STUDY GUIDE FOR ANIMAL PESTS The educational material in this study guide is practical information to prepare you to meet the written test requirements. It doesn’t include all the things you need to know about this pest-control subject or your pest-control profession. It will, however, help you prepare for your test. Contributors include the Utah Department of Agriculture and Utah State University Extension Service. This study guide is based on a similar one published by the Colorado Department of Agriculture. Materials for that guide were prepared by Colorado State University Extension Service. Other contributors include: Extension Service personnel of California, Illinois and Georgia, as well from materials furnished by Metro-Pest Management Consultants, Inc. The information and recommendations contained in this study guide are based on data believed to be correct. However, no endorsement, guarantee or warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, is made with respect to the information contained herein. Other topics that may be covered in your examinations include First Aid, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), Protecting the Environment, Pesticide Movement, Groundwater, Endangered Species, Application Methods and Equipment, Equipment Calibration, Insecticide Use, Application, Area Measurements, and Weights and Measures. Information on these topics can be found in the following books:

1. National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual, Published by the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation.

2. The Workers Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides – How to Comply: What Employers Need to Know. U.S. EPA, Revised September 2005, Publication EPA/735-B-05-002.

These books can be obtained from the Utah Department of Agriculture or Utah State University Extension Service. Please contact your local Utah Department of Agriculture Compliance Specialists or Utah State University extension agent.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PESTS OF CATTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PESTS OF SHEEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

PESTS OF HORSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

PESTS OF SWINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

PESTS OF POULTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

PESTICIDE SAFETY AND USE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

INSECTICIDE USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

METHODS OF INSECTICIDE APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

WORKER PROTECTION STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION BY PESTICIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1

Heel fly (cattle grub)

INTRODUCTION

Agricultural animals are attacked by mites and ticks,insects, and animal predators. These various parasitesand predators are of great economic importance to Utahagriculture; they cause losses amounting to millions ofdollars annually.

These pests affect animal productivity by: direct killing,spreading disease agents, causing loss of blood, causingphysical damage to animals or animal products, reducingweight gains, reducing milk and egg production, and in anumber of other related ways.

This study guide deals with some of the major pests ofagricultural animals. It isn’t intended as a complete texton this important subject.

PESTS OF CATTLE

FLIESMany of the important pests of agricultural animals areflies. The pest damage from a fly may range from asimple annoyance to painful biting and bloodsuckingparasitism. Some of the important Utah species arediscussed below.

HEEL FLY (Cattle grub)There are two species of cattle grubs in Utah, thecommon cattle grub (Hypoderma lineatum) and thenorthern cattle grub (Hypoderma bovis). Habits of thetwo species are similar except that the northern grub'slife cycle is a month or two behind the common grub.

As flies seek animals on which to deposit eggs, cattlebecome frightened and run. Cattle fail to graze normallyduring the warble-fly season because of gadding. Theyseek shade or water to stand in to avoid the flies. Thefailure to graze normally results in decreased milkproduction and subnormal weight gains. Further lossesoccur when cattle run through fences or into otherobjects. Slaughter losses result from the necessity totrim grubby areas from the carcass and from thedecreased value of hides with grub holes.

The adult heel fly doesn’t feed and only lives a shorttime, usually less than a week. The eggs are attached tothe hairs of the host, preferably on the lower parts of thebody (hence the term "heel fly"). The eggs hatch inthree to six days, and the tiny larvae bore through theskin. The larvae then migrate in several directions in thebody for about eight months in the connective tissuesbetween the muscles.

Upon reaching the back, the larvae cut a breathing holethrough the skin and remain in this position just beneaththe skin for 35 to 90 days before becoming maturegrubs. After becoming fully grown, the grubs squeezethrough the breathing holes, drop to the ground, andpupate in loose soil or other debris.

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Grub cycleThe heel or warble fly. A, adult female. B, eggsattached to hair. C, larva as seen in eggs. D, larvafrom gullet of cow. E, later stage of larva frombeneath the hide of back. F, larva or warble at thestage when it leaves the back of cattle and falls tothe ground.

After about four to five weeks, the adult heel flies These include: (1) feed additives, (2) sprays, (3) dips, (4)emerge. There is only one generation per year. When pour-ons, and (5) injectable avermectins. Use only inplanning to treat cattle that have come from out of state, accordance with label directions for the given chemicals.remember that the timing of the life cycle varies indifferent parts of the country. Apply treatment afterheel-fly season but not later than eight to 12 weeksbefore the anticipated first appearance of grubs in theback. Applications can also be made after all of thegrubs have appeared in the back.

ControlThere are a number of effective pesticides and methodsof application to control heel flies. Nearly all of thepesticides are aimed at the immature stage, grub orwarbles.

You must observe the following general precautionswhen using these products.

1. Don’t use systemic insecticides on lactatingdairy animals, and observe withdrawal periodsbefore slaughter or freshening strictly. Nosystemic insecticide should be used except in

strict accord with the manufacturer'srecommendations.

2. Don’t treat sick or stressed animals or calvesunder three months old, unless such treatment ison the label as an approved use.

3. Don’t apply in conjunction with oral drenches,phenothiazine medication, or other organic-phos-phate insecticides.

4. Don’t use in conjunction with pyrethrins,allethrins or synergists.

5. Take special note of warning statements oninsecticide labels regarding rates, condition ofanimals to be treated, treatment in conjunctionwith other medication, and recommended timeperiods for treatment.

Various control methods are available for cattle grubs.

BLACK FLIESThere are many species in the black-fly familySimultidae, and they are among the smallest of thebiting flies that attack livestock. They are often calledbuffalo gnats because of their "humped-back"appearance. Black fly may be a misnomer, becausesome species that attack livestock are often tan oryellowish in color.

There are four life stages of the black fly: egg, larva,pupa and adult. The duration of the life stages variesconsiderably with the different species. Several hundredeggs may be deposited on or in the water by the adultfemale. Larval and pupal black flies spend their lives inthe running water of rivers, canals or streams. Theseaquatic stages are attached to objects such as stones,logs, and submerged vegetation. After emergence, adultflies are capable of moving great distances from theirorigin.

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Female black flies are attracted in large swarms to the development in the manure, then they may movehost animal. They fly about and get into the nose, eyes, below the droppings into the soil to pupate. ears and mouth. They feed either on exposed areas ofskin or deep within the haircoat. They cut the skin and The complete life cycle, egg to adult, may besuck oozing blood. Strong anti-coagulants in their saliva completed in ten to 20 days during hot weather. Underprevent coagulation of the blood for some time after favorable conditions, many generations are producedthe bite. A large, painful welt may develop at the site in a single season.of the bite.

Significant losses in weight gains and milk productionhave been reported during black-fly outbreaks.

HORN FLIES flies are easily controlled by using any of severalHorn flies are about half the size of common house methods of residual application applied to the backs offlies. They get their name because they sometimes cattle. Horn-fly problems are limited to pasture andgather in great numbers around the base of the horns range situations; they are not of significantof cattle, but they also feed on the backs, shoulders, consequence in feedlot operations.withers and bellies.

Horn flies are bloodsuckers with piercing, sucking 25 to 50 per animal, and continue treatments atmouthparts. They are known to feed 20 to 30 times specified intervals during the fly season.per day.

Populations of several thousand may be present on oneanimal. When large numbers of flies are on cattle, thecattle bunch and spend most of the time fighting flies.They will stand in water or seek shade trying to getrelief. Studies have shown that yearling cattle freefrom horn flies gain from 15 to 50 pounds more thanheavily infested animals during the grazing season.

Milk production on dairy cattle pastured during the dayand infested with horn flies may decrease as much as20 percent. However, the horn fly is most important onpasture and range cattle. Horn flies stay on cattle mostof the time, crawling and feeding among the hairs onthe back, sides or belly. The eggs are very small andare white or dark brown. The larvae are typical smallfly maggots, and the pupae are small, brown, seedlikecases.

Horn flies overwinter in Utah as pupae in or beneathcattle droppings. In late April or May, adults emergeand begin the season life cycle. The female depositseggs in fresh cattle-droppings. The larvae complete

ControlAdult horn flies spend most of their time resting on thebodies of animals during the day as well as at night,feeding at intermittent intervals. Due to this habit, horn

Begin treatment in about May when fly counts reach

Sprays are effective in controlling horn flies.However, their use requires frequent application andthus relatively high labor cost in working the animals.

Backrubbers offer a convenient method to controlhorn flies and will also help control face flies when thepesticide comes in contact with the animal's face.

Dust bags provide excellent control of horn flieswhere properly installed and maintained. Buy ready-to-use bags and suspend near, but not directly over,mineral or salting stations, in alleyways, in loafing pens,or in holding sheds. Protect the bags from weather byplacing them under shelter. Suspend them where theywill hang four to six inches below the top line of thecattle.

Feed additives kill the larval horn flies in the feces.

Insecticide-impregnated ear tags from differentpesticide families should be used annually to avoidpesticide resistance.

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Label information will indicate amounts, restrictionsand warnings for use of insecticides on animals. Don’tuse an insecticide that doesn’t contain labelinformation for animal use.

FACE FLY a good deal of time away from the animal, so residualThe face fly, Musca autumnalis, is an important, activity of an insecticide may be lost before the flynon-biting, nuisance-type fly affecting mostly cattle. contacts it.The insect looks very much like the house fly. In fact,it’s very hard to tell the adults apart in the field. The best control has been obtained where treatment

Their persistence and habit of congregating around the an insecticide (dust or oil) with their faces on a dailyeyes and nose of animals helps distinguish face flies basis, or where animals were hand-treated daily withfrom house flies in the field. Face-fly larvae (maggots) a dust or spray. Insecticide control measuresare yellowish, and the puparia are white. In the case of recommended in Utah include dust or oiler self-house flies, their larvae are mostly white, and the treatment devices, sprays, and feed additives. puparia are red-brown.

They swarm around the head of an animal, lighting in success if special attention is paid to placing andand around the nostrils, muzzle and eyes. They cause maintaining these devices. They must be placed so thatprofuse tear formation. Face flies feed on the mucous cattle and calves are forced to pass under them inof eyes, nose and mouth and on the blood oozing from order to obtain water, salt or feed or to enter loafinginsect bites or open cuts. Irritation resulting from face- areas.fly infestations may cause cattle to huddle or seekshade and refuse feed. The protective and evasiveactions of cattle in attempts to avoid the annoyance ofthe flies undoubtedly reduces milk flow or weight gain.

The face fly is a strong flier and can travel severalmiles. Individual face flies don’t remain with cattle atall times and usually don’t enter darkened barns orstables. The adult face fly passes the winter in theadult stage within shelters. They may be a householdpest in the spring, when the flies emerge from theirindoor hibernation quarters.

The flies are present in the field throughout thesummer. Peak population occurs in late July orAugust. The flies are most prevalent along waterways,areas of 30 inches or more of rainfall, canyons wherethe canyon floors have trees and shaded vegetation,and on irrigated pastures. The open ranges with sparsevegetation apparently allow the manure to dry outbefore the fly larvae have completed development.

ControlThe achievement of adequate face fly control isdifficult at best. Two factors contribute to thisdifficulty: (1) The flies congregate on the face of theanimal, a hard place to treat, and (2) Face flies spend

stations were built and animals were forced to contact

Dust bags and oilers can be used with considerable

Feed additives containing insecticides and growthregulators help with control.

Insecticide-impregnated ear tags using two tagsper animal have resulted in 70- to 80-percentreductions.

STABLE FLYThe stable fly is about the size of a house fly but isdark gray, and the abdomen has dark, irregular spotson it. The proboscises (mouthparts) protrude bayonet-like in front of the head. The larvae are typical whitishfly maggots. The pupae are chestnut brown and areone-fourth inch long.

The complete life cycle of the fly from egg to adultaverages about 24 days in Utah in hot weather. Thefemale fly deposits eggs in spoiled or fermentingorganic matter mixed with animal manure and dirt. Themost common breeding sites are in feedlots or dairylots.

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These breeding sites are common around feed bunks; temperature reaches 80 degrees F. Thesealong the edges of feeding aprons; under fences; and surfaces can be treated with residual sprays;along stacks of hay, alfalfa or straw. Each female fly flies rest on the treated surfaces and absorblives about 20 to 30 days and lays 200 to 400 eggs the insecticide. Residual insecticides should beduring her lifetime. In warmer areas, the stable fly effective for ten to 21 days, unless washed offmay breed all year. by rain or broken down by high temperatures

Economic importanceStable flies are the most important insect pest onfeeder and dairy cattle in the summer in Utah. Theyfeed by piercing the skin and sucking blood. Stableflies stay on the animal long enough to get a bloodmeal, then they seek a shaded place on a fence, barnwall, feed bunk or vegetation to digest it.The bite of the fly is painful, and cattle try to dislodgeflies by foot-stamping, by tail-switching, and bythrowing their heads down toward their front legs.When flies are abundant, cattle either bunch, with eachanimal trying to get to the center of the group, or seekwater to stand in to avoid the fly harassment. Heavyfly populations may cause cattle to go off feed and addto the danger when the weather-safety index iscritical. Weight-gain depressions of 0.25 pound per dayand milk-production decreases of 30 to 40 percenthave been recorded.

ControlSanitation should be the first step in a control program.In a feedlot or dairy operation, manure should beremoved or mounded. Clean around feed bunks andfeed aprons, under fences and gates, around watersystems, and at the edges of the mounds.

Clean sick pens and feed storage areas regularly.Even small breeding areas support very high numbersof flies. If sanitation isn't practiced to a certain degree,chemical control may be unsuccessful.

There are three methods of insecticide fly control. Themethod of choice will depend to some extent on thetype of livestock operation.

1. Residual sprays: Stable flies rest on shadysurfaces such as fences, feed bunks, buildingsand vegetation surrounding cattle lots after the

or bright sunlight. Three to six applicationsduring the fly season should be adequate. Theresidual-spray method is best adapted todairies or smaller feedlots where fly resting-areas are not too extensive. Apply residualsprays to the point of runoff, but don’t allowpuddles to form, and don’t contaminate feedor water.

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The adult house fly and enlarged, side-viewof head and sponging-type mouthparts.

2. Area sprays: Area sprays are consideredshort-residual knockdown insecticides. Theyshould be applied on areas where flies areconcentrated, because they kill only the fliesthey contact. The sprays are used aslow-concentrate fine mists. Area sprays are themost efficient when fly activity is low and whenthey are collected in swarms. These timeswould be early morning, late evening, or duringthe hottest part of the day when flies are restingin shady areas. This method is probably best HOUSE FLIESadaptable where pens and resting areas are too House flies are about the same size as stable flies. Theyextensive for the use of residual sprays. The develop in manure or other areas of high organic matterarea sprays may have to be applied two or that remain moist for several days. House flies cannotthree times a week. The residual and area bite because they have sponging mouthparts. Thespray methods can be combined. An area spray underside of the abdomen is white to yellow rather thancould be used to knock down existing adult the gray color of stable flies.populations. After about a week (the timeneeded for newly emerging females to begin todeposit eggs), a residual treatment could beapplied.

These methods could be alternated as neededthroughout the fly season.

3. Animal or wet sprays: Sprays applied directlyto cattle for control of stable flies generallyneed to be applied at four- to seven-dayintervals, because wet vegetation (from dew orrain) washes the insecticide off the legs ofpasture cattle. (Some products have longertreatment intervals.) This method may be theonly feasible one where cattle come to lots towater once or twice per day, then return topasture. Stable flies breed around the lots,attack the cattle, then follow them back to thepastures. Sometimes pens that have served aswinter feeding facilities will provide breedingareas for flies. When the flies emerge, theymove to cattle in nearby pastures to feed, thenback to the lots to deposit eggs. In eithersituation, a cleanup of the lots may be the bestcontrol. If wet sprays are to be used, spray thelegs, flanks and underlines of the cattle (about

one-half to one gallon of diluted spray permature animal, less for a calf).

Applying insecticides to breeding areas is generally notrecommended. The acidity of the material in thebreeding areas breaks down the insecticides too rapidly,there is a danger of animal or crop contamination, flyinsecticide-resistance tends to increase, and sanitation(the prime method of fly control) tends to be ignored.

House flies are not directly injurious to livestock but areannoying to the animals and are responsible for highbacteria counts. They are a nuisance to the homeowner.The tremendous numbers produced around feedlots maycreate a fly problem for several miles around.

The development stage of house flies requires eight to20 days, depending on the conditions. Two or moregenerations per month may be produced during warmweather. Populations increase in the spring and summer,then reach the maximum in late summer or early fall.

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Cattle biting louse

They are of principal importance around feedlots and inhog and poultry operations, but are of minor importanceunder range situations.

ControlSanitation is of major importance. Remove manure oncea week, if possible. Use of residual sprays will helpreduce the fly population for a short time, although thismethod in general appears to be gradually decreasing ineffectiveness.

Sprays: Apply to ceiling and walls, using one to twogallons per 1,000 square feet. Cover feed and water,and keep animals out during spraying operations.

Baits: Baits are sometimes useful in supplementingother fly-control measures. They may be applied as dryor wet mixtures to floors, window sills, and other areaswhere flies congregate. In general, apply baits daily fora week and as needed thereafter. You may prepareyour own bait or use a commercially prepared mixture.

Feed-through insecticides: This approach to flycontrol is being used in Utah. The effectiveness andfeasibility of this approach depend mainly on individualcircumstances.

These materials function by passing through the animal'sdigestive system to kill fly larvae in the manure. Themethod's performance in the laboratory is generallyexcellent, but in order for it to work in the field, cattlemust ingest the proper amount of larvicide daily in orderto prevent fly development in the manure.

A very careful sanitation program must be conducted inand around cattle lots to prevent breeding in untreatedmedia. Since adult flies are not controlled, moretraditional methods may be necessary. The species offly involved must be considered, along with the ease andeconomy of control by other methods.

Bio-control: Parasitic wasps can be used to kill the flylarvae.

LICELice are considered by many to be the most seriousinsect pests of livestock in North America. Livestockproducers' losses to lice are estimated to be manymillions of dollars per year. Heavy louse populationsresult in lowered milk production, loss of flesh, stuntedgrowth, general unthriftiness, and anemia. "Chronic" or"carrier" cows may abort due to louse-induced anemia.During severe winters, louse- infested animals are moresusceptible to respiratory diseases.

Fall calves, yearlings, older unthrifty cattle, and earlyspring calves usually have the heaviest infestations.Heavily infested cattle are usually in poor physicalcondition, with rough, patchy haircoats that have a dirtyappearance.

Older animals may be "chronic" or "carrier" animals that,despite repeated insecticide treatments, continue tocarry heavy populations of lice. These animals areinstrumental in reinfecting entire herds each year.

Heavy cattle-lice infestations are easy to recognize.Bluish-colored patches may appear on the head, neck,brisket and shoulders of cattle. Lice may be seenclimbing about on the host's facial hairs. Cattle scratchand rub against objects and remove hair in an attempt torelieve itching.

All of these signs may mean that the lice have reachedserious levels and will cause a substantial monetary loss,unless they are controlled. Four different species of liceare important parasites of cattle in temperate areas ofthe United States.

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Short and long-nosed lice

The three common sucking lice species are:

! The short-nosed cattle louse! The long-nosed cattle louse! The little blue cattle louse

The only biting louse species is:

! The cattle-biting or chewing louse

All four lice species have similar life cycles. The eggsare glued to hairs and, in a severe infestation, are verynoticeable. The duration of the egg stage varies, butusually eggs hatch after one to two weeks. The nymphallice look very much smaller. There are three nymphalinstars, which last between two to three weeks beforematuring to adulthood. Adults may live about two weeks,producing one to two eggs per day. Infestations declineduring summer and become more severe during coldweather.

ControlControl of lice depends on early inspection and thoroughtreatment. Choose a warm fall day, and apply aninsecticide with a sprayer producing 200 to 250 poundsper square inch of pressure. Backrubbers and dust bagsoften help reduce lice infestations.

Several insecticides are available in pour-onformulations. Pour-on treatments are preferred oversprays in midwinter (January and February), becausethey can be applied without wetting the animals duringperiods of cold weather. Injectables are effective forbloodsucking lice.

TICKSLivestock often become infested with ticks. Ticks arenot insects and don’t resemble them. Ticks, as well asmites, are more closely related to spiders, scorpions, etc.

Ticks have four developmental stages: egg, larva, nymphand adult. The larvae, nymphs and adults can bedifferentiated according to size. Larval ticks possess sixlegs, whereas adults and nymphs have eight.

Ticks are obligatory parasites and require blood meals inorder to develop. The tick feeds by driving itsmouthparts into the skin of the host. The feeding of ticksproduces wounds and removes large quantities of blood.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOOD TICKThe Rocky Mountain wood tick, Dermacentorandersoni, attacks most domesticated animals and is asignificant pest. In addition, toxins secreted by thefemale tick can paralyze many animals, including cattle,man, sheep and horses.

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Hard TickDermoacentor sp.

Rocky Mountain wood ticks may cause tick paralysis inlivestock by the feeding of females and their injection ofa toxin into the bloodstream of the host. First symptomsin afflicted animals are weakness and staggers. In a fewhours, they are incapable of standing, and finally deathensues. Animals can be saved by removing theoffending ticks. Recovery may be rapid (within an hour),or it may take a couple of days. When recovery doesn’toccur within this time, it’s an indication that some ticksmay have been overlooked during the removal.

ControlThorough coverage by a spray or dip is necessary tocontrol the Rocky Mountain wood tick. Several differentinsecticides are approved for this purpose.

SPINOSE EAR TICKThe spinose ear tick inhabits the ears of cattle, but onlyin the larval and nympha stages. The adults live on theground, away from the host. They cause injury bypuncturing the skin within the ear and sucking blood.Wounds may become infested, causing a conditionknown as "ear canker." Sometimes tick infestationsbecome severe enough to completely close the earpassage.

ControlFor control of the spinose ear tick, approved dust or oilsolution formulations must be applied into the ears ofinfected animals, or insecticide-impregnated ear tagsmay be used.

MITESSCABIES (Cattle mange)The term "scabies" and mange are often usedinterchangeably, but they are defined by the U.S.Department of Agriculture (USDA) in the followingway:

Mange is any skin condition of man or animalsassociated with a mite; scabies is an especially serious,debilitating, reportable mange condition. The causativeorganisms, mites, are tiny arachnids related to ticks andspiders.

Three varieties of mite infestation are grouped togetherunder the term scabies: (1) psoroptic or commonscabies, (2) sarcoptic scabies, and (3) chorioptic scabies.When scabies mites are detected, the infested cattle arerequired by law to be quarantined and treated.

Scabies has been known since ancient times in man aswell as in animals. Cattle scabies is a universalparasitism; infestations have been and are todayreported from all areas of the world.

In the U.S., the disease constituted a serious threat tothe cattle industry, especially on the open ranges of theWest, before the turn of the century. The last outbreakin Utah was in 1986. We are currently free of scabies.

The annual cost of scabies to the cattle industry and tothe nation is a controversial matter, subject tointerpretation. In 1973, for example, an outbreak ofcattle scabies involved 53 ranches and feedlots, all in theSouthwest. During that outbreak, nearly 40 millioninspections of individual cattle were conducted, andsome 2.7 million head of cattle were dipped, either onceor twice. Inspectors' salaries and travel costs amountedto 3.5 million dollars that year. Adding all direct costsand intangible losses associated with this enormousoperation, USDA economists estimated that 40 milliondollars was spent on or lost as a result of cattle scabies.

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The sheep scab mite (Psoroptes ovis), female.Greatly magnified.

The mange or itch mite, (Sarcoptic scabiei),female.

Chorioptic scabies (Chorioptes bovis)

SCABIES MITES OF CATTLEPsoroptic scabies: Scabies has come to meanpsoroptic scab, common scabies, or its equivalent inmost livestock during the past half-century. It’s causedby Psoroptes ovis, a parasite that spreads quickly andeasily among cattle of all ages, classes and conditions.

Some external parasites, like many kinds of lice, are saidto be "host-specific"; that is, they parasitize only a singlespecies of host and cannot survive on any other.

Psoroptes ovis is host-specific to a degree; it lives onlyon sheep (that it prefers to other animals), on cattle, onhorses, and on the American bighorn sheep. The entirelife cycle, from egg to egg, is spent on the host.

Psoroptic scabies is by far the most injurious form ofcattle scabies and requires immediate quarantine andcontrol measures when found.

Sarcoptic miteSarcoptic scabies. Another form of scabies is caused bythe sarcoptic mite, Sarcoptic scabiei. This parasite isn’tspecific only to barnyard animals, where it’s seen onswine, horses, cattle and sheep, but it may also be foundon household pets, wild carnivores, monkeys and man.It’s truly a cosmopolitan parasite of mammals. Oddlyenough, it has never been isolated from sheep in theU.S. Sarcoptic mites are known to transfer from onespecies of host to another, as from cattle or swine tohumans, but according to some scientists, the secondaryinfestations are only temporary.

In establishing themselves on cattle, sarcoptic mitesusually congregate where the hair is thin and the skintender. The first lesions are often found above thescrotum or udder and on the inner surface of the thighs.If the disease isn’t checked, infestations may cover theentire body. Affected areas lose hair and becomecovered with heavy crusts or scabs. New generations ofmites require about two weeks to complete the cyclefrom egg to egg.

Sarcoptic, like psoroptic, scabies is a disease subject toquarantine and control measures wherever found.

Chorioptic miteThe third scabies mite of cattle is Chorioptes bovis. Insome literature, especially of the l9th century, it’s themite that causes "leg mange" or "foot mange." Likepsoroptic mites, chorioptic mites have rather strong hostpreferences. They are normally found on only four hostspecies: the cow, horse, goat and sheep.

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In some species, the feet and lower hind legs are When coumaphos is used, all animals, infested or merelyimportant sites of infestation. Chorioptes bovis lives in exposed to diseased cattle, must be treated twice. Cattlecolonies on the surface of the skin. It’s the most treated with this scabicide may be designated forcommon type of mange in cattle. The skin lesions immediate slaughter; no withholding period is required.usually develop in the tail region and spread to otherparts of the body. If the lesions start on the feet or legs, State and federal animal-health agencies cooperate veryit’s called leg mange. closely and effectively in the detection, quarantine and

Other sites to find lesions are on the scrotum and udder, animals or herds remain within state confines, only theunder the flanks, and on the legs. Chorioptic scabies is office of the state veterinarian concerned is responsibleconsidered a "reportable" disease in some states, and its for the necessary regulatory procedures. On the otherexistence is brought to the attention of the state hand, when two or more states are involved in a scabiesveterinarian. Imposition of quarantine and control outbreak, when infested animals are moved across anymeasures are usually left to the discretion of state state boundaries, or when livestock are brought into theanimal-health agencies. U.S. from outside the country, the Animal and Plant

Spread of the mites from host to hostAll of the scabies mites are one-host parasites; theynormally live, mate, deposit eggs, and die on the samehost. Some, however, drop off or are rubbed off the skinand haircoat of the infested host and establishthemselves on a new host. In this elementary way, all ofthe forms of scabies become highly contagious diseases,and extreme care must be exercised to preventdissemination. Cattle scabies may be borne from farm tofarm on newly purchased stock and through the mediumof infested cars, trucks and enclosures.

CONTROL OF CATTLE SCABIESBecause scabies infestations are considered contagiousdiseases, their existence must be reported to appropriatefederal and state agencies. Reporting sarcoptic andpsoroptic or common scabies is mandatory, but as notedearlier, attitudes concerning chorioptic scabies areelastic. In any event, when the disease is reported,scabies control measures must be supervised by federal-or state-designated officers.

At the present time, only three chemical compounds arerecognized as suitable scabicides, which is, drugsofficially permitted for use under imposed quarantinerestrictions and on cattle destined for interstatemovement. These scabicides are water suspensions ofthe organic phosphate compounds coumaphos andphosmet and the injectable drug avermectin.

control of scabies. When scabies-infested individual

Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the U.S.Department of Agriculture determines the course ofaction to be followed. In the last event, very precisestatutes, as elaborated in the Code of FederalRegulations, must be observed.

PESTS OF SHEEP

A number of insects and related pests are problems tosheep producers in Utah. The following informationhighlights some of the important organisms.

FLIESSeveral of the important pest flies to sheep have beendiscussed in the cattle pest section, for instance:

! Black flies ! Stable flies! Horn flies ! House flies

Some other important fly pests of sheep are:

SHEEP BOT FLIESThe sheep bot fly, Oestrus ovis, is a common pest ofsheep and goats. The persistence of the adult flies indepositing larvae in the nostrils excites the animals andinterferes with handling and grazing.

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12 mm in length grayish brown

Black blow fly

The larval stages of the fly, known as head grubs, live asparasites within the nasal passages and frontal sinuses.They may irritate membranes lining the nasal cavitiesand predispose the sheep to bacterial infection. Theresultant nasal discharge leads to the term "snotty nose."

ControlThere are several drugs that may be used to control thelarval stage: ruelene given orally, rafoxanide given orally,trichlorfon given orally or injected, nitroxynil injected,and avermectin given orally or injected.

BLOW FLIES (Wool maggots) Insecticides are used for prevention as well as control.The larvae of many species of blow fly have been Preventive dips or sprays may be applied if animalsreported to invade wounds of livestock. Several species, scour during the warm months. Wounds may also behowever, don’t necessarily require a wound in order to treated. Infested animals may be dipped or sprayed withparasitize sheep. The larvae of these flies are called dilute insecticide. If only a few animals become infested,wool maggots or fleece worms. spot treatment of the infested site is a possibility.

The adult flies are often about the same size as thehouse fly and dark bluish-green in color, with a metallicluster. The larvae look like typical fly maggots.

The factors surrounding strike or egg-laying are notcompletely known, however, several predisposingcauses have been reported. The primary cause for strikeis bacterial activity in the wool, which can be stimulatedby contamination with urine, feces, sweat, or an existingmaggot infestation. Maggots may live in the fleece, orthey may attack the skin and produce lesions. Thelesions and the maggots irritate the animals. The sheepbecome restless, stamp their feet, constantly wag theirtails, and bite at the site of the trouble. They don't feedproperly, and their condition deteriorates. Death mayoccur within a few days.

ControlMuch can be done to avoid maggot infestation ofanimals through flock management. Soiling of fleeceshould be avoided, but if the breech area becomessaturated with urine and feces during the blowflyseason, wool should be clipped from the crotch area.

In order to avoid wounds that may become maggot-infested, sheep should be handled gently and with safechutes and corrals. Lambing and shearing early in thespring, prior to the blowfly season, are advisable.

SHEEP KEDThe sheep ked, Melophagus ovinus, is a common pestof sheep. It’s a wingless fly that has a tick-likeappearance. Two stages of the insect may be seen onsheep, the adult and the pupa. Both stages are mostcommonly found on the underside of the host, althoughthey are not restricted to that area.

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Sheep ked or Sheep-tick

A) The sucking body louse of sheep, Haematopinusovillus.B) The sheep sucking foot louse, Linognathuspedalis.C) The sheep biting louse, Bovicola ovis.

The sheep ked is a blood-feeder, and it crawls rapidlythrough the fleece of the host animal. Damage resultsfrom bites of the ked, causing irritation to the sheep, andlesions caused by the insects' feeding. These reduce thegrade and value of the sheepskin. The excrement of thekeds causes permanent discoloration of the fleece.

The entire life of a sheep ked is spent in the fleece ofthe host. Adult keds spread from one host to the next bydirect contact. This is how keds transfer from ewes tonewborn lambs.

Ked populations build up during the autumn and wintermonths and reach peak numbers in January andFebruary, then decline to lower numbers that are carriedover the summer.

ControlSeveral methods of control are available for sheep keds.Each has its advantages and disadvantages, dependingon the particular sheep management program. Mostoften, sheep are successfully treated in the spring aftershearing, which is a means of control. All sheep in theflock must be treated, and all animals introduced into aflock should be treated in order to prevent reinfestation.Methods of application for sheep-ked control includedipping, high-pressure spray, low-pressure spray(including sprinkler can), pour-on, power-dusting, andhand-dusting.

LICE

SHEEP LICESeveral species of lice can infest sheep. These includeone species of chewing louse (the sheep-biting louse)and several species of sucking lice. The sheep-bitinglouse, the sheep-foot louse (a sucking louse), and thebloodsucking body louse will be discussed here.

The sheep-biting louse, Bovicola ovis, is a small specieswith a pale abdomen, darker thorax, and reddish head.The sheep-foot louse, Linognathus pedalis, is up to twomillimeters long, has a short head, nearly as wide as it’slong, and has an abdomen thickly covered with long,slender bristles. The blood-sucking body louse,Haematopinus ovillus, is larger but similar in shape.

The adult, nymphs, and egg stages all appear on thehost. The three nympha stages resemble the adult lice ingeneral appearance, however, they are smaller in size.The eggs, which are quite small in size, are glued towool fibers and hairs.

The sheep-biting louse and sheep-foot louse demonstratea pronounced seasonal fluctuation in populations,numbers being greatest in winter and early spring andlowest in summer. Lice are spread by contact betweensheep. The sheep-foot louse can also be acquired froman infested pasture.

The sheep-biting louse is usually most abundant on oldersheep and sheep in poor condition. Their preferred

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Life cycle of the Sheep biting louse

Life cycle of the Spinose ear tick

Sarcoptic mite

location is near the skin along the back and the uppersides.

In heavy infestations, lice may be found anywhere onthe body. Biting lice feed on the skin scurf. They causeintense irritation that sheep relieve by biting and pullingthe wool and by rubbing against objects. The fleece ofheavily infested sheep becomes ragged and torn.

The sheep-foot louse is a sucking louse that feeds onblood. Usually this louse isn’t considered very injurious,

since feeding occurs on the hairier parts of the sheep'sbody, and the animal exhibits little discomfort. In severeinfestations, though, it may cause some lameness.

Generally, lambs and younger sheep are more heavilyinfested by the sheep-foot louse than are older animals.Light infestations commonly occur as small colonies oflice around the accessory digits. From this location, theymay spread down to the feet and up the shank. In heavyinfestations, they also infest the scrotum and sometimesthe belly of the rams.

The bloodsucking body louse robs the host of nutritionand stains the wool with small, brown fecal spots. Thesucking body louse also may infest the belly and scrotumof rams and spreads during breeding.

The bloodsucking body louse, sheep-biting louse,sheep-foot louse and other species that occur on sheepmay be controlled by the use of an insecticide dip orhigh-pressure spray, various pour-on formulations, andthe injectable avermectins.

TICKSThe Rocky Mountain wood tick and the spinose ear tickdiscussed in the cattle section can also be seriousproblems of sheep.

Control methods are similar to those discussed in thecattle section.

MANGE MITESSeveral different mite species produce a contagiousdisease of the skin of domestic animals known asmange. The types of mange -- sarcoptic mange,psoroptic mange, and chorioptic mange -- are namedafter the mites causing them -- sarcoptic, psoroptic andchorioptic mites. For diagnosis, mites are scraped froman infected area of the host animal. Microscopicexamination is necessary for positive identification of thetype of mange present, because mites are barely visibleto the naked eye.

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All stages live only on the host animal and spread by scrotum of rams. Infested sheep may often be observedcontact between animals or with contaminated biting or licking their lower legs and feet. equipment.

SARCOPTIC MANGESarcoptic mange is rare in sheep. Adult sarcoptic mitesburrow within the skin of the host and cause severeirritation. Eggs are laid within the burrows.

Development of the mite from egg to reproductive adult Controltakes about two weeks. This form of mange occurs only Dipping or injections of the avermectins are theon the non-wooly skin. Lesions usually first appear on preferred method of treatment for mange control inthe head and face. sheep. An infestation of psoroptic mite, sheep scabies,

PSOROPTIC MANGEPsoroptic mange of sheep is also called sheep scab. It’scaused by Psoroptes ovis. It’s a notifiable andquarantin-able disease and, when suspected, should bereported immediately to regulatory officials.

Psoroptic mites don’t burrow in the skin of the host.Instead, by pricking the skin to feed, they cause serum toooze from the wounds. Accumulation of serum causesthe formation of scabs. It occurs almost exclusively onthe wooled parts of the body, where it produces large,crusted lesions. Psoroptic infestations eventually mayinvolve large areas of skin. The coat of the sheepbecomes ragged, and "tags" of wool are torn out orrubbed away by the sheep. Psoroptes ovis causessevere weakness and extensive loss of wool. In severecases, animal deaths are not uncommon.

The life cycle requires about two weeks, and theinfestation can build rapidly. Psoroptic mites occurabundantly under the scabs. Infested sheep rub andscratch because of the severe irritation, and this resultsin rapid spread of the disease to other animals.

CHORIOPTIC MANGEThis form of mange is probably the most widespread insheep in the U.S. Chorioptic mites live on the surface ofthe skin and feed on scurf and skin secretions. Althoughthe mite sometimes causes considerable irritation to thehost, the only noticeable skin lesions occur on the

It’s also known as leg or foot mange. The areas of thebody on which this mite is found are those pesteredareas of the legs, face and scrotum having no wool.Little damage results to the fleece, and little weight islost by fattening lambs.

calls for a control program supervised by state andfederal regulatory officials.

PESTS OF HORSES

Like other farm animals, horses, mules and donkeysshare some of the same pests. Those flies, mites andticks not already covered elsewhere in this study guidewill be discussed in this section.

FLIESFlies, both the bloodsucking and nuisance types, aremajor pests annoying horses. See the cattle section fora discussion of many fly pests of agricultural animals.

ControlHorse flies are harder to control than most of thebloodsucking flies. Many compounds will kill them, butbecause of the flies' intermittent feeding, they may notbe exposed to a lethal dose of pesticide.

BOT FLIESThere are three species of bot flies in the U.S. Theyare the throat bot fly, the nose bot fly, and the commonbot fly. The adult female attaches her eggs to the hairof the horse. Each species has a particular site ofpreference where the eggs are laid. When the eggshatch, the larvae enter the mouth and penetrate themucosal lining and the tongue. After a period ofdevelopment, they migrate to the stomach, where they

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Horse bot fly

attach into the stomach lining and feed. This activity about two days. Moisture provided by licking may beoften causes unthriftiness, colic, and other problems. necessary for hatching. The larvae penetrate the lips

As the larvae reach the latter stages of their moves to and attaches to the stomach and smalldevelopment, they release their attachment and are intestine in the second and early third larval stages.excreted in feces. They burrow under loose debris in the Unlike the other species, it then detaches andsoil, where they pupate and develop into adult flies. reattaches in large numbers in the rectum, very close to

Horse bots cause injury in several ways. Since themouthparts of the adult flies are non-functional, they The life cycle below of the nose bot fly is similar tocannot bite. However, the egg-laying habits of flies that of the other horse bot flies.annoy or frighten the horses and cause them to mill orrun, thus interfering with work and grazing. Because ofthis annoyance, horses may lose weight and vitality.Also, young larvae, or bots, penetrate and irritate sub-mucosal tissues of the inner lip, mouth and tongue andinduce horses to rub their mouths on hard objects,causing additional sores. Older larvae attach to the liningof the stomach and intestines, removing nutrients andcausing inflammation. Heavy infestations hinder passageof food through the alimentary canal and impair digestionof food.

COMMON HORSE BOT FLYFemale common horse bot flies may lay up to 1,000eggs. The eggs are usually attached to the hairs of theforelegs or in other places the horse can reach with itsmouth. After a five-day incubation period, heat causedby licking of the horse stimulates the eggs to hatch.Young larvae are taken into the mouth, where theyburrow into the mucous membrane of the tongue. Afterthree or four weeks there, the larvae pass to thestomach, where they attach to the lining and pass theirlives as second and third larval stages. The larvae remainin the stomach for ten months, until the following spring,when they pass out with the feces. Pupation takes placein loose soil or ground litter. The pupal period lasts fromthree to five weeks. Individual adult flies may live forabout three weeks. Larvae continue to drop from thehost over a long period of time, and flies can be foundannoying horses from late summer into early fall.

NOSE BOT FLYThe eggs of the nose bot fly, which are laid mainly in thehairs of the upper lip, require an incubation period of

and migrate into the tissue of the mouth. This species

the anus, before dropping out with the feces.

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Mange mite

WINTER TICKThe winter tick is a frequent and widespread pest ofhorses. Preferred hosts are horses, moose and elk.Young animals are especially vulnerable to attack andmay be killed by heavy infestations.

This tick is a pest in the fall, winter, and early spring. Thelarval or seed ticks, which are similar to the adults exceptfor smaller size and possessing six legs, spend thesummer in clusters on the ground.

When the cool weather of fall approaches, the larvalticks become active and seek a host. The tick remains onand feeds on the blood of the same host throughout itslife. For this reason, the winter tick is called a "one- hosttick." The mated, fully blood-engorged female tick dropsoff the host in early spring. Egg-laying takes place on theground later in the spring. For information about theRocky Mountain wood tick and the spinose ear tick,refer to the cattle section.

ControlIf ticks become attached, the simplest method ofremoving them is by a slow, steady pull that won’t breakoff the mouthparts and leave them in the wound.

An antiseptic should be applied to tick bites, the same asto other open wounds. Thorough coverage of an infestedanimal is necessary for insecticidal control of the wintertick and the Rocky Mountain wood tick. Severaldifferent insecticides are approved for this purpose.Application may be by means of spray, dip orhand-washing. For control of the spinose ear tick, dust-or oil-solution formulations must be applied directly intothe ears of infected animals.

MANGE MITESSeveral different mite species produce a contagiousdisease of the skin of various domestic animals known asmange. The type of mange -- sarcoptic mange, psoropticmange, or chorioptic mange of horses -- is named afterthe mite causing it -- Sarcoptes scabobel, Psoroptesovis and Chorioptes bovis.

Specific identification should be made by a trainedindividual.

The symptoms of the disease are quite obvious,however, and may consist of blisters and small bumpson the skin, swelling and inflammation of the skin, scabsthat consist of serum and scurf, and, in advanced cases,a dry, leathery skin condition.

Mange is highly contagious. Mange mites aretransmitted by contact with infected animals orequipment. Populations are generally greatest in thewinter, when haircoats are long and horses arecrowded together.

For a more detailed discussion about the biology andcontrol of mange mites, see the section on cattle pests.

PESTS OF SWINE

FLIESMost flies that are pests of cattle are also pests ofswine. Refer to descriptions and controlrecommendations in the cattle section.

HOG LICEThe presence of hog lice may be indicated by excessivescratching and rubbing. This causes reddening andthickening of skin and results in reduced weight,especially in young pigs. Heavy infestations may causedeath. The life cycle is the same as that of cattle lice.

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Hog louseOrder AnopluraLength, 3/8 inch

Bloodsucking pest of hogs.

Hog mange

Adult house fly and enlarged side-view of headand sponging type mouthparts

Chicken body louse. Menacanthusstramineus,female, underside.

ControlA number of sprays and dips may be used. In addition,the granular formulation of Ronnel may be used in thebedding for small pigs. Dust formulations may also beused on young and mature pigs.

HOG MANGESince mange spreads rapidly, especially in winter, treatthe entire herd when any individual shows mange.

Routine treatment will help prevent an outbreak. Such aprogram requires: treatment of pigs at weaning, sows amonth before farrowing, boars prior to the breedingseason, as well as all feeder pigs and other hogs in thefall before placing them with other hogs.

PESTS OF POULTRY

FLIESMany types of domestic flies are pests on poultryranches. The house fly is the most common problem.Some flies may transmit disease to poultry. Adults thatdisperse into the surrounding environment are anuisance to many people and may transmit human andanimal diseases.

ControlGood sanitation is important for successful fly control.Follow the recommendations in the cattle section forhouse- and stable-fly control.

LICEChewing lice infest poultry. They spend their entire lifeon the host. Louse transmission is by direct contact withinfested birds. The lice live on the host year-round, butthey are most abundant during the summer. The most

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Fowl tick or BluebugOrder AcarinaLength, ½ inch

Adult, nymph suck blood from domestic fowl,most at night; found in roost cracks during day.

Chicken miteOrder Acarina

Length, 1/30 inchUnfed nymph; adult, nymph troublesome poultry

pests; lays eggs in cracks of roosts, nests.

common and economically important louse to chickensand turkeys is the chicken body louse. It feeds on dryskin scales, feathers, scabs, and blood it gets bypuncturing soft quills near their base.

Infested birds become restless and damage themselvesby pecking at body areas. Weight gain and eggproduction may decrease.

ControlInsecticides can be applied by dusting or spraying thebird or by providing self-treatment devices, such as dustboxes.

FOWL TICKSAlthough several species of ticks may infest poultry, themost prevalent is the fowl tick. The fowl tick causesabout the same kind of damage as poultry mites. Allforms (larvae, nymphs and adults) attach to the skin,where they suck blood and cause skin irritation. Loss ofblood in chicks can be great enough to cause death.Older birds become anemic, and they lose production.

These ticks feed at night and hide in cracks in roosts,floors, walls, nests and cages during the day.

The ticks feeding may cause the birds to be restlesswhile roosting. Red spots may be seen on the skin whereticks have fed.

ControlControl is gained by cleaning the poultry houses,spraying pesticide in the poultry houses, and by sprayingor dusting the birds.

CHICKEN (RED) MITEThe most common mite in poultry is the chicken or redmite, which feeds on blood during the night and hides incracks of the house during the day. Another commonmite is the northern fowl mite, which spends all of itslife on the bird.

Infested birds develop skin irritation and anemia. If notcontrolled, dense mite populations may reduce weightgains and egg production or cause death.

Mite infestations are transferred from bird to bird. Theysometimes are a result of invasion of poultry houses bywild birds. Other means are infested feathers,poultry-handling equipment and flats; manure; andworkers’ and poultry feet.

ControlControl the chicken (red) mite by spraying pesticide intothe cracks and crevices of the poultry house. Forcontrol of northern fowl mites, spray the pesticidedirectly on the birds. Retreatment may be required foreffective control.

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Chigger Sticktight flea Order Acarina OrderSiphonaptera Length, 1/50 inch Length 1/4 inchOrange-yellow, feeds on Southern chickenfleaman and many animals; found in densemasseslives in grass and around head ofpoultry,underbrush sometimes animals;stays

on host for longperiods.

CHIGGERS AND FLEASChiggers and sticktight fleas can be a problem on turkeysand chickens that are on the ground.

ControlApply pesticides to the ground as sprays or dusts.Repeated applications may be necessary.

ANIMAL PREDATORSA variety of large and small predators can attacklivestock and poultry. Some of the more noted ones arecoyotes, skunks, weasels, foxes and others.

Livestock and poultry may be injured or killed under thefollowing conditions:

! By direct predator attack.! As a result of stampeding when frightened by a

predator.! By predator-transmitted diseases.

ControlPredator controls consist mainly of trapping, shooting,poisoning, and correct livestock and poultrymanagement. Control of some species and certaincontrol methods are regulated by state and federal laws.You must know and follow appropriate regulations. Besure you correctly identify the predator causing damage.

PESTICIDE SAFETY AND USE

The management of livestock pests is important to themodern livestock producer. Choosing the properpreventive and control practices contributes to efficientlivestock and poultry production and provideswholesome products to the consumer.

PESTICIDE TOXICITYPesticides can protect animals from pests, but they maybe toxic to the animals being treated as well as to thepests. Apply them correctly to prevent adverse effects.Animals may be sensitive to certain pesticides.

Poisoning signs usually include excessive:

! Salivation! Defecation

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! Urination formulations are for crop use only and not for use on! Muscle-twitching livestock.

DON’T treat animals that are under stress. Be carefulnot to overdose young or smaller animals. When planninga pesticide application, choose the pesticide that has theleast risk of adverse effects and that will give goodcontrol.

RESTRICTIONS/WARNINGS1. Before applying any livestock insecticide, read

the label until you completely understand it.Then follow the directions on the label.

2. Note and obey treatment-slaughter intervals foreach insecticide to avoid illegal residues.

3. For each insecticide, note and follow treatmentrestrictions concerning application on young, sickor stressed animals and poultry, or treatment inconjunction with other medications.

4. Note and follow treatment-cutoff periods.

5. Be aware that these insecticides are poisonous;they can be fatal if swallowed and harmful ifinhaled or absorbed through the skin. Avoid skincontact. Don’t contaminate food, feeds orwater. If they are spilled on skin, washimmediately with soap and water. If symptomsof poisoning develop, see a physicianimmediately.

6. Keep insecticides away from children and pets.Store in original container in locked storagearea.

INSECTICIDE USE

PRECAUTIONSInsecticides must be handled with care, because mostare toxic to humans and animals as well as to insects.When it becomes necessary to use an insecticide, youshould be read and understand the label of theappropriate formulation. Be sure the formulation isapproved for your intended use. Some insecticide

Before using the insecticide, thoroughly familiarizeyourself with safe handling procedures; symptoms ofpoisoning, if any; and what to do in case of an accident.

Apply the insecticide in a manner consistent withdirections on the insecticide label. If the compound isn’tready to use, then it must be diluted to give the correctconcentration. Prepare only as much dilute material asyou need at one time.

Observe label precautions regarding treatment ofanimals that, for reasons of health, age, condition orbreed, may be adversely affected by the treatment.Also, observe precautions concerning use in conjunctionwith other insecticides or with medications.

Observe the required time interval between treatmentand slaughter of animals. The purpose of this waitingperiod is to avoid residue levels that may exceedestablished tolerances.

INSECTICIDE FORMULATIONSSeveral different kinds of insecticides formulations areavailable. Some, such as dusts or oil solutions, are readyto use directly from the original container, while others,such as wettable powders (WP) and emulsifiableconcentrates (EC), must be diluted before application.Wettable powders are dry concentrates that areformulated with wetting agents so they will disperse inwater. Agitation of the diluted material is necessary tokeep the insecticide in suspension.Emulsifiable-concentrate insecticides also contain a highpercentage of active ingredient and must be dilutedprior to use.

PREPARATION OF CORRECTINSECTICIDE CONCENTRATIONPreparation of the correct concentration of insecticideis essential for successful control. Errors in determiningthe quantity of the insecticide concentrate that must bemixed with water or oil can result in the use of excess

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toxicant that is costly and it may also lead to toxicity or How many gallons of 11.6 percent coumaphos (1residue problems. The concentration of insecticide in lb./gal.) of emulsifiable concentrate are needed to makewettable powders or emulsifiable concentrates is 100 gallons of spray containing 0.25 percentexpressed on the label. coumaphos?

The concentration of a wettable powder expressed as a Using 1 lb. active ingredient/gal.:percentage -- for example, 25 percent malathionwettable powder. The concentration of an emulsified (100) X (0.25) X (8.3) = 2 gal.concentrate may be expressed as percent active (1) X (100)ingredient or pounds of active ingredient per gallon ofconcentrate. For example, 11.6 percent Co-Ralc ORemulsifiable concentrate contains one pound ofcoumaphos per gallon. Using 11.6 percent active ingredient:

The problem of determining the quantity of wettable 11.6% = 46.4powder or emulsifiable concentrate that will be needed 0.25% to prepare a certain volume of dilute spray or dip liquidcan be solved rather easily with the help of either a The dilution is one part 11.6 percent coumaphos in 46dilution table or a formula, as presented below. parts of finished spray or dip. This would be equivalent

FORMULASEmulsifiable concentrate: Two different formulas canbe used to determine the amount of emulsifiableconcentrate needed to prepare a spray or dip containinga given percentage of active ingredient.

In the first, the concentration is expressed as pounds ofactive ingredient per gallon. In the second, theconcentration is expressed as percent active ingredient.

Gal. % activespray X ingredient X (8.3)wanted wanted lb. activeingredient/gal. X (100)of concentrate

OR

% active ingredient in concentrate = Number of parts of finished % active ingredient wanted spray that must contain one

part of the concentrate

For example:

to 1 gallon of 11.6 percent coumaphos to 46 gallons ofwater.

Wettable powders: The following formula is used todetermine the number of pounds of wettable powderneeded to prepare a spray or dip containing a givenpercentage of active ingredient.

Gal. % activespray X ingredient X (8.3)wanted wanted (% active ingredient in WP)

For example:

How many pounds of coumaphos 25 percent wettablepowder are needed to make 100 gallons of spraycontaining 0.03% coumaphos?

(100) X (0.03) X (8.3) = 1 lb. 25

ANIMAL SYSTEMICINSECTICIDESSome of the organophosphate insecticides that are usedto control pests of beef cattle are systemically active.

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That is, they are absorbed and transported through theanimal's body by its circulatory system. Thesecompounds can be used for the control of severalinternal and external insect pests. These are not thesame as "plant-systemic" insecticides and must not beconfused with them.

METHODS OF INSECTICIDEAPPLICATION

Application techniques commonly used in the control ofseveral different pests are discussed here. More specificinformation is presented later, along with the individualpests. The purpose is to familiarize the reader withcommon application techniques and terminology.

DILUTE SPRAYThis is a common method for applying dilutedinsecticides to livestock. Liquid insecticide is applied bymeans of a livestock sprayer. The use of high pressure,about 350 pounds per square inch (p.s.i.), is important inthe use of systemic-type insecticides because wetting ofthe skin is necessary. Lower pressures of 100 p.s.i. orless may be used to control those pests where merelywetting of the haircoat is necessary. Several animalsmay be sprayed at a time by working them back andforth in a small pen.

A spray gun that permits a variable spray pattern isuseful. A narrow spray-stream may be necessary underwindy conditions or to penetrate a dense haircoat. It’simportant to calibrate the sprayer. Determine thedelivery in gallons per minute for the particular disc inthe spray gun (usually a number 4, 5 or 6) and thepressure.

The amount of spray per animal will vary with size ofanimal and thickness of haircoat due to time of year. Forthorough coverage of cattle in the winter, 1-1/2 to threegallons of spray per cow and one to two gallons per calfmay be required.

MIST SPRAYAn electric or hand-operated "mister" may be used toapply small amounts of relatively concentratedinsecticide spray to an animal. A large nozzle openingis desirable for a coarse spray that will adhere to thehaircoat of an animal. Mist applicators are also used forapplication of space sprays as discussed below.

COMPRESSED-AIR SPRAYAn easy method of spraying a few animals is with ahand-powered compressed-air sprayer. These sprayersmake little noise and don’t frighten animals.

They are also handy for spot-treatment of surfacessuch as walls and posts where flies tend to concentrate.

RESIDUAL WALL SPRAYWall sprays are applied at low pressure, such as 80p.s.i., to produce a coarse spray. The spray may beapplied to fences, ceilings, and inside and outside wallsof buildings. Usually animals should be removed frombuildings before spraying, and one should avoid sprayingfeed and water.

SPACE SPRAYS OR AEROSOLSThis is a method for quickly clearing spaces of flyinginsects. A machine is used that produces a fine, directmist or fog that remains suspended in the air for severalhours. Usually the application is most effective indoorsand must be repeated daily.

DIP VATSDipping is an excellent method for getting thoroughcoverage. Two popular types of dip vats are the swimvat and the cage vat. The dip-vat method requires arelatively large initial expenditure for construction andmaterials as well as chemicals. However, there is nofaster or more thorough way of treating large numbersof animals. Use of a community dip vat is a good wayto reduce the cost to individual ranchers.

The dip vat may be located near a convenient watersource, but care should be taken to avoid a locationwhere contamination of streams, ponds, or other watersources might occur.

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Prior to filling, a dip vat should be cleaned thoroughly. All the burlap at the rate of one gallon for each 20 linearliquid, as well as solid material on the bottom of the vat, feet. The backrubber should be recharged often to keepshould be removed and properly discarded. Check with it moist and effective.regulatory or extension personnel for current regulationsconcerning proper disposal.

The vat should be filled or charged immediately prior todipping. The volume of the vat should be figured beforecharging. This can be determined by pouring water intothe vat from a measured drum or tank, by metering thewater into the vat, or -- if the dimensions of the vat areknown -- calculating the volume.

Both emulsifiable-concentrate and wettable-powderformulations should be suspended in water in a pre-mixtank before being added to the water in the vat. If a vatis to be replenished during dipping, it’s advisable tosituate a tank or drum adjacent to the vat. It shouldempty directly into the vat. This container can also beused in preparing the initial charge.

After filling or recharging the vat, the contents should bemixed thoroughly. Also, provisions must be made formechanical agitation of the vat to insure completeresuspension of the contents after periods of non-use.Compressed air or plunger-boards may be used for thispurpose. A plunger-board is a board about 18 inchessquare with one-inch holes drilled on three- inch centers.An up-and-down plunger action with this mechanism forabout 15 minutes will sufficiently agitate the contents ofmost vats.

BACKRUBBERThe backrubber is an inexpensive and effectiveself-treatment device for cattle. It consists of a 15- to20-foot length of cable, chain, or heavy wire aroundwhich several layers of burlap are wrapped. Thebackrubber is then suspended between two posts so itsags to about 18 to 24 inches from the ground at thecenter.

The backrubber is placed in an area where cattle loaf,for example, near water or a salt lick. The selectedinsecticide should be mixed with No. 2 diesel fuel,furnace oil, or a commercial preparation, then applied to

POUR-ONThe pour-on is a quick and simple method of applyinginsecticides to cattle. The method was originallydeveloped for application of animal systemics for grubcontrol. Now it’s used with some non-systemicinsecticides also. The pour-on solution, either an oilsolution or a water emulsion, is poured evenly from acalibrated dipper along the animal's back so that none ofthe liquid drips off.

Usually, the application rate is between one-half andone ounce per hundred pounds of body weight. Somenewer formulations, designed for cattle grub or licecontrol, are applied in even smaller volumes and requirespecial application devices.

DUSTA small number of animals may be individually treatedwith insecticide dust. The dust may be applied byshaker can or other means, then worked into thehaircoat.

DUST BAGSDust bags are heavy (ten-ounce cloth) burlap sacks thatare filled with an approved insecticide dust andsuspended below backline height in outdoor areaswhere cattle are likely to pass. When an animal bumpsor rubs against the bag, a small quantity of dust siftsthrough the fabric.

Ready-made dust bags can be bought. These generallyconsist of a grommeted burlap sack with a plastic hoodto protect the bag from rain. A much less expensiveway is to buy heavy burlap sacks and insecticide dustseparately.______________________________________Stop! All pesticides can be harmful to health andthe environment if misused. Read the labelcarefully and use only as directed.______________________________________

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1. Dilution tables: To prepare a spray with a desiredpercentage of active material, only the formulation needbe known to use the table. The top figure in each boxrepresents the amount of pesticide formulation for eachgallon of water, and the bottom figure in each boxrepresents the amount of pesticide formulation for each100 gallons of water.

As an example, a 0.25 percent concentration ofcoumaphos (Co-Ral) is recommended for cattle-grubcontrol. To make a 0.25 percent spray using a 25 percentwettable powder (WP), mix eight pounds of coumaphosin 100 gallons of water. For the same percentage in onegallon of water, use 12 teaspoons.

CHOOSING A PESTICIDESince the approved use of pesticides is subject to change,only general information about commonly used pesticidesare given in this study guide.

REMEMBER:

! Before you select a pesticide, get a positiveidentification of your target pest(s).

! Before you buy the pesticide, read the label tobe sure it’s the correct chemical for yourproblem.

! Before you get to involved, be sure of yourinformation. Contact such people as the USUExtension Service or the Utah Department ofAgriculture and Food for professional advice.

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THREATENED AND WORKER PROTECTIONENDANGERED SPECIES STANDARDS

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) was passed by Congressto protect certain plants and wildlife that are in danger ofbecoming extinct. This act requires EPA to ensure that thesespecies are protected from pesticides.

Formulation of the Utah Threatened and EndangeredSpecies/Pesticides Plan is a cooperative effort betweenfederal, state, and private agencies and producers/usergroups, and is a basis for continuing future efforts to protectthreatened and endangered species from pesticides wheneverpossible. Furthermore, this plan provides agencies directionfor management policies, regulations, enforcement andimplementation of threatened and endangeredspecies/pesticide strategies.

EPA has therefore launched a major new initiative known asthe Endangered Species Labeling Project. The aim is toremove or reduce the threat to threatened and endangeredspecies from pesticide poisoning. EPA has the responsibilityto protect wildlife and the environment against hazards posedby pesticides. The ESA is administered by the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service (FWS) in the U.S. Department of Interior. TheFish and Wildlife Service will determine jeopardy tothreatened and endangered species and report to EPA. EPAand FWS will work cooperatively to ensure that there isconsistency in their responses to pesticide users and toprovide necessary information. The Utah Department ofAgriculture and Food is acting under the direction andauthority of EPA to carry out the ESA as it relates to the useof pesticides in Utah.

Maps will show the boundaries of all threatened andendangered species habitats in affected counties. The mapsidentify exactly where, in listed counties, use of activeingredients in certain pesticides is limited or prohibited.Product labels will be updated as necessary. The updatedlabels will reflect any additions or deletions to the project.Because EPA's approach to the protection of threatened andendangered species was in the proposal phase at the time thisguide was published, any and all of the above information onthreatened and endangered species is subject to change andmay not be valid.

This final rule, which was proposed in 1988 and thatsubstantially revised standards first established in 1974,affects 3.9 million people whose jobs involve exposure toagricultural pesticides used on plants; people employed onthe nation’s farms; and in forests, nurseries and greenhouses.The standard reduces pesticide risks to agricultural workersand pesticide handlers. The standard is enforceable on allpesticides with the Worker Protection Standard labeling. Theprovisions became fully enforceable in January 1995.

Agricultural workers in Utah now have a far greateropportunity to protect themselves, their families and others.These workers will know, often for the first time, when theyare working in the presence of toxic pesticides, understandthe nature of the risks these chemicals present, and get basicsafety instructions.

Among the provisions of the rule are requirements thatemployers provide handlers and workers with ample water,soap and towels for washing and decontamination and thatemergency transportation be made available in the event ofa pesticide poisoning or injury. The rule also establishesrestricted-entry intervals -- specific time periods when workerentry is restricted following pesticide application -- andrequires personal protection equipment (PPE) for allpesticides used on farms or in forests, greenhouses andnurseries. Some pesticide products already carry restricted re-entry intervals and personal protection equipmentrequirements; this rule raised the level of protection andrequirements for all products.

Other major provisions require that employers inform workersand handlers about pesticide hazards through safety training,which handlers have easy access to pesticide-label safetyinformation, and that a listing of pesticide treatments iscentrally located at the agricultural facility. Finally, handlersare prohibited from applying a pesticide in a way that couldexpose workers or other people.

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GROUNDWATERCONTAMINATION BY

PESTICIDES

Utah has implemented a comprehensive and coordinatedapproach to protect groundwater from pesticidecontamination.

Formulation of the Groundwater/Pesticide StateManagement Plan is a cooperative effort betweenfederal, state, and private agencies and producers/usergroups; it provides a basis for continuing future effortsto protect groundwater from contamination wheneverpossible. Furthermore, this plan provides agencies withdirection for management policies, regulations,enforcement and implementation of groundwaterstrategies.

While it’s recognized that the responsible and wise useof pesticides can have a positive economic impact, yielda higher quality of crops, enhance outdoor activities, andgive relief from annoying pests, the Utah Department ofAgriculture and Food is authorized by the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to enforce theprotection of groundwater from pesticides. Productlabels will be updated as necessary.

The Utah Department of Agriculture and Food, inconcert with cooperating agencies and entities,admonishes strict compliance with all pesticide labels,handling procedures and usage to protect groundwaterin the state.

Groundwater can be affected by what we do to ourland. Prevention of groundwater contamination isimportant, because once the water is polluted, it’s veryhard and costly to clean up. In some instances, it’simpossible, especially if it’s deep underground. City andurban areas especially contribute to pollution becausewater runoff that contains pesticides runs into drainagetunnels, then into a river or an underground stream thatdrains into the river. For more complete informationabout what groundwater is and where it comes from,read the study manual "Applying Pesticides Correctly."

Shallow aquifers or water tables are more susceptibleto contamination than deeper aquifers. Sandy soils allowmore pollution than clay or organic soils, because claysand organic matter absorb many of the contaminants.

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act(FIFRA), as amended, establishes a policy fordetermining the acceptability of a pesticide use or thecontinuation of that use, according to a risk/benefitassessment. As long as benefits outweigh adverseeffects, a pesticide can be registered by the EPA.Although the intent of a pesticide application is to applythe pesticide to the target or pest, part of the pesticidewill fall on the area around the target or pest. Rain orirrigation water then can pick up the part that isn’tdegraded or broken down and carry it to thegroundwater via leaching.

The major factors that influence the amount ofcontamination that can get into water are the chemicals'persistence in soil, retention time or time it remains inthe soil, the soil type, the time and frequency of theapplication(s), soil moisture, placement of the pesticide,and the ability of the chemical to persist once in theaquatic environment. Each of these factors willinfluence the amount of pesticide that can leave the rootzone or soil surface and percolate to groundwater.

Although some pesticides may have a high absorptionquality, when they are applied to sandy soil, they willstill migrate to the water table because there are no fineclay particles or organic matter to hold them. Themanagement and use of pesticides is up to the individualapplicator and/or land owner as to whether safepractices are used. Water is one of our most valuableresources; we must keep it as pure as possible.

CALIBRATION INFORMATION

Conversion: Units One acre = 43,560 square feet Example: ½ acre = 21,780 square feet One mile = 5,280 feet Example: ¼ mile = 1320 feet One gallon = 128 fluid ounces Example: ½ gallon = 64 fluid ounces One quart = 2 pints = 4 cups = 32 fluid ounces Example: 2 quarts = 64 fluid ounces One pint = 2 cups = 16 fluid ounces Example: ½ pint = 1 cup = 8 fluid ounces One tablespoon = 3 teaspoons = 0.5 fluid ounces Example: 2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce One pound = 16 ounces Example: ¼ pound = 4 ounces One gallon = 231 cubic inches Example: 2 gallons = 462 cubic inches Weight 1 ounce = 28.35 grams 16 ounces = 1 pound = 453.59 grams 1 gallon water = 8.34 pounds = 3.785 liters = 3.78 kilograms Liquid Measure 1 fluid ounce = 2 tablespoons = 29.573 milliliters 16 fluid ounces = 1 pint = 0.473 liters 2 pints = 1 quart = 0.946 liters 8 pints = 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 3.785 liters Length 1 foot = 30.48 centimeters 3 feet = 1 yard = 0.9144 meters 16 1/2 feet = 1 rod = 5.029 meters 5280 feet = 320 rods = 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers Area 1 square foot = 929.03 square centimeters 9 square feet = 1 square yard = 0.836 square meters 43560 square feet = 160 square rods = 1 acre = 0.405 hectares Speed 1.466 feet per second = 88 feet per minute = 1 mph = 1.6 kilometers per hour (kph) Volume 27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic meters 1 cubic foot = 7.5 gallons = 28.317 cubic decimeters

Area and Volume Calculations:

Area of Rectangular or Square Shapes The area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the length (L) times the width (W). (Length) x (Width) = Area Example: (100 feet) x (40 feet) = 4000 square feet

Area of Circles The area of a circle is the radius (radius = one-half the diameter), times the radius, times 3.14. (radius) x (radius) x (3.14) = Area Example: (25 feet) x (25 feet) x (3.14) = 1962.5 square feet Area of Triangular Shapes To find the area of a triangle, multiply ½ times the width of the triangle’s base, times the height of the triangle. (½) x (base width) x (height) = Area Example: (½) x (15 feet) x (10 feet) = 75 square feet Area of Irregular Shapes Irregularly shaped sites can often be reduced to a combination of rectangles, circles, and triangles. Calculate the area of each shape and add the values together to obtain the total area. Example: Calculate the area of the rectangle, triangle,

square, and one-half of a circle. Another method is to convert the site into a circle. From a center point, measure the distance to the edge of the area in 10 or more increments. Average these measurements to find the radius, then calculate the area using the formula for a circle. Example: Approximate the area by calculating the area of a similarly sized circle.

Volume of Cube and Box Shapes The volume of a cube or box is found by multiplying the length, times the width, times the height. (Length) x (Width) x (Height) = Volume Example: (100 feet) x (50 feet) x (30 feet) = 150,000 cubic feet Volume of Cylindrical Shapes The volume of a cylinder is found by calculating the area of the round end (see formula for circle) and multiplying this area times the length or height. Example: (radius) x (radius) x (3.14) = Area of Circle (Area of Circle) x (Length) = Volume of Cylinder (2 feet) x (2 feet) x (3.14) x (6 feet) = 75.36 cubic feet Sprayer Calibration Formulas: To Calculate Travel Speed in Miles Per Hour The travel speed of a sprayer is determined by measuring the time (seconds) required to travel a know distance (such as 200 feet). Insert the values in the following formula to determine the miles per hour. Distance in Feet x 60 = Miles Per Hour Time in Seconds x 88 Example: (200 feet) x (60) = 12,000 = 4.55 mph (30 seconds) x (88) 2640 To Calculate the Gallons Per Minute Applied During Broadcast Spraying The application rate in gallons per minute (GPM) for each nozzle is calculated by multiplying the gallons per acre (GPA), times the miles per hour (MPH), times the nozzle spacing in inches (W); then dividing the answer by 5940. For small adjustments in GPM sprayed, operating pressure is changed. For large adjustments in GPM sprayed, travel speed (miles per hour) is changed or nozzle size is changed. GPA x MPH x W = GPM 5940 Example: (12 GPA) x (4.5 MPH) x (24”) = 1296 = 0.22 GPM 5940 5940 To Calculate the Gallons Per Minute Applied During Band Spraying Broadcast spraying applies chemicals to the entire area. Band spraying reduces the amount of area and chemicals sprayed per acre. To use the above formulas for band sprayer applications, use the band width (measured in inches) rather than nozzle spacing for the “W” value.

Pesticide Mixing: Terminology The active ingredients of a pesticide are the chemicals in a formulation that control the target pests. The formulation is the pesticide product as sold, usually a mixture of concentrated active ingredients and an inert material. Restricted use pesticides are purchased in formulations requiring dilution prior to application. Formulations are diluted with inert substances such as water. The percentage of active ingredients in a pesticide formulation directly affects dilution and application rates. Given two pesticides, A = 50% active ingredients, B = 100% active ingredients; twice as much pesticide A formulation is required to equal pesticide B formulation. To Determine the Total Amount of Pesticide Formulation Required Per Tank To calculate the total amount of pesticide formulation needed per spray tank, multiply the recommended dilution, ounces/pints/cups/teaspoons/tablespoons/etc. of pesticide per gallon of liquid, times the total number of gallons to be mixed in the sprayer. A full or partial tank of pesticide spray may be mixed. (Dilution Per Gallon) x (Number of Gallons Mixed) = Required Amount of Pesticide Formulation Example: (3 ounces per gallon) x (75 gallons) = 225 ounces Note: 1 gallon = 128 ounces; through unit conversion 225 ounces = 1.76 gallons To Calculate the Amount of Pesticide Formulation Sprayed Per Acre The calculate the total amount of pesticide formulation sprayed per acre is determined by multiplying the quantity of formulation (ounces/pounds/pints/cups/teaspoons/tablespoons/etc.) mixed per gallon of water, times the number of gallons sprayed per acre. (Quantity of Formulation Per Gallon) x (Gallons Sprayed Per Acre) = Formulation Sprayed Per Acre Example: (1/2 pound per gallon) x (12 gallons per acre) = 6 pounds per acre To Calculate the Amount of Active Ingredients Sprayed Per Acre To calculate the total amount of active ingredients (AI) applied per acre, multiply the amount (pounds, gallons, ounces, etc) of pesticide formulation required per acre, times the percentage of active ingredients in the formulation (100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, etc.), and divide the value by 100. (Amount of Formulation Required Per Acre) x (Percentage of AI) = Active Ingredients Per Acre 100 Example: (4 pounds formulation sprayed per acre) x (75% AI) = 3 pounds of AI sprayed per acre 100 Note: 75 % = 0.75 To Calculate the Gallons of Pesticide Mixture Sprayed Per Acre The calculate the total amount of pesticide mixture sprayed per acre is determined by dividing the number of gallons sprayed by the number of acres sprayed. Gallons Sprayed = Gallons Sprayed Per Acre Acres Sprayed Example: 200 Gallons Sprayed = 20 gallons of pesticide mixture sprayed per acre 10 Acres Sprayed