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SUB Hamburg
B/114272
GREENINGLOCAL
GOVERNMENT
Legal Strategies for Promoting Sustainability,Efficiency, and Fiscal Savings
•% KEITH H. HIROKAWA & PATRICIA E. SALKIN, EDITORS
Section of State andLocal Government Law
AMERICAN BA8 ASSOCIATION
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Summary of Contents
Foreword xvii
Preface xix
About the Editors xxi
About the Contributors xxiii
Part One. Greening Governmental Operations
CHAPTER ONEThe Politics of Greening Governmental Operations 3JaredLang
CHAPTER TWOGovernment Entrepreneurs: Incentivizing Sustainable Businessesas Part of Local Economic Development Strategies 19Jonathan Rosenbloom
CHAPTER THREESustainable Procurement Policies and Practices at the Stateand Local Government Level 43Danielle M. Conway
CHAPTER FOUR
The Legal Implications of Green Policies by Stateand Local Government Employers 75Rosemary Queenan
CHAPTER FIVEPaperless Government: Moving toward Sustainability 99Patricia E. Salkin and Howard F. Gross
Part Two. Creating Green Communities: Land Use Regulationsand Sustainability
CHAPTER SIXSustainable Development Codes 119ChadD. Emerson
in
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/"* iv Summary of Con tents
tX CHAPTER SEVEN
P~, Green Buildings and Building Energy Codes 135^ J.CullenHowe
^ CHAPTER EIGHTQ j Green Transportation: Roadblocks and Avenues for Promoting>__ Low-Impact Transportation Choices 159Km. David S. Silverman and Brent O. Denzin
r\ CHAPTER NINE"N̂ . Sustainable Waste Management: Tools for Resource Recovery 177f—i Art von Lehe
r\ CHAPTER TEN/-v Greening the Grid 193^ , Jessica Reinhardt
\T\ CHAPTER ELEVEN*J^ Water Quality and Local Governments: Stormwater Control*~7 and Low Impact Development 217^ Nicole C. Kibert
\T) CHAPTER TWELVEy ^ Use of Conservation Easements by Local Governments 237^H Jessica Owley
CHAPTER THIRTEENUrban Forests as Green Infrastructure 257Keith H. Hirokawa
CHAPTER FOURTEENBuilding Equity into Communities: Sustainability and Climate Justice 277LoraA.Lucero
CHAPTER FIFTEENTribes as Essential Partners in Achieving Sustainable Governance 297Elizabeth Burleson
Part Three. Litigating Green Issues
CHAPTER SIXTEEN:When Cities Sue: The Standing of Municipalities in Nuisance Litigation toCombat Climate Change 319Raymond H. Brescia
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Summary of Contents
CHAPTER SEVENTEENPreemption and Green Building Codes 337H. Lawrence Hoyt
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Ensuring Government Is Getting the Green Projects Expected 355Patricia E. Salkin and Susan Herendeen
Part Four. Case Studies
CHAPTER NINETEEN
Public, Private, and Nonprofit Collaboration in Sustainable CommunityDevelopment: The Noisette Community Master Plan, North Charleston,South Carolina 373W. Andrew Gowderjr.
CHAPTER TWENTYGreening New Orleans City Government after Katrina 385Brandon David Sousa and Colin Crawford
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
Building a Sustainable City: The Miami 21 Zoning Code 413Nancy E. Stroud
Suggestions for Further Reading. 425
Table of Cases 453Index 461
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Contents
Foreword xvii
Preface xix
About the Editors xxi
About the Contributors xxiii
Part OneGreening Governmental Operations
CHAPTER ONEThe Politics of Greening Governmental Operations 3JaredLang
Politics of Defining Green Strategies 4
Moving Green Strategies Forward 6Differences with Local Government Size 7
Local Elected Board Interactions 7Local Elected Board and Staff Interactions 10
Staff's Ability to Move Green Strategies Forward 11
Local Government and Community Interactions 12
Staffing Green Initiatives 13Conclusion 14
CHAPTER TWOGovernment Entrepreneurs: Incentivizing Sustainable Businessesas Part of Local Economic Development Strategies 19Jonathan Rosenbloom
Introduction 19Traditional Economic Development Strategies ... 20
Emerging Sustainable Businesses 23Economic Development Meeting the Needs of Sustainable Businesses 26
Why Incentivize Sustainable Businesses? 26
Local Proposals to Incentivize Sustainable Businesses 29
Conclusion 33
Vll
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/•*> viii Contents
X[T] CHAPTER THREE[Tj Sustainable Procurement Policies and Practices at the State>^ and Local Government Level 43t—^ Danielle M. Conway
'Zi? Overview of State and Local Government Procurement 43M V Sustainable Procurement at the State and Local Government Level 45h"""1 Sustainable Procurement and State and Local Government/^*S Collateral Policies 46/<-\ Creating Markets for Green Technology, Products, and Services 47
> ^ Promoting More Efficient Use of Public Resources 49
ZL* Implementation of Environmentally Preferable Purchasing Programs 50
Sustainability in the Procurement Process 52^ j Considering Sustainability during Acquisition Planning 54
r\ Reinforcing Sustainability in the Evaluation of Bids or Offers 55
^* Achieving Sustainability at Contract Award and throughout
i-j-i Administration 58
M Promot ing Future Sustainable P rocuremen t Policies a n d Pract ices
2" ^ through Leadership and Tra in ing 61y ^ Conclusion 62^ Appendix. Environmental ly Sensitive Purchas ing ProgramsD"1 by State and Territory 63
•—] CHAPTER FOUR
The Legal Impl icat ions of Green Pol ic ies by Stateand Local Government Employers 75Rosemary Queenan
Introduct ion 75
Potential Implications under the Collective Bargaining Laws 77Alternative Work Schedule Policies as Mandatory Subjects of Bargaining 77
Implementing Green Policies under Management Rights Provisions 79
Potential Legal Challenges under Title VII 80Disparate Treatment 81
Disparate Impact 81
The Business Necessity Defense 83
Compliance with State Law as a Defense 85
Privacy and Disclosure Issues Related to Telecommuting andE-Communication Policies 85Conclusion 88
CHAPTER FIVE
Paperless Government: Moving toward Sustainability 99EDk Patricia E. Salkin and Howard F. Gross
" ' Introduction 99
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Contents ix
Paperless Government: A Catalyst for Efficiency 101Legal Considerations and Electronic Records Retention 104
The Evolution of Freedom of Information Laws for Paperless Governments 106
The Legal Weight of Electronic Signatures 107Maintenance of a Dependable and Legally Compliant Security System 108Conclusion 110
Part TwoCreating Green Communities: Land Use Regulations and Sustainability
CHAPTER SIX
Sustainable Development Codes 119Chad D. Emerson
Introduction 119The Historic Practice of Regulating Building Forms 119
A Modern Renewal of Form-Based Regulations: The Seaside Code 121The Expansion of Form-Based Regulations into Municipal Ordinances 122How Form-Based Codes Promote Sustainability 124How Transect-Based Codes Promote Sustainability 126Types of Form-Based and Transect-Based Regulations That Promote
Sustainability 128
Form-Based and Transect-Based Zoning Codes and
Subdivision Regulations 128
Form-Based and Transect-Based Sign Ordinances 130
Form-Based and Transect-Based Light and Noise Ordinances 130
Form-Based and Transect-Based Tree and Landscaping Ordinances 131
Another Approach: Unified Form-Based
and Transect-Based Development Codes 132
Conclusion 133
CHAPTER SEVEN
Green Buildings and Building Energy Codes 135/. Cullen Howe
Introduction 135Green Buildings in General 136Building Energy Codes 138
Energy Policy Act of 1992 138
State Energy Codes 139
Municipal Energy Codes 140
Model Energy Codes 140
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Contents
Voluntary and Consensus-Based Building Energy and Green BuildingRating Standards 141
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) 141
EPA's Energy Star Program 144
Other Green Building Rating Systems 144
Selected Municipal Green Building Laws and Initiatives 145Public-Sector Mandates 146
Private-Sector Incentives 146
Multi-sector Mandates 148
Common Legal Obstacles to Implementing MunicipalGreen Building Legislation 149
Nondelegation 150
Antitrust 150
Conclusion 152
CHAPTER EIGHTGreen Transportation: Roadblocks and Avenues for PromotingLow-Impact Transportation Choices 159DavidS. Silverman and Brent O. Denzin
Background 159
Increased Fuel Efficiency 159
Mass Transportation 160
Limit Automobile Use: Transit-Oriented Development
and Pedestrian-Oriented Development 760Initial Steps for Implementing TOD Plans 161Zoning for TOD and POD 162
Overlay Districts 762Increased Residential Density 762Increased Commercial Density 163
Requiring Zoning Compliance with Comprehensive or "Master"Plans
for Land Use 164
Practical and Political Roadblocks and Avenues for TOD 164Barriers to TOD and POD 764Overcoming Political and Practical Barriers 765
Legal Roadblocks and Avenues for TOD 166Legal Roadblocks .....766
Specific Roadblocks Facing TOD Regulations 170Maximum Setbacks 770
Use of Overlay Districts 770
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Contents xi
Size and Footprint Caps 777Exactions (Bike Paths, Pedestrian-Oriented Improvements) 777
Working Together: Overlapping Federal, State, Regional, and Local Authority
over Transportation 172Looking Forward: Finding the Road Most Easily Traveled 172
CHAPTER NINESustainable Waste Management: Tools for Resource Recovery 177Art von Lehe
Introduction 177
Where Materials Go 178Economics of Waste Diversion 178
Environmental Implications—Greenhouse Gas Emissions 779
Disposal and/or Diversion 179
Disposal Options 779Tools for Diversion 181
Conclusion 187
CHAPTER TEN
Greening the Grid 193Jessica Reinhardt
Renewable Energy Generation 194Siting/Permitting 194
Other Tools 198
Other Considerations 207Infrastructure 202
Planning 203
Siting 204
Federal versus State Planning and Siting 207
Smart Grid 207
Conclusion 208
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Water Quality and Local Governments: Stormwater Controland Low Impact Development 217Nicole C. Kibert
Introduction 217Water Quantity 277
Water Quality 218
Storm Water Regulation 218Point Source Pollution 218
Nonpoint Source Pollution 279
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Contents xi
Size and Footprint Caps 777Exactions (Bike Paths, Pedestrian-Oriented Improvements) 777
Working Together: Overlapping Federal, State, Regional, and Local Authority
over Transportation 172Looking Forward: Finding the Road Most Easily Traveled 172
CHAPTER NINESustainable Waste Management: Tools for Resource Recovery 177Art von Lehe
Introduction 177Where Materials Go 178
Economics of Waste Diversion 178
Environmental Implications—Greenhouse Gas Emissions 779
Disposal and/or Diversion 179Disposal Options 779Tools for Diversion 181
Conclusion 187
CHAPTER TEN
Greening the Grid 193Jessica Reinhardt
Renewable Energy Generation 194Siting/Permitting 794
Other Tools 198
Other Considerations 207Infrastructure 202
Planning ; 203
Siting 204
Federal versus State Planning and Siting 207
Smart Grid 207
Conclusion 208
CHAPTER ELEVENWater Quality and Local Governments: Stormwater Controland Low Impact Development 217Nicole C. Kibert
Introduction 217
Water Quantity 277
Water Quality 218
Storm Water Regulation 218Point Source Pollution 218
Nonpoint Source Pollution 279
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xii Contents
Wet Growth 220Low Impact Development 221
Bioretention / Rain Gardens 227Green Roofs 222
Pervious Pavement 223
Case Studies 224Chicago, Illinois: Progressive Environmental Change through Creative Use
of Green Infrastructure 224
Portland, Oregon: Making Green Infrastructure a Policy Priority 226
Sarasota County, Florida: Local Government Leadership 228
Local Government and Local Regulation 230
CHAPTER TWELVEUse of Conservation Easements by Local Governments 237Jessica Owley
Introduction 237Conservation Easement Basics 238Local Governments as Conservation Easement Holders 240
How Local Governments Become Holders 240
Why Local Governments Hold Conservation Easements 247Should Local Governments Act as Holders? 242
Example: Town of Dunn 244
Example: New York City 245
Cautionary Notes for Local Governments Seeking to Hold
Conservation Easements 246
Local Governments as Landowners 248How Local Governments Become Owners of Land Burdened by
Conservation Easements 248
Example: Hogback Mountain 248
Concerns with Local Governments Holding Fee Title
to Land Encumbered by Conservation Easements 249
Local Governments as Conservation Easement Promoters 250Conclusion 251
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Urban Forests as Green Infrastructure 257Keith H. Hirokawa
Introduction: Urbanization and the Role of Urban Forests 257
Recognizing the Benefits of Trees 258Capturing the Benefits of Urban Trees through Planning and Regulation 260
Legal Considerations for Tree-Protection Authority 260
Tree-Protection Purpose 267
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Contents xiii
Urban Forest Planning 267Tree-Protection Regulations 262
Regulatory Coordination 267
Conclusion 268
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Building Equity into Communities: Sustainability and Climate Justice 277LoraA.Lucero
Introduction 277Looking Back 278
Mitigation versus Adaptation 280The Path to Climate Justice 282
The Necessary Steps 282
Conclusion 287
Appendix A. Principles of Environmental Justice, First NationalPeople of Color Environmental Leadership Summit (1991) 289Appendix B. Bali Principles of Climate Justice (2002) 291
CHAPTER FIFTEENTribes as Essential Partners in Achieving Sustainable Governance 297Elizabeth Burteson
Introduction 297Sustainable Cooperation and Indigenous Peoples 298
Water Rights and Civil Jurisdiction over Non-Indians 299
The Clean Water Act and Tribal Jurisdiction 299
Wild Rice in Wisconsin 300
Montana v. Environmental Protection Agency 302
The Right of the Pueblo to Set High Water-Quality Standards 302
Public Participation: The Means Are the Ends 304
Conclusion 307
Part ThreeLitigating Green Issues
CHAPTER SIXTEENWhen Cities Sue: The Standing of Municipalities in Nuisance Litigation toCombat Climate Change 319Raymond H. Brescia
Introduction 319The Power of Municipalities to Bring Nuisance Actions 320
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xiv Contents
Municipal Standing in Recent Nuisance Actions AddressingIllegal Firearms and Predatory Lending 321
Historical Development of Standing 327
Standing in Firearms Litigation 322
Standing in Financial Crisis-Related Litigation 324
Massachusetts v. EPA and the Use of Public Nuisance Law to Address
Climate Change 326Climate Change Litigation after Massachusetts 330Conclusion: The City as Plaintiff, the City as Landowner 332
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Preemption and Green Building Codes 337H. Lawrence Hoyt
Introduction 337Preemption of State/Local Laws/Regulations by Federal Law 338Federal Law on Energy Efficiency and the Built Environment 339
Brief Recent Federal Preemption Litigation concerning
State Environmental Regulations 340
State and Local Building Code Provisions—Energy Usage/Efficiency 344
Energy Efficiency Building Code Requirements and
Federal Law Preemption: Where "the Rubber Meets the Sill" 345
The Future of Green Building Codes: Lower Your Objectives? 352
Conclusion 352
CHAPTER EIGHTEENEnsuring Government Is Getting the Green Projects Expected 355Patricia E. Salkin and Susan Herendeen
Introduction 355Mandates and Incentives to Conserve Energy 355
Disputes over Energy Performance of Green Buildings 356
How the LEED-Certification System Drives the Debate 356
Nondelegation Doctrine 357LEED as De Facto Lawmaker 357
LEED Incorporation among Jurisdictions 358
Governments'Measure of Control over Compliance 359
Enforcement of Green Standards 359Compliance Measures across Jurisdictions 359
The Likelihood of Decertification 360
The Law's Obligation to Ensure Accountability
for Environmental Policy and Public Money 367
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Contents xv
Part FourCase Studies
CHAPTER NINETEENPublic, Private, and Nonprofit Collaboration in Sustainable CommunityDevelopment: The Noisette Community Master Plan, North Charleston, SouthCarolina 373
W. Andrew Gowderjr.
Introduction 373
The Community Development Team and Guiding Principles 376Structuring the Relationship 378
Community Involvement Model 379
Implementation 382
The Planned Development District at the Navy Yard at Noisette 382
Private Covenants and Design Guides 382
Nonprofits 383
The Rest of the Story: So Far 383
CHAPTER TWENTY
Greening New Orleans City Government after Katrina 385Brandon David Sousa and Colin Crawford
Introduction: Hopes, Dreams, and Realities after the Disaster 385The New Orleans Master Plan 386The Blossoming of Civil Society Post-Katrina 388Water Management 389Energy 392
Energy Smart New Orleans 393
Green Building 394
Solar America Cities and Other Programs 395
Recycling 396Transportation 397
A New Kind of Greenspace for New Orleans: The Lafitte Corridor Greenway 398The Corridor's Historic Roots in the City of New Orleans 399
Adaptive Reuse of the Corridor after Katrina 399
Conclusion 402
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xvi Contents
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONEBuilding a Sustainable City: The Miami 21 Zoning Code 413Nancy E. Stroud
Introduction 413The Need for the New Code 414The Process of Adoption 415Sustainability in the Miami 21 Zoning Code 417
The Principles 477Operation of the Code 479
Conclusion 422
Suggestions for Further Reading 425
Table of Cases 453
Index 467