in the process of establishing itself.151 Nogami Shunjõ $f AifêtW sets forth the organization of the Hsüan-cheng yuan *HJfk$o, the control organ of the Yuan dynasty for the Bud- dhist religion,152 as well as of the offices established by the first Ming emperor for the control of Buddhism ff· gfc % and of Taoism íEuíU·153 Makita Tairyö %fc 0 If fib reports on the religious policy of the early Ch'ing dynasty.154 Tsukamoto Zenryü g£ fc H ||| investi-

149) 5EftffiJ§CD5E^M#ife (Buddhism and the ruling house of the Southern T'ang dynasty at the time of the Five Dynasties); -ßfeRSCftPfSt No. 3, 1953.

150) WimW^OfâWC&M (The policy of emperor Shih-tsung of the Later Chou dynasty toward Buddhism); MW$.¥f9ï Vol. 11, No. 3, 1951.- On the Five Dynasties treats also Abe Ha jime ppj^^in ^Μ&^ΞΕ 0 »aigrit £ - ^f£g (On the policy towards Buddhism by the King Chung-i of Wu-Yüeh in the period of the Five Dynasties) ; |éj p g», ^ No. 2, 1953.

151) fiaiittfcß^^fttäB (The position of the Buddhist community in an autocratic society with particular reference to the Sung monks Tsan-ning jf $ [Part I], and Ch'i-sung §2^ [Part II]); $ ifeS; ft ffi% Nos. 3-4, 1953, 54.

152) 7C ft © JE S U (The Hsüan-cheng yuan of the Mongol dynasty of China) ; Mmm±mmm&Mm$imw 1950.

15á) m ψ (D m M WS PI (On the offices to supervise the Buddhists and Taoists at the beginning of the Ming dynasty); ̂c^Mig Vol. 27, No. 1, 1948.

154) ^SJ0^SÍÈ$!I (The regulation of religion in the early Ch'ing period): Β WC Β Μ No. 2, 1949.

488 GOTO KIMPEI

gates the weakening of Buddhism by the tight control imposed on it by the two last dynasties. In particular, he holds the restrictive measures of the Ch'ien-lung emperor largely responsible for the impotent state of recent Chinese Buddhism.155

Recent history of Buddhism: Buddhism under the conquering dynasties- Liao Jg, Chin &, and Yuan

The best known specialist in this field is Nogami Shunjõ gf Jb <g?§p% Besides studies already mentioned,156 he wrote about the Buddhism of the Yuan157 and the early Chin dynasty.158 For the latter article he utilized particularly the notes contained in the Sung-mo chi-wên fô ̂ $B 5B by Hung Hao g£ ô£ of the Sung dynasty. His book ̂ & φ $£ $a (Buddhism under the Liao and Chin dynasties) 159 is mainly made up of former articles on the subject. Much remains to be explored with regard to Buddhism under the Liao and Chin dynasties. Some excellent special studies on the Buddhism of the Yuan dynasty will be named in the next paragraph.160 Equally good is the analytical study by Yokoyama Ei ^ '1' ̂ on the wealth of the great Buddhist monasteries in South China during this period.161

Recent history of Buddhism: internal development

Particular attention was devoted after the war to the development of popular Buddhism in recent times. An author who has long been preoccupied with this question is Makita Tairyõ 4£ Η |§ ^. He has

155) m « ®C fâ © # WC 5Éc m- # ̂ g;|S(OaS- (Emasculation of Buddhism by the Ming and the Ch'ing government); 9WCÍC fa¥î % No. 2, 1952.- On this article, see the criticism of Nakayama Hachirõ φ β Λ % in & φ ît IÈ Vol. 62, No. 5, 1953, p. 88.

156) See above, n. 152. 157) 7CCD±#©#» (Buddhism in Shang Tu in the Yuan period); ftSíf

Vol. 1, No. 2, 1950. 158) ^AOM^^SOffiSfc-ß^föHölBa^*^ t Lt- (Buddhism at

the beginning of the Chin dynasty as viewed by the people of the Sung dynasty) ; 1»gfcÊ§ Vol. 3, No. 2, 1952. l&y) Jdeirakuji-shoten ψ ̂ ^ f| ]g , Kyoto, 1953. 160) See n. 166, 167. 161) Tufò^fàMM b % (D&tëmi& (A short study on the property of Bud-

dhist temples in the Yuan period) ; Ê ^ W % No. 2, 1950.


the ambition to investigate this process from its very roots, com- mencing from the popular faith of the Buddhist monk Seng-chia ft" fliH ÏP fà·162 Hatanaka Jõ-on Jflj ψ ρ gj studies the transition from Tang Buddhism to more recent forms of the creed in the life of two prominent monks.163 A characterization of the Buddhism of the transition period was attempted by Makita Tairyõ $t Ε §§ ϊϋ »* he thinks that the change was essentially from the sects of the T'ang era with their dogmatic, speculative bent to a fusion of the Pure Land and the Ch'an sects with their greater stress on contemplation and religious practice.164 Abe Hajime ßöf ^[5 H studies the fusion of aristocratic Buddhism with the popular brand in the doctrine of the monk Hsüeh-feng I-ts'un S^^# of the Five Dynasties period.165

Recent history of Buddhism: the movement of forming associations

This question has been treated in essays by Ogasawara Senshü /l· S£ M it Jf166 and Ogawa Kan'ichi /> Ji[ ;R =V67 In his last-named paper Mr. Ogasawara analyses the division of the White Lotus

162) ΦΜΚί^ν ZRfàffîWtfàïL®- ägg (One of the processes in the development of popular Buddhism in China, a study of Ssu-chou Ta-sheng [originally mmXm called Seng-chia Ho-shang »flnftlfà=priest]); «|£ΐ£»ί|Ξ3ΒΑΙΙ£ ^1954.- The same author discusses the firm establishment of popular Buddhism during the Ming period in ΜϊΒ Λ 89 83 Kl 3g ft fc §3 fò Η (Ming Buddhism as seen through the records of Sakugen's mission to China); 9l£$fflK$iffft Vol. 1, No. 2, 1953.- Another article in which in like manner Chinese Buddhism is studied on the basis of records of Japanese monks who visited China is Tsukamoto Shunko's « * « # 7KSJ£>ffllfe£Ä^ (Chõnen and early Sung Buddhism) ; '% & £ ft Κ ft No. 4, 1954.

163) *β©ί*»-ί$κ:^*!|$Ι8 t 3: 0 Bä ac§gffi»ïc ο V» Χ- (Α historical study of Wu-Yüeh Buddhism- with special reference to T'ien-tai T'e-shaoand his successor Yung-ming Yen-shou- ) ; λ^λ§ iT^ÍS No. 7, 1954.

164) Η ft ffl We. (D ffi IS (The characteristics of the Buddhism of the Five Dynas- ties); mW(.m% No. 131, 1952.

165) m^B^ t-^^^jmWc (Hsüeh-feng I-ts'un and his taoistic Buddhism) ; mJ¥5&<PH« No. 3, 1954.

166) ÎHffiftK:jfêtta0>S18iB:©Iî8JB (The question of Buddhist associations in recent China) ;Ι^λΦϋΝο. 336, 1949. yuftn Í© âS^ÍÊtHal gj (The White Lotus sect restoration movement by P'u-tu in the Yuan period); «Éfi:5&<P Vol. 1, No. 4, 1950. 7cttS^^RM0?&ß (The rise and fall of the White Lotus Order in the Yuan dynasty); M^^^dmM No. 344, 1952.

167) 7cttOS^»H0ÍSffi (The activities of the Pai-yün sect during the Yuan dynasty); $&$1φ Vol. 3, No. 1, 1952.

490 GOTO KIMPEI

Order into an orthodox and an heterodox branch, while Mr. Ogawa's article is a painstaking detailed study of the doctrine of the Pai-yün Ö jg sect and its religious activities.

The "fusion of the Three Doctrines ", or tendencies of syncretism towards Confucianism and Taoism

This problem has already been mentioned in the section on Taoism168 and in an earlier bibliography in this periodical.169 From the side of Buddhism, the question was first studied by Tsukamoto Zenryü M&W^k in connection with the Pao-chüan170 and later touched by Mr. Ogawa in his article on the ethical character of the Buddhist layman.171 An interesting document concerning popular syncretistic Buddhism at the end of Ming, entitled "The Settlement of law-cases by the Living King of Hell", was studied by Makita Tairyö ̂cHUr^.172 We may here add the painstaking essay by Õcho E-nichi f ggQ on the attitude of Buddhism and Christianity towards each other at the end of the Ming dynasty.173

Lay Buddhism

Hatanaka Jõ-on J|ffif | studied the lay Buddhism of the Sung era,174 while Ogawa Kan'ichi /J^JIJJ;^ wrote on the lay Buddhism of recent times,175 and on some noted lay Buddhists of the Ch'ing

168) See above, pp. 471-472 ; paragraphs of the Ming and Ch'ing dynasty. 169) See Goto Motomi ̂SS3, " Studies in Chinese philosophy in postwar

Japan", in Monumento, Serica XIV (1949-1955), p. 184. The article, mentioned there, by Mano Senryü ffU If g f| on Lin Chao-en ̂ ^ ,H and the idea of the " Three Doctrines " in the Ming era is the best study on the syncretism charac teristic of recent Chinese religion.

170) See above, p. 471. 171) See n. 175. 172) g H UBS H 3£ (A study concerning the Huo Yen-lo tuan-ari); f$lfeíL<§l

Vol. 4 No. 1, 1954. 173) $}?£$& tSMWtt (DfàKï&H (Christiansand Buddhists in the late

Ming period: their mutual criticism); JzQ^m Vol. 29, Nos. 2, 3, 4. 1949-50. 174) 5fcfòS±<DWtm b %(Dft'MfêW} (The Buddhist laymen of the Sung

period and their charitable activities) ; ̂ § $. M No. 2, 1953. 175) jg±$5ifecD<E365öig (Ethical character of the Buddhist layman); f|

£f£if No. 35, 1951.


dynasty in particular.176 Makita Tairyõ $t EB Wfik inquires into the development of the Pure Land sect in recent times and into the activities of an outstanding lay Buddhist during the last dynasty.177

Studies on the Buddhist Canon

Here a number of titles may be added which there was no occasion to mention in the course of this report. First place must be reserved to Mochizuki Shinkyo's ig % ̂ ff $ great work, {$£ |fc $g ft J§£ Ä A lm (Essays on the history of the formation of the Bud- dhist Canon).178 Though the fruit of several decades of study before the war and already slightly obsolete in parts, the work marks a milestone in the history of bibliographical studies on the Tripitaka. While the first part of the work is devoted to the formation of the Mahayana Canon and has no direct bearing on China, Chinese translations of the Canon form the main subject of investigation of the second half of the work (studies on the heterodox and spurious or suspected scriptures) . Other studies in this field are due to Tõdõ Kyöshun H^S^179 Taira Hidemichi 3^ M/80 Hirakawa Akira ^;i[#,181 Tsukamoto Zenryü M^W^1*2 and others.

Archaeology and Art

An event of the first order for the archaeology of Buddhism is the publication of the monumental work g|Çg (Yün-kang. The

176) M fëit O ft üc<P: (Kung Ting-an's [ = Kung Tzu-chen Igf] conception of Buddhism) ; flg & £ jf No. 31, 1949. Jg±i#lfe0ä£tä:&lS® (Development of lay Buddhism in recent times) : fg g ^ <p H ̂ No. 339, 1950.

177) g±$»ic:fcttä»IS?i<D:»ffi (P'eng Chi-ch'ing [1740-1796] and his position in lay Buddhism); '% & £ ft {ff % No. 2, 1952.

178) Hõzõkan 2£jRfS Kyoto, 1946. 179) +gSif>|iia (The Chinese translation of the Daçabhumivibhãsã) ;

»RXftWftNo. 3, 1953. 180) ^&JB££ftSfcjKA (The thought of the Ch'an-wei [Chinese divinatory

books] and the Buddhist Canon) ; 81 Ö Λ * II Ä No. 347, 1954. 181) g|#*(Dft|g (On the translation of the Vinayapitaka into Chinese) ;

fflK#»»*W3t Vol. 3, No. 2, 1955. 182) SS*ffl«ttWBifti3 0fcBSÏ--W·»», *-«^0 3Ë1ttWBHftl3-(The

discovery of a record of the miraculous efficacy of faith in Avalokiteçvara : the Kuang-shih-yin ying-yen-chi by Hsieh Fu and Fu Liang, a Six Dynasties' document hitherto presumed lost) ; |(| fi if S a ^ 13 â: ϋ 3t M 1954. ^ * ^ - Jf ± <D EffS^ièPK^ÎilE'f (Some corrections to James W. Ware's Wei-shu on Buddhism); M ffl M ±8* IHâS ί¥£ H M 1950.

492 GOTO KIMPEI

Buddhist Cave-Temples of the Eighth Century A.D. in North China), by Mizuno Seiichi 7JC gf ff - and Nagahiro Toshio g Jg gc $£» begun in 1951. 183 The work is the fruit of seven years of exploration, beginning from 1938, by the Kyoto University's Institute for Human- istic Studies. Besides this work, the two authors published a number of essays which were also a fruit of this exploration.184

On Chinese Buddhist art, many contributions are contained in the various issues of the periodical $£ |fc ||φβ (Ars Buddhica). Some of the most important of these articles are by Mizuno Seiichi 7jc gf ?g- *,185 Nagahiro Toshio &MWcffî>m and Kobayashi Taichirõ /h# ^CTfîlB·187 In particular, Kobayashi's art-historical studies on the Chinese Avalokiteçvara are a splendid piece of work, and it is to be hoped that he may be able to carry his study into recent times. In his book Ä J3 ;*c 65 CD £ β t%% (The Life and Art of Ch'an-yüeh Ta-shih),188 Kobayashi, who is an accomplished sinologist besides being an expert on East Asiatic art, studies the art, poems, and painting of this Buddhist monk, and clarifies his position in the history of art in a way which leaves nothing to be desired.

183) Kyoto University, Institute for Humanistic Studies MÍB^*AS:f4*W %)$' 1951-55. Twenty out of a total of thirty planned volumes, have been published to date.

184) A joint work of the two scholars is Λ IH © 5 ft (Tne Buddhist stone images of Ta-t'ung); Zauhösha Me Salt, Tokyo, 1946.- Nagahiro alone published ■knïïBMffîUWu (A study of art of the Buddhist stone images of Ta-t'ung); Kõtõ shoin Κ m m U, Tokyo, 1946 ; Μ Η Έ S Κ Κ V £ Β & ® Μ 9 0 Κ ο Vï Χ (On the costumes of the Buddhist statues in the cave-temples of Yiin-kang); IK ;gf «p $g No. 15-4, 1947 ; and ;£ £ S ^ 3g Κ ο V^ X (On the way of expressing the Jakata stories); '% g:5i<P Vol. 2, No. 2, 1951. Mizuno alone published ft fa 53§fcS§tf£IlHCDHilciil (Some figures representing the life of Buddha in the cave-temples of Yün-kang); in M ffl fS± SSflíSâ 3ϋ¥£ϋ», 1950; etc.

185) ifrffî ÄS iß α ΞΕ# Κ ο V^ Χ (On the marble image in the Northern Ch'i period dedicated by Huang Hai-po); ffîWcMffî No. 1, 1948.- φ Μ Κ is iö %> fâ &ί <D ft C t D (Beginnings of Buddhist sculpture in China); ftlfeg» No. 7, 1950.- S ft O í# » « M (Buddhist sculpture of the T'ang dynasty) ; $ We. M ffî No. 9, 1950.

186) m ít © S W SC fil (Floral patterns of the T'ang dynasty) ; # Κ g « No. 8, 1950 ; SËgcii5Ïl2,ft^^^-t (On Wei-ch'ih I-sêng, a painter of the early T'ang dynasty) ; »' fi * S S * 13 â Ü SC *> 1954.

187) ^cää £ ü# (Nü-kua and Kuan-yin); fKBff No. 1, 1948.- fg © «^ (The idea on Avalokiteçvara from the Chin to the T'ang dynasty) ; f#i5:8W No. 10, 1950.- jg fÇ O ̂ c |g É! # (The Mahã-karunã Avalokitesvaras of the T'ang dynasty); ffife^» Nos. 21-22, 1954.

188) Sõgensha f J tc St, Tokyo, 1947.


Literature by Buddhists and Literature on Buddhism

The chief contributions were here articles by Kanda Kiichirö jjjfB H_ £15,189 Ogawa Tamaki /h)''MW90 and Tsuda Saukichi W- B3 ;fe /friar·191 The latter, after a critical examination of passages in Chinese poetry under the Tang dynasty referring to Buddhism and Taoism, arrives at the conclusion that they show no deep under- standing of the two religions.

General books on the history of Buddhism

The following are some of the best-known books on the history of Chinese Buddhism. Takao Giken's jg £g g| S work ψ Η $& ïfe & H (Essays on the history of Chinese Buddhism)192 is a collection of ten essays concerning various historical periods. The book shows the level of prewar Buddhist studies. The book of Michihata Ryöshü at AÃ 3^» Ψ HÄtfcA (General history of Chinese Buddhism),193 a reprint of a 1939 edition, is the most handy of the many outline histories on Chinese Buddhism, and was the first to take into con- sideration the relation of Buddhism to society. - The special feature of Ogasawara Senshü's /J> & JK 5§[ jf book ψ g # ifc & Ü S (An outline history of Chinese Buddhism)194 is that it stresses the importance of popular Buddhism in recent times. Holding to a developmental notion of Buddhism, he strongly denies the opinion, hitherto commonly held, of the decline of Buddhism in recent times. - Being an advocate of the latter opinion, Tsukamoto Zenryü §^f JSk in his 3t S5 # ife Jfc (History of Chinese Buddhism)195 hardly devotes any space to recent Buddhism, i.e., to the history of Bud- dhism from the Sung dynasty onward. Considering the development

189) TfcjQ^ftKfôV Ζ>Μ$ί£>ΜΜΫΐ% (The priest-writers of T'ien-tz'u in the Sung and Yuan period); ffîWtfc^ Vol. 2, No. 1, 1951.

190) HHSIAKlasfrôflÎRèiilïfc (Buddhistic and Taoistic elements in the San-fam ym-i); MJ5^ No. 2, 1951.

191) Jjt f# Kl $ bfotiX't^ Zfà&biïLik (Buddhism and Taoism in Chinese poetry); JE 8Ê JB S W 3E No. 4, 1950.

192) Heirakuji-shoten ψ $jg ^ ^ jg, Kyoto, 1952. 193) Heirakuji-shoten zp^^iffê, Kyoto, 1947. 194) Heirakuji-shoten ^^^^/£, Kyoto, 1949. 195) ^ücft^: (Series on the Religions); Vol. 5, Daitö Shuppan-sha ^c^ffillS

It Tokyo, 1949.

494 GOTO KIMPEI

of Buddhism from the standpoint of the Buddhist orders, he places the main emphasis on the introduction of Buddhism and the development of the so-called Chinese sects up to the end of the T'ang dynasty. In its treatment up to this period, the book is superior to all other outlines. A somewhat fuller account of the same matter can be found in the author's contribution bearing the same name, in %ffî ^^A (History of Chinese religion).196 - The newest and most adequate work in the field, based on the most recent results of scholarship, was jointly written by Ogasawara /J» 3g j^, Ogawa /J^ J![, Tsukamoto jg ̂ and Nogami gf ± under the title {$ ifc & Wt Κ: Ψ 68 Ä (General history of Buddhism - China);197 it is supplied with a list of reference works at the end. Being, however, intended to be a students7 textbook, the work shows the sketchy and somewhat dry character of such books.

In this survey, Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism or Lamaism has not been treated. The main books in this field are the following, all by Nagao Gajin fHA: ^ "£ BpJ Sft JÜ f Β (Notes on Mongolian lamaseries),198 St ΐΊΙΙ fni # (Temples of learning in Mongolia)199 and ® M §è ïfc W 52 (A study of Tibetan Buddhism- A translation into Japanese of the exposition of Vipasyanä in Tsori-kha-pa's Lam-rim chen-mo with annotations and prefatory remarks).200

PART IV. Islam

The Japanese expansion during the war resulted in an intense interest in, and in numerous publications on, the Muslim world. At that time, the information Bureau of the Foreign Office published [g] |£ ijf ff (Mohammedan Affairs) ; the Great Japan Institute for the Study of Islam ±Βψ[Ιϋ# published [SI ifcifi: R (The Moham- medan World) ; and the Institute for the Study of the Sphere of Islam [3 tfc Β W SB #i. m&S (The Sphere of Islam). The only Institute left after the war, the Institute for Islamic Studies ο 7 Ajft W 5δ Bf > which had been eking out a precarious existence without a

196) Hakuyõsha Q fö ft, Tokyo, 1943. 197) Heirakuji-shoten ^p Sß ̂ |f jg, Kyoto, 1954. 198) Koto-shoin ïg m W m» Tokyo, 1947. 199) Zenkoku-shobõ ± m tf 3, Tokyo, 1947. 200) Iwanami-shoten g m W i£, Tokyo, 1954.


special organ of publication, finally dissolved in the autumn of 1955.

However, the scientific work carried out during the war was not all in vain. In particular, a decisive impulse, which led Japanese scholars to study Chinese Mohammedanism for the first time also under the viewpoints of sociology and ethnology, emanated from the investigation of the Islamic community in Inner Mongolia along the Peking-Paot'ou OÈLiSf) railroad carried out in 1943-44 under the sponsorship of the Ethnological Institute attached to the Ministry of Education. The report on the investigation was unfortunately lost, but a number of publications were made by the field workers who took part in the project. Most of all, the book ψΗ@ϋΙ:#0 #| |g (Structure of the Chinese Muslim Society) by Iwamura Shinobu fê # í2>201 *s Packed with data drawn from the report and can thus in a way make up for its loss. By a description of the essential constituents into which he breaks down his object of study, namely, the mosque Jf jg ̂ , the priest ̂ %g> ^, the co-religionists jgfc JfêJ, the village elders ̂|5^ and the orders î$cWî, the author tries to grasp the socio-religious actuality of the Islamic community of Inner Mongolia. - Even before Mr. Iwamura, Saguchi Tora <g£ ρ g| published a study on the community of the mosque, and on the worship, the annual festivals, and other customs of which it is the center.202 Besides the materials of the afore-mentioned investigation, the author also makes use of his own observations and of literary sources. His conclusion is that native influence on the studied usages and customs is very slight, indeed. - The same author compares 45 Islamic scriptures, collected by him, with similar works in the West, and arrives at the conclusion that they were imported from Persia during the 12th or 13th century, thus confirming the Persian origin of Chinese Islam.203 - Mr. Saguchi also published a lucid study on the

201) ft # |g iöo ÍL Λ ̂ (Series on the history of social structure); Vol. 6, Nihon Hyõron-sha Θ * W ü St, Tokyo, 1950.

202) φ|Α * ν ̂ CDîfeÉÊJ^îgfëff (The community and religious life of Chinese Moslems); £;^<PW9S Vol. 13, No. 4, 1949. 203) φϋΙ'Γ ^ÂCDggH (Islamic scriptures and books in Arabic and Persian

used in modern China); KCft^^g Vol. 32, No. 4, 1950.- Another effort of the author in what may be called comparative Islamic studies may be mentioned here, namely, his article fflm^ >f ̂"ÂOEIÏfeuii (Islamic rites of the Turbaned Uighurs); I^^^W^ Vol. 12, No. 3, 1948. Here he describes, after sources of the early Ch'ing dynasty, how the Turbaned Uighurs in the Tarim valley developed a kind of syncretism from orthodox Islam and the culture of the sur-

496 GOTO KIMPEI

Sufistic order in Chinese Islam. Basing his work on sources of the Ch'ing dynasty and on field reports, he describes the character of the order and traces its origin to influences from East Turkistan accompanying the control of the Ch'ing dynasty over that territory.204 - The same subject had been treated several years earlier in a less fortunate way by another member of the investigation team mentioned above, Ono Shinobu /^ gj ̂ . He, making only partial use of the results of the field investigation and other sources, criticizes as incomplete and erroneous the opinion of the Sufistic character of the so-called "new sect" of Islam in China,205 held by dOllone, Hartmann,206 and others.

The "sociological method", followed in the studies mentioned above, was strongly recommended by its main exponent, Iwamura Shinobu ;g*#i&.207 However, the principles of method advocated by him are by no means flawless. It is methodically not permissible to extend the structure of the Islamic community of Inner Mongolia without further ado to the whole of China, as Mr. Iwamura does. In particular, Mr. Iwamura's excessive depreciation of literary sources has exposed him to various criticisms. He considers Chinese literary sources in general very unsatisfactory because of their stereotyped form and their scarcity, and even more so in the case of Chinese Islam, where he was convinced of the complete lack of such sources as family or sib records.208 For these reasons he thinks it impossible to reconstruct the history of Chinese Islam from literary sources beyond the middle of the Ch'ing dynasty. These discouraging state-

rounding peoples. He adds, however, that the process was not carried to the point that orthodox Islam was essentially changed by non-Islamic elements.

204) φ H λ * ύ λ © If $$ £ Ü (A study of Islamic mysticism in China) ; M Jj ^ No. 9, 1954. 205) ΦΜΚ& V % MStWcM (The Mohammedan order in China) ; ^ 3Ê H g

No. 6, 1948. 206) DOllone, Recherches sur les musulmans chinois ; Paris, 1911. Martin

Hartmann, Zur Geschichte des Islams in China ; Berlin, 1921. 207) φ g| ̂ * 9 *iFF9g±0§tiBII (Problems of studies in Chinese Muslim

society); ̂̂ ^BT^ Vol. 12, No. 3, 1948.- The author's other paper 1^·*^ y w s? - · it # <S Κ ο 'λ X (D /Jn %- φ |θ7ΛΒ%^ψιΟΗ Χ- (Notes on history, ethnology and sociology with reference to the Chinese Muslims) , in |ξ J£ § W % Vol. 12, No. 2, 1947, may be considered an introduction to this study. 208) In this point he was proven wrong by Mr. Nakada, as will be seen

presently. See n. 222.


ments not withstanding, the historians, convinced that any and every bit of evidence was needed, continued to belabor this field. The more noteworthy results are the following.

Maejima Shinji -gff ft§ >ff§ ^c,209 rejects the view, held by the late Dr. Kuwabara Jitsuzö ̂ M RI M>210 tîiat p'u Shou-keng was as Arab, as well as the opinion of Chang Hsiu-min gg^fS that he was a native of Champa,211 and asserts that he was actually a Persian.212 The same author wrote another article on the Moslems in Ch'üan- chou,213 which consists of the following three parts: (1) On the Cha-shih-li-mien PgflffM^ mentioned in the Ch'iian-chou-fu-chih Ä ̂ H JÍF M2lAl (2) Wu Chien ̂ Jjg, the composer of the inscription at the Ch'ing-ching ssu fjf ̂ ^p mosque in Ch'üan-chou ; (3) The so- called I-ssu-pa-hsi $;|B1 rebellion in Ch'üan-chou at the end of the Yuan dynasty.216

Tasaka Kõdõ EH ig H jg; wrote a sketch on the position of the Mohammedan calendar in the Ming dynasty ; the introduction of the Western calendar ; and the struggle of the Mohammedans and Chris- tians concerning the calendar at the beginning of the Ch'ing dynasty, which ended in the defeat of the Mohammedans.216 In another paper, he follows the development of the Waqqäs ̂ ig jg; tradition,217 the

209) AJH0R8rA£ÜÜIi (The Persians in Ch'iian-chou and P'u shou-keng) ; jfc* Vol. 25, No. 3, 1952. 210) His ü*H<£>*Ä (Life of P'u Shou-keng); Shanghai, 1923, marked the

beginning of historical research on Chinese Islam. 211) tSiÀiÀÎSf (A study of the emigration of Chams to China) ; |l g,

Vol. 2, No. 7, 1948. 212) Sugimoto Naojirõ í£ ;$: ]g fè @R probes into these three views in ffj Ü g| CD

mWffiM (On the nationality of P'u-shou-keng) ; ^j¥^W% Vol. 11, No. 5, 1952, and is sympathetic towards the opinion of Mr. Maejima.

213) 7G7fc0SJti£EI8:ît (Ch'üan-chou at the close of the Yuan period and the Moslems); £§ Vol. 27, No. 1, 1953.

214) See English summary of article by Sugimoto Naojirõ in ̂ ^TÇ No. 5, 1952, pp. 6-7. According to Mr. Maejima, Cha-shih-li-mien is a phonetic transcrip- tion of Muslimin, flg being a mistake for $g.

215) The author identifies I-ssu-pa-hsi with the Persian word Ispãh, meaning " army ". 216) fêftMfèOMWi t 0 0ifffi<£>ä!fö (Introduction of European astronomy

in China and the Mohammedan calendar); ̂ft^ig Vol. 31, No. 2, 1947. 217) According to this tradition, Sa'd Ibn Abi Waqqäs, who is said to have

been the maternal uncle of Mohammed, introduced Islam in China and was buried in Canton.

498 GOTO KIMPEI

first traces of which he finds in the Ta-Ming i-t'ung chih. He is led to the conclusion that the tradition itself was imported from Islamic countries, but that the tomb of Waqqãs was a Chinese creation.218 His latest paper is a background study concerning the Moslem uprisings at the end of the Ming dynasty, the territory of their movement and the conditions prevailing there. 219

Last, not least, there are two articles by Nakada Yoshinobu ψΗ"§§. In the first, he investigates the life stories of Moslems of the Ch'ing dynasty, particularly with reference to the hindrances concerning their faith and customs with which Moslem officials met, and finally tells the tragedy which befell two representative officials.220 -The discovery of Moslem clan records221 in the Diet Library and elsewhere enabled Mr. Nakada to describe the clan organization of the Chinese Moslems. The Jg ̂ Jg gg % jf| (Records of the P'i-ling branch of the T'u sib) revealed to him the affinity of the clan system of the Moslems of South China with that of the native Chinese.222 Thus it appeared that Chinese Islam had undergone some strong native influence and that it was necessary to revise accordingly some rather hastily drawn earlier conclusions.

PART V. Christianity

1. Nestorianism jik^c·22* An introduction to the Tun-huang finds of Nestorian scriptures, recently made accessible to the public, 218) φ^Μ&&±Κ&ν % ? ? * - *M%k<DBBKst^X (On the tradition

of Waqqãs in the history of Islam in China) ;ftlfflfi±gJgiHâjKÎ¥5&fÉi8 1951. 219) mttfêm®m$kmm m-Φ m m »it tt# ä. © - m t l -t-crhe Moslem

risings of the late Ming dynasty- a chapter in the social history of the Chinese Mohammedans) ; |R j^ * % Vol. 37, No. 1, 1954.

220) îS ft 0 R ÎË O - fill E5- Ä§ WW> t E%%i%à b- (A historical aspect concerning the Chinese Mohammedans in the Ch'ing dynasty); Mff^¥H Vol. 36, No. 1, 1953. 221) Namely, the ̂S^fï (Records of the Mi sib), and the I^f>Rlfi|

Ü (The revised records of the Sha clan of P'i-ling [=Wu-chin tfJîÉ in Kiangsu]). 222) Φ|ααρα^|8 Ά- M Ü & Φ j& £ L-tJäfc £ - (Chinese Muslims

and their clan system); jfC#<^$B Vol. 38, No. 1, 1955. 223) A bibliography on Nestorianism was published by Saeki Yoshio fë IB £F g£

under the title MWt3C9fcIk%L % M §& (Catalogue of the documentary records and the remains of Nestorianism); Maruzen %^> Tokyo, 1950. Mr. Saeki, who is well known as the author of jR gfc © ffi % (A study of Nestorianism in China,


containing explanations concerning the text etc., was written by Haneda Tõru 33 H ̂ .224~Enoki Kazuo g - ág tries to show that the opinion, held by Pelliot,225 Lauf er and others, of the existence of a Nestorian monastery ^c §# # in Ch'eng-tu jgg fß in the Tang period is based on erroneous information supplied by the Neng-kai- chai man-lu fg 2fc SF & $1 of Wu Tseng ̂ ^ of the Southern Sung dynasty.226- The Nestorian tomb stones found among the Ongot tribe in Inner Mongolia227 were the object of a study by Egami Namio £C Ji $c ̂ c· From the form of the stones he concludes that Nestorian- ism was introduced there from China during the Sung and Yuan periods, not from the West.228

2. Catholicism 5c 3Ξ |£. The last named author also occupied himself with the history of the Catholic Church in China during the Yuan period. He studied the activities of John of Monte Corvino, the first Catholic archbishop of Khanbalik, as a phase in the history of cultural exchange between East and West.229 He also identified the place "Kosan", where Monte Corvino built a Roman-Catholic Church, with Olon Sume and gave a brief description of the conditions of its remains.230

The acknowledged authority for the history of the Catholic 1935, the first volume of his work " A study of Christianity in China " - see n. 244) , recently wrote a historical outline on it, φ S fc: J5 tf Z> HWcMtl £> BÍ (The Ups and Downs of the Nestorian Church in China); Harvard-Yenching Dõshisha Eastern Cultural Lectures, No. 7, 1955. 224) ̂m&m^mmmmmR^^mmm^Tòm^mm^K^^x (On the

fragments of the two Nestorian scriptures in Chinese recently made known); J| Jj^ No. 1, 1951.

225) P. Pelliot, "Un traité manichéen retrouvé en Chine"; Journal Asiatiqtte, 1913. 226) J5£ H$ O ïï 15 t ^fi (The Ta-ch'in-ssu and a stone bamboo shoot of

Ch'eng-tu in the T'ang period); jRj¥<Piß Vol. 31, No. 2, 1947. 227) On them see " Preliminary report on Nestorian remains north of Kuei-

hua, Suiyiian" by Desmond Martin; in this periodical, III, 1938, pp. 232-349. 228) ty^hJícííít^gtOlS^Oie (A system of Nestorianism

and its grave stones among the Ongots during the Chin and Yuan period in Inner Mongolia); M&lSCfcViftlïi fàM No. 2, 1951.

229) miÊ^^tf δ*ΪΟ©Λ^»* VT.^^/f / <D»mt ZOmm (The missionary work of Monte Corvino, first archbishop in East Asia, and its motive) ; m^£ftPF^ No. 6, 1947.

Wt Mi (The discovery of the ruin of the " Roman Church " of Monte Corvino, the first archbishop in East Asia); A £ Vol. 1, No. 2, 1947.

M.S. XV 16

500 GOTO KIMPEI

missions during the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties is Yazawa Toshihiko ^ W ÍU 2Ê· *n one article he discusses the problem of why there were relatively few martyrs during the time of prohibition. He concludes that rather than displaying a low degree of fervor in the Chinese Catholics, it proves that the government took a relatively lenient attitude in the matter of prohibition.231 In another paper on the same period, the author studies the social position and the professions of the converts and their motives for joining the faith.232 In the eight chapters of his book ψ gg t H î^ 3C Ά (China and the Western Culture),233 the author draws on his intimate knowledge of the field to give an overall account of the history of the Catholic Church from the end of the Ming to the middle of the Ch'ing dynasty. Easily the masterpiece of the whole work is the chapter on the rites controversy (pp. 32-84).

Itõ Takao ffiMM^* Quoting appropriate instances, shows how the neglect of historians to take notice of the accounts of Church people frequently results in bias or half-truths with regard to the history of the Catholic Church in China. The criticism of the author seems, however, to be somewhat sweeping at times.234

The Rites Controversy, its background, development and outcome, 231) t£mJïÊ%kfê tfë%k% b (Dffim (The Chinese Catholics during the 18th

and 19th centuries) ; £ φ % £ Vol. 59, No. 3, 1950.- The gist of this article was already contained in two earlier papers of the author, namely, φ gj =?ξ 3: St ÍÊ O fÊfàWkJÈ.Ko^ ~C (How fervent was the faith of the Chinese Catholics ?) in Λ -$C Vol. 2, No. 1, 1948; and fâÇB F£ffl^£ife $ff (The situation of the Catholic Church in the middle of the Ch'ing period) ; A £ Vol. 2, No. 2, 1948. 232) fi^ffl^^^ÔftíS (Characters of the Roman Catholics under the

persecution); fnfflfS±ãfJg 83a: A^Ê 5ÎSI ϋ 1951.- Cf. also the author's review of Fonti Ricciane by P. D'Elia, S. J., in Κ£βφ${ Vol. 36, No. 4, 1954, and of Apos- tolic Legations to China of the Eighteenth Century by A.S. Rosso, in £L«|l$|ië Vol. 64, No. 8, 1955.

233) Nakamura Shoten φ fâ g j£, Tokyo, 1947. 234) φΗ* * * l· RÍ&W3E±0IB«- ^t L X?i±Wt<Dmû- (Problems of

the historical studies on Christianism in China - with special reference to Catho- licism) ; H 0 ;£ ft, <p No. 10, 1952.- The article of the same author φ Η Κ Vk V % ÏÏi fi Ä Β Κ Μ Ο Μ & Κ ο V> Χ (On the settlement of the so-called Rites Contro- versy in China) ; Ê^W^SBâÂ» 1950, in which he discusses the repeal of the Encyclical " Ex quo singulari " (1742) by Pius XI in 1936, is largely based on the article of Alexandre Brou "Le point final á la question des rites chinois"; Etudes, 5, fèv. 1940.


is the object of a study by Kubo Noritada Ü H ,&, who points to the significant contrast of this development to the progressive amalgamation of Buddhism with native Chinese elements.235... A report on Walter Fuchs' Der Jesuitencublas der Kanghsi-Zeit,236 together with detailed supplements to this work, make up a paper by Migami Masatoshi HJblEfîJ.237

A rarely touched subject is broached in the study of Adachi Ikutsune g£ ä§ £ ft on the establishment and development of the agricultural colony of Mei-kuei ying-tzu hsiang gç Ht If ̂ $$ in Feng- chen hsien H j^ $$, Suiyüan province. Drawing also on his personal observations, he describes the share which the Catholic Church had in the colonization and agricultural development of this part of the country.238

3. Protestantism $ft ffc. The activities of the outstanding early Protestant missionaries, notably R. Morrison, Medhurst, Gützlaff and Bridgman, are detailed by Ishihara Ken 7fi J^ M in a paper which draws almost exclusively from the volumes of The Chinese Reposi- tory.239 In another article, he gives a bird's-eye view of the history of the Protestant missions in China, which he divides into five periods.240

235) =*· V * hifciDA^KèÎS^Bfê (Customs and manners of the Chinese Christians at the end of the Ming dynasty); ̂̂ f^ No. 6, 1953. For the relations between Buddhism and Christianity at the end of the Ming dynasty, see the article by Mr. Õchõ mentioned in Part III, n. 173.

236) Monumento, Serica monograph series No. 4, 1943. 237) A!RB?fftïcRtt£-e;tf>r y h © $1 Β · S (The Jesuits' Atlas of the

Kang-hsi period) ; ji» $H No. 51, 1952.- An article by Ayuzawa Shintarõ iè # it ̂ C gß about the influence of Matteo Ricci's World Map on Japanese knowledge of world geography may also be added here ; it is -* τ *r V ν *?· <D^5ft-^KM~t % Ä. Ô5J Κ 9ΕΗΕ 1ftB#fcfcttS-ffi!^3&SS&©5Ë SK- (A historical study on Matteo Ricci's World Map - the main source of recent Japanese knowledge of world geography); SlrpS^^IBg No. 18, 1953.

238) p3iSfiMf Kifôfí £^S|0g|fB t * * V ν * (Catholicism and the development of agriculture in Inner Mongolia along the Great Wall) ; Λ 5C Î4 § Vol. 1, No. 3, 1946.

239) φΗΑΗί&ΟΜίΒ* (Pioneer missionaries in China); fg*î^?ï £ Vol. 1, No. 1, 1950. 240) φΐ/ητ^^νΐ« ItÊ- SIB £ Bf rôKí}- (The protestant missions

in China- A historical sketch); iMÎÏ^fil Vol. 4, No. 1, 1953.

502 GOTO KIMPEI

4. The religion of the Taipings jfc. ^ 5c H was dealt with by Miyakawa Hisayuki g ;il fô ̂ and Ichiko Chûzo f^SH. The former propounds the theory that the religion of the early Taipings, which according to him may be called a Chinese variation of primitive Christianism, changed from its original radicalism and democratic character to a more conservative and aristocratic form.241 Mr. Ichiko analyses the nature of the doxology which used to be recited during the ceremonies of the Taipings and concludes that the Taiping society was Christian in appearance only, although he makes it clear that its faith was different also from Taoism which strives only for wealth and rank and long life in the present world.242

5. Anti-Christian activities were the subject of a study of Satoi Hikoshichiro M ̂ ^ "fcr ÄB and others. It covers the period between the treaties of Tientsin and Peking (1858 and 1860) and the Boxer uprising, and is written purely from the viewpoint of political history.243

6. Christianity as a whole was the topic of the book ?f ff§ 3g # ifc Φ ψζ % (A study of Christianity during the Ch'ing dynasty) by Saeki Yoshio fè fâ $F J$> the fourth volume of his life-work, ^553È#tí:cZ)#F5g (A study of Christianity in China).244 The title corresponds only in a broad way to the contents of the book, for actually it covers the time from the reign of Yung-cheng fgiE (1723-1735) to about 1930. Though individual passages in such a book will quite naturally be in need of revision, it is a valuable reference work, and its publication has provided a new impetus to studies in this field.245

241) %} S§ Χ ψ ̂ m <£> π * ft (On the religious character of the Taiping rebellion in its early period); Λζϊίί·^ Vol. 1, No. 3, 1946.

242) *^^H©ii^lf (The doxology of the Taipings) ;?Pfflfi±^Bi3âK ^J&üm 1951.

243) +jl]8:fäf$Mui%kMWß<£>-~ ffilljg" (A phase of the anti-christian movement in 19th century China) ; jfC g£ £ Κ % Vol. 13, Nos. 1, 5, 1954, 55.

244) Shunjü Sha # ψχ it, Tokyo, 1949. 245) Much has been written about Christianity under the Communist regime,

mostly in a journalistic vein. These publications do not fall within the scope of this report and are therefore omitted here.


PART VI. Other Religions

Of the religions which played only a minor part in China, Zoroastrianism jg£ ffe was treated by Ishida Mikinosuke Ç H ̂ ;£ J|ij. He is led to fix on the middle period of the Northern Wei dynasty as the time when this religion was introduced into China.246

Shimada Masao J§ 0 IE ί$ shows that, notwithstanding the imitation of Chinese culture by the upper classes of the Liao ̂ , shamanistic magic had a strong hold on the common people, as the author verifies particularly with regard to legal procedure.247 - Iwai Taikei ̂ ^ ^c H establishes that the enthronement ceremony of Genghis Khan was carried out with the blessing of the Shamans. He gives an etymological explanation of böge, the Mongolian word for Shaman, and therefrom deduces that the chieftains of the ancient forest tribes were, at the same time shamans and as such the religious leaders.248 An investigation of the shamanist religion of the Manchu nobles of the Ch'ing dynasty is due to Inoue Ichii #_tm^m·249

At the end of this report, it gives the writer pleasure to express his sincere thanks to Messrs. Uehara Tadamichi Ji Μ ί¥ it» Yoshioka Gihõ "§ Ρ8 ü H, Urai Kimitoshi ̂̂ r^kWi and Nakada Yoshinobu φ5^§ who generously gave of their time and knowledge when- ever guidance in their special fields was needed.

246) iR»íD^a5^τ»O^fflâÉ^c^:0SJSB^äiKl'OV^t:(Onthe early history of Zoroastrianism in China : its date of introduction and its spread down to the beginning of the T'ang dynasty); ~$ß.Jj φ No. 1, 1951.

247) M©a#fc.;fètf£?EW;tJ£>fÉffi (The function of magic in the society of the Liao) ; jjC # φ No. 4, 1952.

248) J5g ^ Jg jf CD |0 fô t Μ Μ Κ 86 ̂ X (Genghis Khan's enthronement and the shamans) ; M ffl f§ ± m m M â: M m & ϋ M, 1950. 249) ?jf §g g" g M ffiiô: M M Κ it ̂ Χ (Shamanistic Sanctuaries in the Peking

Palace); 33 H » ± β * Κ â JfC » £ » *, 1950.

504 GOTO KIMPEI

LIST OF PERIODICALS AND MISCELLANEOUS WORKS USED IN THIS REPORT

I ON RELIGION

Bukkyõ Bunka kenkyü $£ |fc 3t fli ψζ % (Journal of Buddhist Culture) ; publ. by mmXfcm^m* Kyoto.

Bukkyõ Daigaku Gakuhõ % |$; ̂ c |jl *|i fft (Journal of Buddhism and Cultural Science) ; publ. by # tfe ;*: <fl, Kyoto.

Bukkyögaku kenkyü # ̂ : ^ W 52 (Studies in Buddhism) ; publ. by Α«*·Λ**#. Kyoto.

Bukkyõ Geijitsu #ife^« (Ars Buddhica); publ. by #|£||ΦΚ|| -fr, Tokyo.

Bukkyõ Ronsõ fô |fc gft H (Studies of Buddhism) ; publ. by jp ± ^ ffc»g£» Tokyo.

Bukkyõ Shigaku {$ ifc jfc, φ (Journal of the History of Buddhism) ; publ. by #ifeiílS#> Kyoto.

Indogaku Bukkyögaku Kenkyü PP^^#^C^W^S (Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies) ; publ. by Η ̂ ÉP ̂ ^ # ifc S #« Tokyo.

Komazawa Daigaku Gakuhõ fft ^ ^c Φ Φ # (Journal of the Koma- zawa Univ.) ; publ. byftf λ *» Tokyo.

Komazawa Shigaku |£| ̂ jfe ̂ (Journal of History, Komazawa Univ.); publ. by |gff *«. Tokyo.

Mikkyõ Bunka $5$c3Cfc (Quarterly Reports on the Esoteric Bud- dhism) ; publ. by iS©m^c^^^:W^g#, Kõyasan.

Nihon Bukkyõgakukai Nempõ Η ̂ $?|ί:Ι|Ι#Φ^ (Annual Report of the Buddhistic Society of Japan) ; publ. by Η ̂ # ifc H -fr t Tokyo.

^iam Daigaku Kenkyü Nempõ ̂C^^c^W^u^^ (Annual Report of Researches of the Ötani Univ.) ; publ. by ̂ c ̂ ^c ̂ , Kyoto.

Otani Gakuhõ ̂c^^^ (Journal of Ötani Univ.); publ. by ̂ c^ *^ügta#> Kyoto.

Otani Shigaku ̂c í? A ^ (Journal of History of Ötani Univ.) ; publ. by ̂ c§^$Äit. Kyoto.


Ryükoku Daigaku Ronshü f| ^ ^c H äro Ä (Journal of Ryükoku Univ.); publ. by fl^^c^, Kyoto.

Ryükoku Shidan H ί? Α Ä (Journal of History of Ryükoku Univ.) ; publ. by f| ̂ Ä ^ #i Kyoto.

Shükyo Bunka ̂ ^cXjk (Journal of Religious Culture) ; publ. by *jE^c*îfc2KifcW5B-fr, Tokyo

Shükyo Kenkyü ̂ ffc BFf 52 (Journal of Religious Studies) ; publ. by H # ̂ & Φ #, Tokyo Univ.

Twishõ Daigaku Gakuhõ ;*c JE ;*c H HI SI (Journal of Taishõ Univ.); publ. by ̂ c jH ̂C H, Tokyo.

Taishõ Daigaku Kenkyü Kiyõ ifcjE^^fift^ÄÜl (Memoirs of Taishõ Univ.); publ. by ̂ cjE^C^» Tokyo.

Tõhõ Shükyo % -Jj ̂ ifc (Journal of Eastern Religions) ; publ. by Η*ίΕ^^#, Tokyo.

Zengaku Kenkyü fii^Wû (Studies in Zen Buddhism); publ. by %g*^jri mmftffi. Kyoto.

II OTHERS

Bunka 3c fa (Culture) ; publ. by % 4fc ^c ̂ Χ Φ #. Sendai. Chügoku Bungaku ψ S X H (Chinese Literature) ; publ. by ψ Η

3cmm9Z^> Tokyo. Chügoku Kenkyü ψ S W 5S (Study of China) ; publ. by 3g ft ψ β

$-£-, Tokyo. Do Ao Gakuhõ fâMMfr^l (Journal of Dõhõ Univ.) ; publ. by |^ JJg ^c

ift, Kyoto. Fukui Daigaku Gakugeigakubu Kiyõ jjig^^c^^^^^PlB^

(Memoirs of the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Education, Fukui Univ.) ; publ. by M $r ̂C Φ. Fukui.

Haneda Hakushi Kõju Kinen Tõyõshi Rõnsõ 33Ε9^Ϊ±©1ΐΡΙΒ^ 3iC ¥£ A Sft 31 (Asiatic Studies in Honour of Tõru Haneda on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday, May 15, 1942); publ. by Kyoto Univ., 1950.

Hiroshima Daigaku Bungakubu Kiyõ JSJIÎIiScI^bÇIBÍI (Me- moirs of the Literature Department of Hiroshima Univ.); publ. by Hiroshima Univ., Hiroshima.

506 GOTO KIMPEI

Hitotsvbashi Ronso - ;g| ̂ H (Journal of Hitotsubashi Univ.) ; publ. by Hitotsubashi Univ., Tokyo.

Jimbun Λ 3t (The Cultural Sciences) ; publ. by Λ 2fc ^ ^ #M #. Tokyo.

Jimbun Kagaku A 3c Ψϊ ̂ (Quarterly Journal of Humanistic Science) ; publ. by £«$;fc*A*:ï**W9B#r. Kyoto.

Kodaigaku ■£ ft S (Palaeologia) ; publ. by ■£ ft S fö #> Osaka. Kõkotsugaku ψ # φ (The Oracle Bone Journal) publ. by a^ç

#^#, Tokyo Univ. Kokugaku-in Zasshi m^[%$Èîë (Journal of Kokugaku-in Univ.);

publ. by ®^^^c^, Tokyo. Minzokugaku Kenkyü Βξ? ^ ^ W 5l (The Japanese Journal of Ethno-

logy) ; publ. by Η if β fig S β ♦» Tokyo. Nihon Chãgoku Gakkaihõ Η ;φ: ψ Η Φ # Hi (Bulletin of the Sinolo-

gical Society of Japan) ; publ. by Η ̂ ψ ® ̂ #, Tokyo, Nishi Nihon Shigaku gH^^§ (Historical Science in Western

Japan) ; publ. by ]g Η ;φ: jjj, ̂ #, Fukuoka. Orientalica $ ]) χ- > # }) ti (Orientalica) ; publ. by ̂#£tlll#»

Tokyo Univ., Tokyo. Rekishigaku Kenkyü Jg ̂ ^ $Ff fg (The Journal of Historical Studies) ;

publ. by m A * W 5g #, Tokyo. Ritsumeikan Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyüjo Kiyö jfe ̂ If ̂ c ̂

AX^^W^L^flB^ (Memoirs of the Research Institute of the Cultural Science of Ritsumeikan Univ.); publ. by &<ftrit ^C^, Kyoto.

Shichõ }& iül (Journal of History) ; publ. by ̂ Siif, Tokyo. Shien ̂ ^ (Journal of History); publ. by Λ#ΙΑ^#» Kyüshü

Univ., Fukuoka, Shigaku ̂ ^ (Historical Science) ; publ. by Illl^f ΞΗ

,&l|#, Tokyo. Shigaku Kenkyü Ä^WSS (Review of Historical Studies); publ.

by ÜÄlff^t» Hiroshima Univ. Shigaku Kenkyü Kinen Ronsõ Ä^W^iÖ^lmjii (Historical studies

in celebration of the sixtieth birthdays of five professors) ; publ. by Ä Β Α ^ #> Hiroshima Univ.


Shigaku Zasshi JÈL #1 H fg (The Historical Journal of Japan) ; publ. by i&,<^#, Tokyo.

Shikan & f| (Historical Review) ; publ. by ^îgH^C^Sl^^A «#, Tokyo,

Shirin ̂ # (Journal of History); publ. by ̂ ^9Ρ^#» Kyoto Univ.

Shisõ β & (Thought) ; publ. by g Jft |f JÈ» Tokyo. Sõritsu Nijügoshünen Einen Rombunshü JlJ jfc it S Jü ̂ f S ̂ fe ggg 2ÖC

^ (Silver Jubilee Volume of the Jinbun-Kagaku-Kenkyüsyo, Kyoto Univ.; i.e. the 14th Volume of A^^-^W^S^fia^ and the 25th Volume of jR # ̂ ^) ; publ. by AífíÍW?E JSCAÄ*#. Kyoto Univ.

Tetsugaku g ^ (Philosophy) ; publ. by gl^illf if. Hiroshima.

Trâ Ronsõ ̂ gg g^ H (Studies of East Asia) ; publ. by Bunkyü-dö 2fc at g, Tokyo.

2Ww GaÄ;w ^ ^ S (Eastern Studies) ; publ. by M'fi ̂ #» Tokyo. Tohõ Gaku Ronshü Ä ^ ^ Ira Ä (Memoirs of the Institute of Eastern

Culture) ; publ. by j£ jf ̂ #, Tokyo. 5To/w? Gakuhõ ̂ ^ ^ fü (Journal of Oriental Studies) ; publ. by χ

3fc»*W3El3fí. Kyoto Univ. ΓοΛ2/ο JbsAi Daigaku Ronshü ̂M^C^^ÜüroÄ (Essays and

Studies by Members of Tokyo Womans' Christian College) ; publ. byJltÄti** Tokyo.

Tokyo Shinagakuhõ 'M'M'^M^^ (Bulletin of Tokyo Sinological Society) ; publ. by jg & % Μ Φ #» Tokyo Univ.

T02/0 ßwnÄa Kenkyü Ä ί^ X ífc W SB (The Oriental Culture Review) ; publ. by Ä 8É £ ÄW 28 JãÇ Aí*«*. Tokyo.

Γ02/Ο Bunka Kenkyüjo Kiyõ Äi^SfiCfliW^S^f^B^ (Memoirs of the Institute for Oriental Culture) ; publ. by M^líít¥í^PJf> Tokyo Univ.

lãyõ Gakuhõ j£#|^ (Reports of the Oriental Society); publ. by *ffAÍAff«*fit. Tokyo.

Γ(^/ο no Bunka to Shakai ^ ?^ 0 ^t ft i ftfc # (Oriental Culture and Society) ; publ. by^fp^c^tp^g^ff^^, Kyoto Univ.

508 GOTÕJCIMPEI

Tõyo Shigaku Ronshã Mffi&^HmM (Studies in Oriental History) ; publ. by A«ffeW**£j$A»W3iîS. Tokyo Univ. of Education.

Tõyôshi Kenkyü % pfc & W §S (Journal of Oriental Research) ; publ. by JlCEÊAfflSe. Kyoto Univ.

Tõyo Shisô Kenkyü ̂ pfc Jft j® Çf ̂g (Annual Report of the Institute of Oriental Thought, Waseda Univ.); publ. by -fLjfgffl ΛΦΑ ^JB«W5ES. Tokyo.

Wada Hakushi Kanreki Kinen Tüyüshi Ronsõ fp E9 1ÍJ ± M Ä? f 3 ̂ jjC # A gft H (Oriental Studies Presented to Sei Wada, in Cele- bration of His Sixtieth Birthday, November 15th, 1950, by His Pupils); publ. by jfp ffl ü±f3&il«Si»$ A#, Tokyo, 1951.

Yamato Bunka Η ̂ ;£ ffc (Yamato Culture) ; publ. by ̂ Η ^c ̂ ^ «fcÄÄWSSfiff. Tenri.

Yokohama Shiritsu Daigaku Kiyo Α8φΑλ$ίβ^ (Memoirs of Yokohama Municipal Univ.) ; publ. byggf i^c§, Yokohama.

Zeirirc !§;# (Studies and Essays); publ. by ;£<ifrft λ^Α ^#* Kyoto.

APPENDIX

Lisí o/ í Ae more important books and articles published between August, 1955 and August, 1956.

I. Ancient Religion

Itö Michiharu £*Hit?P: H^KÄi SlÜiäSI^^T (The idea of ancestor- worship as expressed in the oracle bones) ; Jfl^f^* No. 26, 1956.

Matsumoto Masaaki fe$lPJ: jg ft o Jfê; S |g 81 Κ tel? S SI (The gods of the popular cult in the Chou period) ; ^ p£ S ^ Vol. 38, No. 3, 1956.

II. Taoism

Murakami Yoshimi ift±&%: ψ β CD fl| A - ÍÊ, # h ■? © S ÍE (Chinese " immortals "- the thought of Pao P'u Tzu); ΨΜ^ ^fê Heirakuji-shoten, Kyoto, 1956.


Miyazawa Seijun § ^ JE JQg : Mfò^ t^ft-M (Pao P'u Tzu and the sect of Chang Chiao) ; ^ |fc 2fc it No. 11, 1956.

Obuchi Ninji Λ ÍH3RW: f&fh^WSS^lè (On Pao P'u Tzu); m m**8c£*Îfls**iBi? no. 5, 1956.

Akizuki Kan'ei Üt^Hi^: Ä φ CD IL Ο ^ffefë- *^äS ft Sc L· Ο §fi $$ f4 £ Φ ifr ά bt - (Religious factors in the rebellion of the "Yellow Caps"); Ä#iÜW3S Vol. 15, No. 1, 1956.

Fukunaga Mitsuji Μ&%%- $IiÄ©ÄH-If ®*I JB ÍI - (Chih-tun and his surroundings - the philosophy of Lao- tzu and Chuang-tzu in the eastern Chin period) ; $$ ̂ |fc ̂ Vol. 5, No. 2, 1956.

Yoshioka Gihõ $[^ϋ: IHl^fciUftif 0-*SS - äiifc^flS©ÄÄôi^-r- (On the Tao-chiao i-shu, a source concerning the Buddhist-Taoist controversy in early T'ang) ; fiJ&««ifc*W9K Vol. 4, No. 1, 1956. gjl0## i ψ H CD S ^ ff (The cult of Lü-tsu [i.e., Lü Tung-pin gfif] and Chinese folk gods); H *#ifcH#ÎR No. 21, 1956.

Sawada Mizuho i|HiSSÏ: fl^SOff^ (A study of the Lung-hua ching) ; ϋί Ä á^ H fB ̂ 2, 1955.

Kubo Noritada Jgfë ,& : ψΗ0Ξ>Ρ##άΗ*©ΑΦ## (The Taoist origin of the Japanese celebration of the cyclic day of metal and the monkey [Kõshin]) ; Ä 3& ̂ ^ Ä No. 3, 1955.

III. Buddhism

Wada Sei JDffl jf: ftftJiö^ftKo^ τ (On the time of the introduction of Buddhism in China) ; f& % ̂ $c$tn£1fâM3í. ^5:^, η ;$:;*: H (Nippon Univ.) Tokyo, 1955.

Tsukamoto Zenryü M^WÍ^: ^ffó^fcMJã^tfc^^CDÂi (A.D. 400 tT') (The early age of the acceptance of Buddhism in China); #ife;*:^^^, No. 31, 1956.

Ui Hakuju i£2M£^: pS^fF^ (A study of the Buddhist priest Tao-an); fêfà^HtJg Iwanami-shoten, Tokyo, 1956.

MoriMikazaburö^H^HlIS: *©ΑΦ - #»5ΕΙΒ©^ΛΙ - (Wu-ti of the Liang dynasty - the tragedy of a Buddhist reign) ; Tf^^^j^ Heirakuji-shoten, Kyoto, 1956.

Matsuyama Zenshõ fö Hi ̂ BH : 3t38^*J^S^*Ätfc3Kit©

δίο gotõ:kimpei

-'βΟΒί - ϋ # t ϋ Si - (Some observations concerning a mutual influence between southern and northern Buddhism in China - Kumarajiva and Hui-yüan) ; Η ;ψ; # ifc S # 4^ No. 21, 1956.

Tõdõ Kyõshun |£J:g^: ff St t *ft- flftfÈ Κ *5 tf S ft St © ίδ; #J (The influence of Seng-chao on T'an-luan's commentaries to the Amitãyus Sütra [&:■:£ ft fó fio) ; EP S#«ïfe^W2g Vol. 4, No. 2, 1956. ft ft © $ 31 ft (T'an-luan's view on Buddha's virtue); Α»***« No. 31, 1956. *ft©£Aftè<E·© ^ j|; (T'anluan's view of Mãnadheya [Amida's name] and its background); ^WXitm% 5, 1956.

Fujiwara Kõshõ |Jg$f: #S©*^fê^tSA©icS (Shan-tao's critical classifications of Buddhism and T'an-luan's teaching); I^fF^No. 1, 1955.

Ochõ Enichi JR&SlB:^Hft3fc;eff%®9!ft (Ch'an in ancient Chinese Buddhism); pp ̂̂ #^:^ W3S Vol. 4, No. 1, 1956. 3ÇU:l=rÍS©&ÍSH!ac (The Saddharmapundarïka Samãdhi as experienced by Tien-tai Chih-i) ; ̂ c ̂ ^ ^ Vol. 35, No. 3, 1955.

ShigenoiTen if^fi: Äft#^C M M ©#Íf (A study on the Buddhist schools in the Tang dynasty) ; >*c ^ & ^ No. 5, 1956.

Ishida Mitsuyuki ^H^fci:: tpS^±©:Ä^il©fF^g(A study on the thought of the Chinese Pure Land school) ; fï ̂ ^c S Im ^ No. 349, 1955.

Tsukamoto Zenryü ̂̂ :#|^: #±^5:ÍÉtfe (An outline on Pien-wen [literature in popular language] of the Pure Land Sect) ; m^cmm no. 26, 1955.

Ogasawara Senshü /h 5£ ]g JS 3f : tffl Mffc Ml © if Ä ^ IS t" S ft Ff9 M (On the transmission of the Amida Sutra) ; JR. |£ #f 2B No. 1, 1955.

MichihataRyõshuítS^^: φ Hföftin *5 li Z> ̂M t S^© fni j® (The problem of five virtues and five precepts [panca silani] in Chinese Buddhism) ; Q£#fflffc£0F3C Vol. 4, No. 2, 1956.

Ogawa Kan'ichi /h }'' η d^ : tt # # ffi ± 0 pp JgiJ '% A (The Tri- pitaka edition unearthed in Turf an); PP^^#^:^W^l Vol. 4, No. 1, 1956.

Abe Hajime M^m- "S^Äi»^© - WSE (A study of the religious system of the southern branch of Ch'ari) ; % ̂ £ ip


M No. 4, 1956. Makita Tairyõ ÍJtffl||: £iê» fà Wft- Ψ Η Κ ** # δ #

ife S # ̂ ^ 6D - 5# ffi - (A Study of the life of the monk Pao- chih [425-514 A.D.] as viewed from the folkloristic standpoint); Hi-jimm. No. 26, 1956. j£^ X Œ SB © W3B Ji (A study of the records of Sakugen's mission to Ming China, Part I); ί£$|ξ ff Hõzõkan, Kyoto, 1955.

ManoSenryü M^»fg: ψ ft Ψ X» CD ifff- ^ «1 * Ψ i& ft: b Τ - (The religious policy towards Buddhism in the middle of the Ming dynasty) ̂c ̂ jk 41 No. 4, 1955.

Nakada Yüjirö ψ Η IS ̂ C Iß» Hirano Kensho ψ- gf §g BH : Ψ Η "è ^■ß ßî (Chronological catalogue of the old MSS. of the Chinese Tripitaka); ̂c^^^ Vol. 35, No. 2, 1955.

Ogawa Kan'ich /> JM Ä =£» Shigenoi Ten fô ̂ # 1S and Makita Tairyõ «:HU39S:«««lfcA*©lsî)litaS-^2ÎfPÎ H · ψ^55!Β5δ·Ι9Ι^- (Historical [studies of Buddhism in postwar Japan- Part II, China, Central Asia and Korea) ; $ jjfe ^ φ Vol. 5 Nos. 3, 4, 1956.

IV. /suam

Tasaka Kõdõ H Jg H Jt · ΨΒΟ5 AKfclJ5^;i/^7J!| ^ ^ }C ο ί,ϊ Τ (On Persian elements in Chinese Islam) ; ψ J& ^C^âtP®^ No. 3, 1955. mftte *J li S ^* -Í ̂ 5 a ffefêOBíCAKÔ Τ (On the adoption of Chinese names by immigrant Moslems during the Ming dynasty) ; jfe ̂ J| fë Vol. 65, No. 4, 1956.

V. Christianity

Yazawa Toshihiko ̂ j§| f (| ̂ : ΨϋΙ©1Ιδ (The origin of Roman Catholic missions in China) ; JjSf ΞΕ Λ ^ IB S? 4, 1955.

Maejima Shinji ΙΪ if # ̂ C : IB* KIJ»#±îg» © - W ̂ (One phase of the activities of the Jesuits at the end of the Ming period); m$lW^ 318, 1955.

Yoshida Tora W Η Ä («): IHSfWi^^B« (Bibliography of studies on the history of Christianity in East Asia); ÄMgcW^C^ÄÂW^^ 1955.

studies on chinese religion in postwar japan

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