Blagoje Nesic,

Faculty of Philosophy, University of Pristina

with headquarters in Kosovska Mitrovica

A LONGITUDINAL STUDY " FIELD DEPENDENCE - INDEPENDENCE" 1 AS A

DIMENSION OF STUDENTS' COGNITIVE STYLE

Abstract. The paper is a part of a wider longitudinal research in which one of the

objectives was to analyze the effects of the experimental program (algoritmisation of the cognitive

functions and logical perceptive games) on the development of "field independence" as a dimension

of cognitive style. "Field dependence - independence" is defined as a construct that describes the

tendency of the subject to use analisis in order to take the given figure out of the context in which it

has been and to set the structure where it is missing. Operationally "field-independence" is

determined through the achievement on the Group Embedded Figures Test. Subjects who scored

higher on this test are marked as "field-independent". Conversely, subjects who scored lower on

this test are marked as "field-dependent". It is expected that subjects' exercises have a significant

and lasting impact on the development of "field-independence" as a dimension of a cognitive style.

Also, it is expected that the exercise leaves a significant effect on the development of this dimension

after the end of the experimental program as well. Testing the hypothesis was conducted through

the experiment with parallel groups. There were two groups: the experimental and the control

group. Before the experiment started, both groups took part on the Group Embedded Figures Test

in equal conditions. Then,the exercise which lasted for 20 hours was performed in the experimental

group. Upon the completion of the exercise the second (final) measurement was conducted, a year

later the third (final) measurement and after four years the fourth (final) measurement was

conducted. The analyses have shown a statistically significantly better progress of the experimental

compared to the control group. By comparing the progress of the group it has been found that the

differences between the groups are of more durable nature. Finally, comparing the progress of

groups has shown some differences between the groups in the periods after the end of the exercise,

namely the a one year and a five year period. Therefore, the study has found significant, durable

and somewhat prolonged transfer effects of the experimental program on the development of "field-

independence" as a dimension of cognitive style.

Keywords: "field dependence – independence", exercise, students, transfer changes,

permanent changes transfer, extended transfer changes.

1In this paper, "field dependence - independence" refers only to the field of perception and indicates the degree to which subjectsare willing to separate perception from the field.

Introduction

Cognitive styles: definitions and different approaches

In recent years there has been a number of studies in the field of cognitive styles. More

numerous are those that focus on the definition and classification of cognitive styles than those that

investigate the importance of environmental and other factors in their development and change.

Based on the research he analyzes, Kozhevnikov (Kozhevnikov, 2007) suggests that

cognitive styles represent heuristics2 the individuals use to process information from their

environment. These heuristics can be identified at multiple levels of information processing, from

perceptual to metacognitive, and they can be grouped according to the type of regulatory functions

they perform in processes ranging from automatic data encryption to conscious cognitive data

allocation.

Cognitive style is a consistent and permanent way in which the individual learns about

the environment and acts in it, processes and uses information, and it is, to a great extent,

genetically conditioned (Stojakovic, 2000)3. Cognitive or learning style refers to consistent views,

wishes or strategies that determine a set of individual differences in the ways of perception,

memory, thinking and problem solving (Messick, 1976). Even the Epictetus said: "People are not

disturbed by things, but by the way they perceive, experience them " (according to Hussaric, 2011).

Sternberg (Sternberg, 2003) argues that the idea of the style was formally introduced by Allport in

1937, noting that the term "style" was modified several times, but that its basic sense always

indicated one's conventional approaches or ways of thinking, learning, teaching, which are over a

long period of time manifested in many activities.

Kogan (Kogan, 1971) proposed one of the most complex definitions of the concept of a

cognitive style. According to him, a cognitive style includes three categories: 1) the prominence of

visual - spatial preferences, 2) strategies for the achievement concept focused on categorization and

abstraction, and 3) individual perceptions and responses to the information from the environment.

Kogan points out that styles vary depending on the capabilities and needs of the empirical use, on

the methodological level of development of judgement and situational implications in which the

styles appear.

Grigorenko and Sternberg (Grigorenko & Sternberg, 1997) cite three reasons for

studying the cognitive styles: 1) the styles can "connect" other aspects of personality as well, 2)

they may have significant implications on the development and education, 3) they can affect the life

choices in the widest sense of the word. Summing up the different approaches on the cognitive

2Heuristics includes methods and techniques of problem solving, learning and discovery, which are based on experience.3One can hardly accept that the cognitive style is a "durable" way in which the individual meets the environment. It is closer to the

truth to say a relatively permanent way in which an individual learns about the environment.

style, they are classified into three major groups: the approach focused on personality4, the

approach focused on activity5 and the approach focused on cognitive processes.

Within the approach which focuses on cognitive processes, the approach of special

importance for this paper, Sternberg states Witkin's theory of field dependence - independence and

Kagan's reflexive - impulsive style.

Herman Witkin and collaborators (Witkin et al., 1978) defined two cognitive styles

while assessing individual differences in perception: a field-dependent and field-independent style.

They conducted a major experimental study in order to examine individual differences in perception

and to relate these differences to differences in certain personality features. Based on the results of

the research they noticed significant individual differences in perception among the subjects. What

is particularly important for our research is the fact that two groups of subjects were separated in the

experiment: the field-dependent and field-independent group. Field-dependent people are more

dependent on others, they have a greater need for external motivation, they prefer teamwork and

they are more empathic but also more perceptive of the feelings of others as well as the group

pressure. Conversely, field-independent people are more independent, tend to be intrinsically

motivated, they prefer individual work and try to achieve their goals with no regard to other people.

Although Witkin's theory wasn't widely criticized, some critics still believe that the field-dependent

cognitive style is not a cognitive style but a measure of ability or intelligence (McKenna, 1983).

McKeen supports this claim by statistically significant correlations between the scores on Group

Embedded Figures Test and standard intelligence tests. Other authors support this view of the field-

dependence or independence as an aspect of intelligence (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1997).

4Within an approach that is focused on personality, Jung proposed a theory of psychological types, according to which individuals maydiffer in attitudes (extraversion and introversion), perceptual functions (intuition and detection), and making judgments (thoughts and feelings) (Jung,1923, according to Myers & Myers, 1980). Extroversion and introversion attitudes describe one's basic attitude towards other people. Extraversioncharacterizes those people who are focused on the external activities, interested in people and the environment, and introversion describes peoplewho are more focused on themselves. When it comes to perceptual functions, the intuitive person tends to perceive stimuli as a whole and to focus onmeaning in stead of details, while a sensitive person experiences information in a realistic and accurate way. Thinking and feeling are two differentways of judgement and perception. Thinking types tend to be logical, analytical and impersonal in their judgement. Emotional people have a tendencyto be more oriented towards values and feelings in their judgement. This theory was later extended by adding the differences in the interpretation ofinformation between the judgement and perception (Myers & Myers, 1980). Perceptive people tend to be more dependent on information than on theenvironment, while those who make judgments tend to overcome the information in the environment in order to make their judgements.

Anthony Gregorc (Gregorc, 1979) in his approach proposed a division of styles based on the typical way of using space and time. Spacerefers to the perceptual categories of acquisition and expression of information. In regards to how people use space Gregorc diffentiates people withconcrete style (prefer to deal with the physical expression of information) and abstract style (deal more with metaphorical expression). In relation totime he differentiates people who perform their activities step by step (sequential style) and people who perform their activities in a random manner(random style). Combining these two dimensions, Gregorc gets a combination of four basic styles: those with concrete - sequential style, people withconcrete - random style, people with abstract - sequential style and in the end, people with the abstract - random style.

5Theories within the approach that is focused on the activities are directed mainly to the activities of people in different areas, for example.in education or in professional careers. The main type of activity in which the importance of cognitive styles is traditionally emphasized, is learning.Theories of learning styles examine the attitudes and behaviours that define our preferences in learning. The two most common theories are describedby Kolb (Kolb, 1974) and the theory of Dunn & Dunn, 1978. Kolb described four learning styles within his theory: a) convergent learning style(people prefer to use abstract concepts, actively experiment, using deductive thinking and focusing on a specific problem), b) divergent learning style(people prefer concrete experience and reflective observation; they are interested in others, tend to be imaginative and they use inductive thinking, c)assimilating learning style (people tend to be reflective observers and to use abstract terms) and d) accommodating learning style (people preferconcrete experience and experimentation, and also prefer to run the risk and dangers).

The theory of Dunn & Dunn, 1978, according to Sternberg, 2003 distinguishes 18 different learning styles divided into four maincategories: environmental, emotional, sociological and psychological learning style.

In addition to these two theories, the theory of Holland, 1973, according to Sternberg, 2003 specifies five styles that people take intoaccount when making the choice of a certain occupation: realistic, investigative, artistic, social and enterprising.

According to the speed of problem solving, Kagan (Kagan, 1966) distinguishes

reflexive and impulsive cognitive styles. People with a reflexive cognitive style think twice before

beginning a task or making a decision, while those with an impulsive cognitive style quickly offer

possible solutions, without enough thought. Operationally, reflection – impulsivity is usually

measured by latency time and errors on the relatively simple tasks as well as the speed tasks. In

particular, a reflective person will have a longer reaction time with fewer errors, while an impulsive

person will have a shorter reaction time with more errors. Unlike the people with the reflextive

cognitive style, the impulsive individuals have a minimal anxiety because of mistakes, they are

more oriented towards achieving success in a short period of time, they have low motivation to

perform the tasks and they give less attention to monitoring the stimuli.

The problem, hypotheses and research methods

Drawing on previous research, this paper as a part of a wider research analyzes the

effects of the experimental programs (algorithmization of the cognitive functions and logical -

perceptive games) on the development of "field-independence" as a dimension of a cognitive style.

In particular, the goal was to examine whether there is a transfer of thus conceived and structured

experimental program on a development of the student's style of the perception of elements in the

perceptual field, whether those changes are temporary or permanent, and finally whether the effects

of the program can be seen in the years after the program ends. The hypotheses were: 1. Some age

differences were expected in the progress of subjects of the untrained (control) group, 2. Significant

and lasting effects of the experimental program were expected in the development of "the field-

independence" as a dimension of students' cognitive styles and 3. Differences were expected

between the progress of members of the experimental and control groups in the periods after the end

of the experimental program.

The following exercises were performed in the experimental groups: a) students'

exercise in algorithms for developing the cognitive functions mechanisms and b) students' exercise

in the logical-perceptive games. The first part of the program included the development of the

following algorithms: an algorithm for making an accurate copy of a model; an algorithm for fast

and accurate retrieval of elements in the perceptual field; an algorithm for detection of relationships

in the field of perception; an algorithm for detecting elements and figures in the given pictures; an

algorithm for recognition of figures with same shape, with the same shape and size, and figures with

the same shape, size and position; an algorithm for visual memory of the contents in space and

graphic realization. The second part of the program included the following logical-perceptive

games: the classification of elements, the shape correspondence, assembling the squares, new

shapes and gap filling (Jovanovic, 1995)6 The main goal of both parts of the program was the

6This part of the program is part of a special author's publications: Thought games.

development of skills and mechanisms of cognitive functions, primarily of perception and opinion.

In addition, it can be assumed that, as part of the program some cognitive motives have been

developed, new experiences, methods and problem solving techniques have been formed. The

experimental program was performed by combining two strategies: algorithmic strategies (Landa,

1975) and Bruner's detection strategies in problem solving (Claricio et al. 1977). The anonymous

survey results showed that the experimental program was completely new for most pupils and they

themselves positively evaluated each completed exercise (Nesic, 2006).

The flow, organization, sample and survey instruments

Testing the hypothesis was conducted with an experiment with parallel groups. There

were two groups: the experimental and control group. Each group consisted of two classes of the

third grade of elementary school. Before the beginning of the experiment, both groups did the

Group Embedded Figures Test in the same conditions. Then, an exercise which lasted for 20 hours

in each class was performed in the experimental group. Upon the completion of the experimental

program a second test was conducted, a year after this the third investigation and four years after the

third test the fourth investigation was conducted.

"Field dependence-independence" as a dimension of cognitive style test was evaluated

with the Group Embedded Figures Test. These types of tasks were first applied by Gottschaldt,

K.1926, according to Kretch and Kratchfield, 1965, wishing to establish the role of experience in

perception. Gilford's version of the Group Embedded Figures Test was used in this experiment. The

task of the respondents was to find out which of the five simple figure was hiding in thirty complex

geometric compositions. The test was done in 8 minutes. The reliability coefficient calculated

according to the data obtained in the previous experiment, with the sixth grade pupils, is statistically

significant and amounts to r = 0.49 (Nesic, 1981). Control group data, in another experiment which

also preceded this study, were used to calculate the following reliability coefficient: 0.45 in the third

grade, 0.40 in the fifth and 0.46 in the seventh (Nesic, 2006).

There are different opinions in literature on what the Group Embedded Figures Test

measure. We mention a few. Witkin and collaborators believe that two ways of perception can be

recognized on the Group Embedded Figures Test. People who easily detected embedden simple

figures are labeled as "field-independent" while those who have some difficulties in detecting

simple embedded figures are labeled as "field-dependent". Bert (according to Bukovic, 1974)

pointed out that this type of tests measure the ability of simultaneous perception of a number of

elements or parts of an organized whole. This ability appears as a factor in which a "concentrative"

or "fixing" type is opposed to a "diffuse" or "fluctuating" type of perception. The two opposing

methods of perception can be observed on all mental levels. When doing the test of relations, people

with the fixing type of perception usually begin to separate the parts of a complex whole soon

discovering the ways in which the elements are connected. People with fluctuating type of

perception do not engage in any analysis of parts or their relationship. Gilford considers that tests of

embedded figures measure the factor of "flexibility of shaping" which is different from the

construct of analytical-global approach to the field. According to Kuaschev and Radovanovic

(1977) the eembedded figures tests have a factor of "adaptive flexibility". Sternberg (1997)

proposes that field dependence-independence describes the differences in intellectual abilities and

that it cannot be the basis for distinguishing between cognitive styles.

These data show that there is a disagreement over the issue of what the embedded

figures tests measure. In fact, some believe that these tests measure perceptual abilities, then

creative skills, and abilities to change the attitude in solving problems with figural content and the

like. Others, however, believe that these tests measure not only the ability but also the style of

perception, or the style of problem solving. It is our belief that there is a strong connection instead

of a sharp opposition between the perception style and the style of problem solving and perception

abilities or problem solving abilities. It is obvious that the ability to perceive, or solve a problem

depends on the way (style) of perception, or problem solving, and vice versa, the built in the style of

perception, problem solving affects the ability to perceive, or solve a problem. Therefore, it was

expected in this study to be able to significantly influence subjects' "field-independence" as a

dimension of cognitive style, measured on the Group Embedded Figures Test.

SURVEY RESULTS

Transfer changes

At the beginning of the presentation of results, there is an overview of the progress of

the control and experimental groups for the period from the 9th to the 15th year, that is, from the

third to the eighth grade (Table 1 and Graph 1).

The control group data offer a conclusion that in this period "field-independence" is

developed in natural conditions. This is confirmed by the results of testing the significance of the

progress of this group (Table 2) because all of the advances in this period are statistically

significant. The experimental group data, the group that received the program in the third grade,

show progress (Table 1 and Graph 1), which in this period are also statistically significant and

better. So, it can be said that, positive transfer effects of the experimental program occurred .

Table 1.

The arithmetic mean (M), standard deviation (m ) and standard errors (dm)of experimental and

control groups on the "Group Embedded Figures Test"

The experimental group The control groupTest Measureme

ntsM

(m )

(dm)

M (

m )

SEmbedded

Figures

First 4.2121 2.9348 0.5188 5.0909 2.1371S

Second8.3333 3.9012 0.6896 7.0606 2.7954

TThird

11.0606 4.2506 0.7514 8.8484 3.1248

FFourth

15.3636 4.3238 0.7643 12.9696 4.1229

Graph 1.

Display of the average achievements of the experimental and control groups on the

"Group Embedded Figures Test" (longitudinal cut)

Table 2.

The differences and their significance between the average progress of pupils in C-groups from

successive measurements on the "Group Embedded Figures Test"

II-Imeasure

ment

III-Imeasurement

IV-Imeasure

ment

III-IImeasurement

IV-IImeasure

ment

IV-IIImeasurement

Dm- progress difference 1,9697 3,7575 7,8787 1,7878 5,9090 4,1212Sdm – progress mistake 0,4950 0,5079 0,5860 0,6284 0,7117 0,7736t-test 3,9792 7,3981 13,4448 2,8450 8,3026 5,3273P-level of significance .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01

Table 3.

Differences and their significance between the average student progress of E-group with successivemeasurements on the "Group Embedded Figures Test"

II-Imeasurement

III-Imeasurement

IV-Imeasure

ment

III-IImesurement

IV-IImeasurement

IV-IIImeasurement

Dm-progress difference 4,1212 6,8485 11,1515 2,7273 7,0303 4,3030Sdm –progress mistake 0,8131 0,7497 0,7564 0,9299 0,9372 1,0017t-test 5,0685 9,1349 14,7428 2,9354 7,5013 4,2956p- levelof significance .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01

Transfer's "net amount" and transfer changes durability

As the previous analysis showed that both groups had significantly progressed in this

period the next step was testing the difference betweesn the progress of experimental and control

groups and the differences-difference was determined (transfer's "net amount"), Dn = 2.1515 (table

4.). Since this difference-difference is statistically significant and it is safe to say that the effect of

the experimental program is real. Also, the durability of these difference-difference was tested and

the values were obtained for two years and six years (table 4). These values are statistically

significant suggesting that not only transfer but also more durable transfer effect of the experimental

program on the development of "field-independence" as a dimension of cognitive style happened.

Table 4.

Transfer's "net amount" and transfer changes durability on the "Group Embedded Figures Test"

Transfer

Durabilitytransferchanges

(differencedifference)

(differencedifference)

program year time periodtwo years six years

Test Dn p Dnt p DntEmbedded figures 2,1515 .01 3,0910 .01 3,2740

Legend: Dn – difference difference, Dnt- durability difference-difference, p – level of significance difference-difference

"Extended" (subsequent) transfer effects on the "Group Embedded Figures Test"

The results of the test of significance of difference between the average progress7 of the

experimental and control groups of pupils who are monitored from the third through the eighth

grade on the Group Embedded Figures Test are shown in Table 5. Looking at the period of one year

after the program ended, the analysis indicates a significant improvement in the experimental group

in the following year of development as well, ie. the year when the groups were without the

experimental program. If we observe the next four-year period (V - VIII grade) there is also a better

progress of E - group, although it is not not statistically significant.

Table 5.

Transfer's "net amount" and extended transfer changes on the "Group Embedded Figures Test"

TransferExtendedtransferchanges

(differencedifference)(differencedifference)

Program year Periods without thte experimental programone year four years five

yearsTest Dn p Dnpt p Dnpt p DnptSkrivene figure 2,1515 .01 0,9394 .05 0,1818 - 1,1213

Legend: Dn - difference-difference, Dnpt - difference - the difference in the periods after the end of the program, p - level of significance of

difference-difference

But, bearing in mind that this is only a difference - a difference the so called net amount

of transfer then this is also the period when there is some progress on the Group Embedded Figures

Test, which means that the experimental program contributes to the progress of development of

7We remind the reader that the average progress of the groups was caculated according to the individual progress of each pupil.

"field-independence". If, however, the total period of five years after the end of the program is

observed, then this test shows better progress of the experimental group compared to the control

one. This result indicates a tendency of growth of differences in progress between the experimental

and control groups with the length of time after the end of the program. Based on a preliminary

analysis this experimental program left not only the a lasting transfer changes, but also the so-

called extended transfer changes.

Conclusions and explanation:

The results of the experiment with parallel groups offer at least two conclusions that

provide a response to the proposed hypotheses:

1) Pupil's exercise in the algorithms of cognitive functions, primarily perception and

opinion as well as logical-perceptive games has a significant and durable transfer effect on the

development of "field-independence" as a dimension of a cognitive style. Thus, the experimental

program focused on the development of a number of mental operations such as identification,

classification, noting the similarities and differences, comparison, and operations of analysis and

synthesis, transformations, mental rotations and such like, has shown a positive transfer effect on

the development of "field-independence" as a dimension of a perception style. After this conclusion

there is a question of psychological conditions that led to the transfer of experimental program in

the field of this cognitive style.

This question cannot be answered simply because the content of the experimental

program was, to a certain degree, heterogeneous. The first (largest) part of the program included

practicing the algorithms in perception and other cognitive functions, the other part was related

directly to practicing the visual perception and motor skills of the pupils, and the third consisted of

several logical-perceptive games given on the principles of the "discovery" method. The program is

heterogeneous in terms of content and methods of implementation, but it had a common goal - to

encourage, develop and practice some logical-psychological operations (mechanisms) primarily in

the areas of perception, and a little less in other cognitive functions8. Of the more psychological

conditions which are important components of the transfer of the experimental program that took

place in the area of this perception style the followinh can be mentioned:

a) Experimental program helped develop different skills of perception, the program

taught students to better "notice", "take care", "search for", "watch", "analyze", "observe the

similarities and subtle differences," "recognize relationships" in the perceptual field. This is

consistent with Gibson's hypothesis (Gibson J., 1975) that the development of perception is a

8Napomena: teško je razdvojiti i zasebno uvežbati pojedine saznajne funkcije. Uvežbavajući algoritme percepcije, sigurno seuvežbava pažnja, pamćenje i (najvažnije) mehanizmi uviđanja kao krucijalna operacija mišljenja. Naše vežbe su po sadržaju bile specifične(uglavnom perceptivnog tipa), ali prema osnovnom cilju - razvijati određene logičko-psihološke operacije imale su opštiji karakter.

continuous process of differentiation - perception enriches through differentiation, and not through

the accumulation of characters in memory9.

b) Exercises such as "procedures of detecting relationships between elements in the

perceptual field"; "discovery methods of figures with the same shape, position, size" and "visual

memory of contents and graphic realization", the students were trained in algorithms of solving

perceptive-graphical problems, developed some characteristics such as flexibility, ingenuity,

efficiency and speed. This very likely contributed to the fact that the members of the experimental

group did the Group Embedded Figures Test with less confusion, richer experience and practiced

methods compared to the control group. This view is in accordance with the opinion of Landa

(Landa, NL1975) on the development of perception by which people should not learn to watch in

the literal sense of the word, instead they shoud be taught the acts of separation, comparison,

classification, and also with Bruner's attitude that man in the process of classification learns to

differentiate objects from the diffuse reality and to put them in certain systems. He learns to

distinguish objects, group them in certain classes and recognize their essential relationships. In

truth, man is born with certain abilities that are expressed in the classification (Bruner, J. 1957.) of

the sensory data, but during his development he learns certain ways of grouping to classify

objects into categories that best suit his needs and interests. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume

that the pupils, while practising certain algorithms of perception, at the same time developed certain

skills of differentiation, data classification, noticing the relationships between the elements and

figures as well as the skills of grouping the elements and figures into certain classes. Exercises

developed different mechanisms of recognizing the relationships between the elements, the

discovery of new elements, identification of perceptually given and transformed elements as well as

the different skills of classification. Consequently, if all these operations and skills developed within

the experimental program, which was performed in the experimental group but not in the control

one, it can be assumed that the identified transfer in the field dependence-independence as a

perception style is a result of the effects of the experimental program.

c) Logical-perceptive games, which accounted for a quarter of the experimental

program, not only developed certain logical-psychological operations, but also influenced the

development of the internal motivation of members of the experimental groups. The games were

designed in a way to provide favorable conditions for the development of certain internal motives of

the pupils (curiosity, investigation, achievement, feeling of success ...). This was primarily achieved

because each game had a problem and the pupil was required to actively participate in solving it.

Pupils were curious not only about new games, but also about solving a larger number of tasks

9Međutim, prema Osubelu (Ausubel, P. 1978.) mehanizam diferencijacijenije nije samo značajan za percepciju nego i ostalesaznajne funkcije. U ovom eksperimentu mehanizam diferencijacije je posebno uvežbavan sledećim vežbama: vežbanje preciznosti i tačnostioznačavanja datog elementa; precizno preslikavanje uzora; vizuelno pamćenje sadržaja u prostoru i grafička realizacija; pronalaženje figira koje imajuisti oblik, položaj i veličinu.

within the same game for a certain time.

d) Given that the hours of exercise organized on the principles of the method of

"keeping" and "discovery", it is quite certain that the students of the experimental group through

these exercises and practiced two different strategies for solving tasks: a strategy of "keeping" and

"discovery" with the primary objective to develop logical-psychological operations as a significant

condition of transfers that occurred in the area of "dependency - independence from the field" as a

style of perception.

Thus, it can be concluded that the positive transfer for developing "field-ndependence"

as a dimension of a perception style was enabled, above all, by the structure of experience, that is,

psychological mechanisms and operations that were encouraged and developed as part of the

experimental program. In addition, different skills which incurred during the performance of the

experimental program, some inner motives and methods are also important conditions of a transfer

that occurred in the area of developing this dimension.

2) It was found in the experiment that the effects of this kind of program had extended

or subsequent character as well. The experimental group was significantly better not only in the

performance phase of the program, but in the following year, too, when there was no program.

Obviously, this is not just about the immediate effects, but also about the kind of effects "retained"

experimental program. How can this be explained?

It is certain that among the members of the experimental group, there was a transfer of

"retained" prestructured program. It is caused not only by the general scheme of intellectual

development of pupils (Piaget, 1978), but also by the program they had the year before.

Specifically, during the implementation of the programs certain structures were created which

interacted with the maturation changes in intellectual development and made the cognitive skills to

structure at the next age and thus make the progress of the experimental group significantly better

than the progress of the control group, in other words, they contributed to the development of

"field-independence "as a dimension of a cognitive style. This interaction is all the more realistic as

the experimental program trained the mechanisms of cognitive functions. The results of this

experiment show that in this period of development the experimental program played a somewhat

specific role. It had a positive and more lasting impact on the development of "field-independence"

but these changes also occurred in the periods after the end of the experimental program which

leads to a very bold assumption that the effects of the program are a little more than quantitative

changes.

Findings on the transfer of the "retained" program is worth the attention from the aspect

of the school (teachers') work. Often (with not enough arguments) schools are criticized that pupils

learn some of the content that they would never need. This can be partially accepted, because it is

difficult to predict whether a pupil would need certain topics from a subject later, or what skills and

abilities wpuld be developed by this program that would be the basis for success at some work or

solution of a problem in a later phase of development of that individual. Therefore, on the basis of

the results of this experiment it can be believed that a particular planned, well designed, organized

exercise and training of individuals in the early stages of pupil's development show not only the

immediate effects, but more lasting effects as well as the effects on some stage of development in

the future. This finding suggests that teachers should within their school subjects pay attention to

the development of mental operations because if they teach the pupils to learn, practice to perceive,

remember, think, study, conclude, it is quite certain that they achieved a positive transfer and thus

ensured lasting effects of the curriculum they implement in the classroom.