33

STUDY UNIT I LEARNING THEORY APPROACH

LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this Study Unit, you should be able to: Discuss three basic learning theory approaches Explain the use of these learning theories in the educational situation Explain how you would implement these theories in the adult learning situation.

This unit will introduce you to basic learning theory approaches. You will find specific reference to three different schools of thought, namely: Skinner and behaviourism Allport's theory on holism Rogers's theory on the self concept.

Please keep in mind that only the essentials are given in the study guide - you will have to do a lot of background reading and research on your own. 1. INTRODUCTION Learning is a very necessary activity for human beings. Our survival depends on it. Many attempts have been made to give a single definition for this concept, but most researchers have found that learning can occur in many different situations and can be of various types. Most researchers have found however, that learning causes a change in behaviour: after learning has taken place, one knows something, or has acquired something, or can do something which one did not know, or did not have or could not do previously. The purpose of a learning theory is to predict and explain the relationship between learning conditions and learning outcomes. A learning theory is important for the practical classroom situation since the teacher wants to know how a student thinks and learns. To illustrate a few of the major theories, the work of Skinner, Allport and Rogers will be discussed. 2. SKINNER AND BEHAVIOURISM Around the beginning of the twentieth century behaviourism or the psychology of behaviour was developed. Behaviourists were only concerned with external behaviour and ruled out internal experiences and feelings. The Behaviourists attempted to go back to the methods of the pure science. The external behaviour of organisms were carefully studied and described on the bases of a link between a stimulus (S) and a response (R), commonly known as the "S-R bond". Many of the original experiments were carried out on animals, with the understanding that the discovered laws of behaviour and learning would be transferable to human beings as well. BF Skinner (1904), an American psychologist, is best known of the contemporary behaviourists. His theory is based on the belief that learning results in the change in observable behaviour and therefore learning is modified by conditions in the environment. Like Pavlov, Skinner's main interest has been conditioning, but his special brand is termed operant conditioning. He experimented with hungry rats which he placed in "Skinner boxes". The boxed contained levers which, when pressed, would release food pellets. The rats explored in the confined space and would usually make accidental contact with a lever. After two or more accidental lever contacts, the rat would display a dramatic change in behaviour by intentionally pressing the lever, often very quickly, to obtain food. This is an example of trial and error learning. The importance of this experiment lies in the rat's instrumental or operant" behaviour, whereby it produces its own reward or reinforcement by 'converting a productive accident into an intentional behaviour pattern. The value of studying this experiment is that it highlights many of the important features of any kind of learning or association, and introduces us to the more complex types of learning that are familiar to us. One of these has been called instrumental learning, or sometimes instrumental conditioning, because it involves learning a response that accomplished something. It is instrumental in obtaining

34

food, avoiding pain or punishment, or in achieving a goal. Sometimes the behaviour involved in instrumental learning is called "operant' behaviour because it "operates” on the environment. The rat in the box is, first of all, motivated by some drive. The drive produces general exploratory activity. In the course of such activity, a response happens to be made that is instrumental in achieving the appropriate goal. This response becomes a learned response. The "reinforcement" was obtaining food. When the rat obtains a pellet of food every time it presses the bar, Skinner refers to this as "continuous reinforcement'. In the early stages of conditioning, continuous reinforcement is needed to establish the S-R link. Perseverance becomes less when hunger is satisfied, and reinforcement can be introduced with gradually increasing intervals between each reward. 2.1 SKINNER'S THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Skinner drew several valuable conclusions about learning which had a direct bearing on the practical classroom situation: Each step of the learning process should be short and should grow out of previously learned

behaviour Learning should be regularly rewarded and carefully controlled by a schedule of continuous and

intermittent reinforcement Reward should follow quickly when the correct response appears. He called it "feedback" and

based it on the principle that motivation is enhanced when the student is informed of progress made. To ensure a high success rate, the steps in the learning process must be small and within the learner's capabilities

The learner should be given the opportunity to discover the stimulus to discriminate which path is most likely to lead to success.

Skinner's theories had far reaching implications. He believed that operant conditioning can even be used to teach thinking (by conditioning the student to develop techniques of self-management, e.g. paying attention and studying efficiently); to foster creativity (by inducing greater amounts of behaviour and reinforcing what is original); and to encourage perseverance (by systematically widening the ratios of reinforcement). 2.2 IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIOURISM ON CLASSROOM PRACTICE Although behaviourism was criticised for being too mechanistic, i.e. for not taking into account that its object of study the human child is much more that an organism who will respond (R) in a machine-like fashion to a particular stimulus (S), its contribution to education has great practical value. Behaviourism made a significant contribution towards: Establishing psychology as a science by emphasising objectivity and the measurement of

objective observable behaviour Bringing to the attention the fact that human children cannot be studied in the same way as adults

and that one is forced to concentrate on their behaviour, actions and reactions. The objective observation of children in all phases of development came about as a result of the influence of behaviourism

Emphasising the great practical use of conditioning methods - especially in so far behaviour modification is concerned. Desirable habits can be reinforced, whilst undesirable behaviour can be changed through extinction

The influencing of the environment on the individual, so that today we realise that intelligence, for example, is the product of both hereditary traits and the influence of the environment

Introducing statistical methods in human sciences to test the significance, reliability and validity of test results. Even the use of scholastic and intelligence tests in schools developed because of the influence of behaviourism

Contributing to our knowledge of the emotions of infants. The pioneering work of Watson and others on fear, love and anger in the infant need special attention

Developing one of the laws of learning (Thorndike) i. e. that a chiId, or any learner for that matter, needs to be ready for a learning task; particularly when the material to be learned is meaningful to the learner; and that pleasant learning effects are more conducive to learning that unpleasant ones

Operant conditioning, reinforcement and their impact on learning methods and techniques (compare programmed instruction) and their far reaching implications for classroom practice.

35

2.3 CONCLUSION The Behaviourists are interested in behaviour as such. Skinner and his followers held the point of view that living organisms (human and animal) tend to repeat behaviour which offered satisfaction and avoided that which did not. Positive reinforcers are stimuli which reinforce a response, and such a response is known as operant behaviour, as opposed to respondent behaviour which is usually caused by stimulus-response reflex reactions. Thus we can say that operant behaviour is a response to the environment. No particular stimulus consistently causes operant behaviour; rather, the learner responds to the environment, and these responses, if reinforced, tend to be repeated. We can then say that operant behaviour is behaviour which has been reinforced. Reinforcement through reward plays an important role in operant conditioning - not only among animals, but also in human behaviour. Operant conditioning is one of the learning systems which has been applied directly to the classroom. By presenting a series of stimuli to which the student has to respond, by reinforcing the student's response to these stimuli immediately (instead of after a time lapse) and by step-by-step reinforcement of a series of progressive steps towards the final desired behaviour, the efficiency of teaching can be improved. The essence of learning according to the behaviourist theory can be summarised as follows: A particular stimulus must be associated with a proper reaction (response) The correct reaction (response) can only be obtained by trial and error By repetition the correct reaction (response) is established By means of the pleasure-pain principle, a reaction (response) will be reinforced if followed by

pleasure and weakened when followed by discomfort, unpleasantness or pain. Rewarding the correct reaction (response) serves to strengthen it

Any normal human being can learn anything. No interest or purposefulness is required. Mechanical association of the correct reaction (response) with the stimulus is all that is required.

3. ALLPORT'S THEORY OF HOLISM The humanistic approach to human learning and development does not represent a single, organised system, but rather a movement within which a variety of systems are contained. Theorists within this school of thought share certain common assumptions which stand in direct contrast to those of the psychoanalysts and the behaviourists. They tried to fill in the gaps and deficiencies they noticed in the theories of the psycho-analysts and the behaviourists, although different theorists provided different solutions. The humanists criticised the psycho-analysts for accentuating the destructive nature in human behaviour, for depicting man as a passive creative, victim to his urges, over emphasising subconscious processes and concentrating mainly on the malfunctions of human behaviour. They also criticised the behaviourists for their elemental view of man, concentrating only on small parts of behaviour, losing sight of human totality. The experiments with animals and the comparisons drawn between man and animal as well as the passive acceptance by man of the environmental influences, were also found to be unacceptable. To the humanists man is responsible for making free choices between different possibilities at his disposal. They emphasise the fact that man is constantly in a state of development, of growth, trying to actualise his potential to become his true self. The specific characteristics of the humanistic school can be highlighted as follows: The individual as integrated totality The individual as a worthy human being The positive nature of man The conscious processes of the individual The individual as active participant in his own predisposition Accent on psychological health. Gordon Allport (1897-1967) described his theory as eclectic. The term eclectic refers to selecting the best from a variety of different concepts of methods. Allport was critical of narrow conceptions of personality and research. He also believed that new methods of study were required to capture the

36

richness and fullness of an individual's personality. He emphasised the uniqueness of the individual as well as a holistic approach to the study of man. After working on a definition on personality for some years, he finally settled for his final definition:

"Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought."

3.1 ALLPORT'S MAIN CONCEPTS To help us to understand this definition of personality more fully, we need to look at the key concepts Allport described: Dynamic organisation: This implies that personality is moving and changing. It is not static and

fixed, it is a process of forward movement. He emphasises the fact that the organisation of structure, function and development changes constantly due to forces within the individual such as motivation, habits and ideas resulting from the influences of the environment

Systems: This implies that personality is a complex of elements that interact in a meaningful way. These elements are such as habits, sentiments, traits, concepts values and behavioural systems. To Allport personality is a system within which interacting sub-systems are found

Psychophysical: The term psychophysical implies that personality combines elements of both the mind and the body

Determined: This terms has a twofold implication. Not only is one's personality structured by the past, but in turn one's personality also directs and determines the future. This means that one's personality directly influences one's behaviour. Personality not only "is something", it "does something"

Characteristic: The term characteristic implies that each individual is unique. Even the behaviours we share with others are essentially individual and peculiar to oneself

Behaviour and thought: This refers to all perceivable and non-perceivable behaviour. To summarise, it could be stated that Allport felt that the organisation of the psychophysical systems within the individual plays a regulatory, motivational role in all forms of human behaviour whether it be a reaction to environmental stimuli or as a result of spontaneous action. There is much more to be said for Allport and his theory on personality, and further reading in this area is recommended to give a total picture of his holistic approach to man. It is however important to note, that Allport stressed the concept of holism. His point of departure was that an individual functions as a totality and therefor must be studied as a totality. This means that no characteristic should be seen in isolation from others because the functioning of each characteristic is influenced by all other characteristics of a person. This further stresses the uniqueness of the individual. If two people have the same characteristic, e.g. aggression, the influence of the other characteristics within that individuals themselves would cause different ways of expressing this characteristic within the two people, thus ensuring two vastly different patterns of behaviour in the two individuals. 3.2 IMPLICATIONS OF HOLISM ON CLASSROOM PRACTICE Allport's theory differs from most other personality theories in the sense that his findings were not based on psychotherapeutic experiences, designed to be applied in psychotherapy. It is more a theory developed by an academic with experience of life and research, combined with a broad interest in healthy human behaviour. It is an attempt to explain healthy human behaviour in general rather than an attempt to explain human behaviour in a therapeutic situation. This is the reason why no specific practical application can be linked to this theory. It does however have important implications for all situations where we work with people. Emphasis is placed on the holistic approach to human functioning as well as the role of human goals which have the following implications in education: The individual must always be regarded and managed as a unique totality The goals and values of the individual must always be kept in mind Special attention must also be given to self-esteem and self-image.

37

3.3 CONCLUSION Allport places emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual, the holistic view of a person. Although he did not develop a school of followers, his theory had considerable impact in psychology, especially social psychology. His work furthermore offered a bridge between traditional academic psychology, with it's emphasis on psychometrics and dimensional studies, and clinical psychology, which concentrated more on a morphogenic approach to the understanding of personality. Allport insisted that personality is so complex that every legitimate method of study should be included in our efforts to comprehend it. He further suggested that alternative methods need to be discovered that will help to understand the uniqueness of each individual. 4. ROGERS'S THEORY OF THE SELF-CONCEPT Carl Rogers (1902-1987) began his career as a psychotherapist who used psychoanalytic techniques. It worried him that the techniques he used in therapy indicated that individuals were in constant need of therapy and help, unable to cope with their own problems. This inspired him to develop a new approach to psychotherapy which he called client-centred (non-directive) therapy. This stressed the fact that the client, rather than the therapist should be the central figure who makes interpretations and offers prescriptions. It was based on the rejection of the strict behaviourist view, since he assumed that the client would learn how to control his or her behaviour and not merely be shaped by experiences. Rogers found that he had most success when he established certain conditions. He did not attempt to put up a false front of any kind. He established a warm, positive, acceptant attitude towards his clients, and he was able to emphasise with the clients and sense their thoughts and feelings. He concluded that these conditions is the stage for successful experiences with therapy because clients became more self accepting and aware of themselves. Once individuals acquired these qualities, they were inclined and equipped to solve personal problems without seeking the aid of a therapist. In addition to functioning as a therapist, Rogers also served as a professor. As he analysed his experiences as an instructor, he concluded that the person-centered approach to therapy could be applied just as successfully to teaching. He proposed that education became learner-centred and that teachers should try to establish the same conditions as person-centred therapists. Rogers summed up the qualities of a teacher who wants to use a learner-centred approach in the following way:

TRUST: one of the requisites for a teacher who would facilitate this type of learning is a profound trust in the human organism. If we trust the capacity of the human individual for developing his own potentiality, then we permit him the opportunity to choose his own way of learning.

SINCERITY: another element of the teacher's functioning which stands out in his sincerity, his realness, his absence of facade. He can be a real person in his relationship with his students. He can be angry. He can also be sensitive and sympathetic. This means he is a person to his students.

PRAISE STUDENTS: another attitude which stands out is the praising of the student; also a praising of his feelings and opinions. EMPATHISE: still another element in the teacher's attitude in his ability to understand the student's reactions from the inside, an empathetic awareness of the way the process of education and learning seems to the student.

To Rogers the results of learner-centred teaching are similar to those of person-centred therapy: students become capable of educating themselves without the aid of teachers. Teachers should trust students and let them make many of their own decisions.

38

4.1 IMPLICATIONS OF ROGERS AND HUMANISM ON CLASSROOM PRACTICE Humanistic education is difficult to evaluate because it is made up of loosely related assumptions and techniques. Assumptions and techniques of human education that still merit consideration, even with present emphasis on subject matter mastery, include: Stress on affective as well as cognitive learning Teacher sensitivity to student feelings and needs Inviting students to think about values and attitudes (although it seems unrealistic to expect

values classification to dramatically change students' lives, as some enthusiasts claim). 4.2 CONCLUSION A student centred approach implies a radical change in the educational system the role of the teacher changes from instructor to facilitator and the idea of compulsory evaluation changes to one where the individual chooses whether his competencies are to be assessed to qualify for a specific learning task or a job. In some cases Rogers even allowed students to evaluate their own progress. The rationale behind this way of thinking is that if a student is busy with meaningful problems and work, he or she will want to grow, develop, investigate, try to master and eventually want to create. The role of the teacher will be closely linked with the development of interpersonal relationships with the students and the creating of an atmosphere in the classroom which enhances the whole process without being prescriptive. This in structured method of teaching has drawn wide criticism and created problems within an established structure, positive outcomes to this method of instruction has been achieved. This also has an effect on the discipline in the classroom. The idea of unprovisional positive acceptance has caused the almost total collapse of discipline in schools where this school of thought was accepted in its entirety. Finally it could be said that Rogers placed a lot of emphasis on the important role the self concept plays in the functioning of the individual. This also stresses the role the individual himself plays in the determining of his behaviour. Individuals are free to make their own choices and to determine their own lives. This poses certain problems in practice where norms and regulations come into play and the individual is not as free to do as he wishes. His potential could place certain restraints on his development in that he cannot develop beyond his potential. The theory is in essence one of optimism in that it stresses the possibility of dynamic changes and the individuals freedom to overcome problems from the past if placed in an atmosphere of understanding and acceptance.

Although the person-centred approach in the educational situation seems to be very idealistic, it contains certain valuable principles. The most important for education is perhaps the fact that it places the teacher as person back in the classroom something of great importance in an electronic, computerised era where the role of the educator is ever diminishing. ACTIVITY Would you use the same rewards to manipulate the behaviour (and learning) of both children and adults? If not, what would make the difference? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

39

STUDY UNIT 2

PRINCIPLES AND MODELS OF COGNITIVE LEARNING LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this Study Unit, you should be able to: Discuss two contrasting views on cognitive development Explain characteristics of a theory of instruction you use as a basis when you structure a learning

situation for adults Defend your own opinion on cognitive development in adults basing your argument on your own

experiences of adult teaching. 1. INTRODUCTION The word “cognitive" means "to know", and in this unit you will be concentrating on the theories of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner, two prominent psychologists who tried to explain how children learn about things, people, objects, etc. in the world they live in. Jean Piaget believed that the child's thinking passed through clearly defined stages which occur

with age Jerome Bruner outlined three stages of cognitive development, but in contrast to Piaget,

concerned himself with "thinking" in the practical classroom situation. 1.1 JEAN PIAGET Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist, was one of the major contributors to the theories of child learning development. He disagreed with the traditional view of maturation which stated that there was orderly, biological development from birth, through adolescence to adulthood which was unlearned and instinctive. According to Piaget, children moved through orderly stages of development:

STAGE APPROX. AGE SCHOOL PHASE

1. Sensori-motor period 0-2 years 2. Pre-operational period

(a) Pre-conceptual thought

(b) Intuitive thought

2-4 years

4-7 years

Preschool phase Preschool, jun primary Phase

3. Operational period (a) Concrete opera-

tional thought (b) Formal opera-

tional thought

7-11 years

11-15 years

Jun & Senior primary phase Senior primary, Junior and Senior secondary phases

The sensori-motor period: 0-2 years During this stage sensor-motor development takes place. The child tries to distinguish between and to understand the multitude of objects, things and actions in the world around him or her. He tends to experiment with things around him, trying out different actions to see what results he obtains. He develops his senses and tries to solve simple sensori motor problems. Each problem solving activity involves its own logic. After about 18 months, the child can infer causes from observing causes. The child also begins to invent applications of something previously learned. The stage of pre-conceptual thought: 2-4 years This stage implies concrete operation and learning by doing. The child begins to develop concepts (generalised ideas). One can call it the pre-logical stage. The stage of intuitive thinking: 4-7 years During this stage the child enters into the primary school and is introduced to more formal concepts such as number, length and mass. His perceptions still dominate his thoughts and he tends to think as he perceives. His conclusions are intuitive and are based on the appearance of objects.

40

The stage of concrete operations: 7-11 years During this primary school stage, the child learns to acquire and to utilise both verbal and numerical symbols. He gradually learns to develop categories and to recognise likeness and differences. He also becomes interested in cause and effect activities. He is now also starting to reverse processes in his mind and becomes more aware of the sequences of actions. During this stage he still needs first hand reality to solve problems. Objects and things in his world stimulates his thinking. Although he is able to think more logically during this stage, he can still only apply his thinking to concrete situations. The stage of formal operations: 12-15 years The use of concrete material has now almost disappeared. The child is now able to undertake abstract thinking, to experiment and to theorise. His or her ability to observe detail improves as well as aspects like reasoning ability and deductive reasoning. However, some people never arrive at this stage. Although Piaget's experimental approach has been criticised, some of his notations are of great significance to the teacher and the study leader: Possibly the most valuable contribution of Piaget is his detailed outline of the phases of cognitive

unfolding which occur with age There is much in Piaget's theory to suggest that we arrive at theories as a result of the need to

solve practical problems It is clear that the concrete illustration is often necessary if we are to understand an abstraction.

1.2 JEROME BRUNER Jerome Bruner (b. 1915), who was an outspoken critic of the behavioural learning view particularly its emphasis on programmed instruction, offered his alternative cognitive-developmentaI theory of learning and instruction. As a Harvard experimental psychologist, he became interested in children's cognitive development and the practical problems involved in teaching mathematical skills to children. Bruner differed from Piaget in the sense that he believed that learning situations should be structured to enable the child to learn on his own. Bruner outlined four characteristics of a theory of instruction: 1. A pre-disposition to learn: A theory of instruction must be concerned with the experiences and

contexts that will tend to make the child willing and able to learn when he enters the classroom. 2. Structure and knowledge: A theory of instruction must specify ways in which a body of

knowledge should be structured that it can be most readily grasped by the learner. 3. Sequence: A theory of instruction should specify the most effective sequences in which to

present the materials. 4. Reinforcement: A theory of instruction should specify the nature and pacing of rewards,

moving from extrinsic reward to intrinsic rewards. Bruner believes that intellectual skills are transmitted by the culture into which a child is born. He further states that the manner in which a person moves, perceives and thinks depends on the techniques and strategies which are acquired or inherited within a cultural context. (Duminy et al, 1993, p. 266). Bruner further states: "Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development". (Bruner, 1960, p.33) He believes that children can be helped to learn at the level of the most advanced kind of thinking in which they engage. A teacher can thus help a child to develop more sophisticated kinds of thought processes. According to Bruner we should teach readiness we do not have to wait for it! Contrary to this, Piaget believed that the child has to develop at his own pace and should not be subject to training for higher levels of thought. 1.2.1 Stages of development Bruner describes three stages of development and although he agrees with Piaget that there are distinct stages of cognitive growth, he does not agree that mental development proceeds in a fixed, unalterable sequence. He states that the child in the course of his development, moves from one stage to the next of the three stages in very much the same way as described by Piaget. He did however stress that all three the modes (methods of understanding and using the environment) are

41

closely related to the cultural context and the progress of the child's development at all times. He noted the following three stages of representation: 1.2.1.1 Inactive mode: representation through action This stage could be compared to Piaget's sensori motor and pre-operational stages put together. During this stage the child represents reality by doing or by motor responses. Information is basically processes by using only one response. Objects are defined in terms of actions taken towards them (e.g. a ball is to be rolled, a rattle is to be shaken etc.). An object is what one does to it (Duminy et al, 1992, p. 268). A teacher who works with a child at this level, should enhance his learning by allowing him to handle concrete objects, and to find solutions to problems themselves by manipulation of objects. 1.2.1.2 Iconic mode: representatives through imagery At this stage the child no longer has to manipulate objects. Learning is enhanced by seeing demonstrations, images or pictures. The child thinks in terms of images or pictorial representations at this stage comparable with Piaget's concrete operations. It should be kept in mind by teachers at this stage, that children at this level are not quite ready to learn efficiently by using verbal representation only. One cannot just tell them about objects alone, it should be complemented by concrete experiences. 1.2.1.3 Symbolic mode: representation through language This is the most advanced stage of development. It provides a means of going beyond what is immediately perceived in a situation. This implies that the individual can now think in terms of symbols and can think about things even though they are not even present. Because a child uses language to hypothesise and to go beyond the information given, language as an instrument of thinking plays a major part on this level. This compares to Piaget's stage of formal operations. Material can now be presented to students verbally and they can be expected to reason abstractly. According to Bruner all three modes (inactive, iconic and symbolic) are in use at this stage. 1.2.2 Bruner's views on learning It is important to note that, according to Bruner, learning involves three integrated, almost simultaneous processes or steps namely: Acquisition of new information This is a process of obtaining new information which can be used to replace or to refine something previously known. Transformation of knowledge This implies the manipulation of information to make it fit new situations. Evaluation of information This is a process of checking whether or not the acquired information has been manipulated properly. This means that a teacher can design the nature of the learning episodes of the individual pupil to fit their needs and capacities and can therefor either lengthen or shorten the time spent on a particular step or explanation. Bruner had valuable information for the teacher in the teaching-learning situation: Children at different levels of development deal with incoming information in different ways. This

has specific implications for teaching methods, techniques and approach used by the teacher A teacher has the important task of converting information into forms that fit growing minds.

(Elements that should be kept in mind are level of development, past experiences, nature of material, etc.). Teaching material must be properly sequenced

The child should be able to effectively relate one aspect of knowledge to another if knowledge is aided by the understanding of relationships

Reinforcement in learning plays a major role in Bruner's theories. This should be linked very closely to the problem solving situation

Both intrinsic motivation (e.g. success and failure) and extrinsic motivation (e.g.……..) play a major role in teaching

42

Bruner believes that the learning experience should be pleasant, stimulating and rewarding to the

child Knowledge obtained through learning by insight, is a lasting achievement and these insights can

be transferred to new and similar problem situations The learner should be encouraged to discover and explore for themselves instead of passively

receiving information by the teacher Bruner further believes that the better a subject is taught, the better the amount of transfer and

retention. 1.2.3 Conclusion The work done and the theories developed on cognitive development and learning has extended the understanding of how classroom conditions can maximise learning effectiveness. Bruner, whose views on cognitive development opened new vistas, had his eyes on the practical classroom situation and was concerned with ways and methods to help children to synthesise knowledge to develop transfer skills. He was also in favour of encouraging children to guess, allowing for mistakes and creating a relaxed classroom atmosphere to assist the child to discover. The teacher plays a very important role in this situation.

2. A BRIEF COMPARISON BETWEEN PIAGET AND BRUNER

ASPECT PIAGET BRUNER Levels of cognitive development Children pass through ordered

series of stages: Sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational.

Children pass through three stages: inactive, iconic, symbolic.

Nature of cognitive levels Each stage incorporates all previous stages: the children deal with problems at their current level.

Children use the most economical stages in their capacity necessary to accomplish the task’s demands.

How children advance to higher levels

Through an interaction of biological maturation and experience.

Through learning and discovery

Educational implications Children should be exposed to tasks that they can master at their current level and that will hasten advancement to the next stage.

Children should be encouraged to discover the world around them.

(Duminy et al: p. 273) ACTIVITY Let's see how you apply the following statements of these two educationists. Read the statement, then answer the question based on it. STATEMENT 1 According to Piaget the third and final stage of cognitive development is when the adult is able to undertake abstract thinking, to experiment and to theorise. QUESTION 1 Have all adults, from a disadvantaged environment as well, reached this final stage of intellectual development when they enter centres of adult education?__________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________

43

How would you defend your answer? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ STATEMENT 2 We learn by doing. QUESTION 2 How do you plan your lessons in order that the learners have an opportunity to learn by doing? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ STATEMENT 3 We develop theories as a result of the need to solve practical problems. QUESTION 3 Is it possible in your subject to assist your students to discover answers by solving practical problems? (instead of giving the answers to the students). Give examples. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ STATEMENT 4 Bruner believes that the learning situation should be structured in such a way that it enables the learner to learn on his or her own. QUESTION 4 Do you ever structure a learning situation for the learner whereby he can learn on his own? Give examples. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ STATEMENT 5 Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that will tend to make the learner willing and able to learn when he enters the classroom. QUESTION 5 How do you provide your learners with experiences and contexts that will make them able and willing to learn? Give examples. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

44

STATEMENT 6 A theory of instruction should specify the most effective sequences in which to present the materials. QUESTION 6 How do you plan the sequence in which to present the learning materials? Give examples. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ STATEMENT 7 A theory of leaning should specify the nature and pacing of rewards, moving from extrinsic rewards to intrinsic ones in order to make sure that reinforcement takes place. QUESTION 7 How do you provide for reinforcement in your lessons? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ STATEMENT 8 Bruner believes that children should be taught readiness to learn, Piaget believes that children should not be taught readiness the teacher should wait until the child has matured into readiness to be taught. QUESTION 8 What are your views on learners and their readiness to be taught? Do you take steps in your lessons to make sure that learners are able and ready to understand and use new information? Describe these steps. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________