Introduction

Different educational management models represent different ways of looking at

educational institutions. Eventhough different models offers valuable insights into the

nature of educational management, none provides a complete picture. Therefore an

educational organization cannot be described by using a single approach. In different

circumstances, different models must be applied.

The search for an all-encompassing model is simplistic, for no one model can

delineate the intricacies of decision process in complex organizations such as

universities and colleges… there is a pleasant parsimony about having a single

model that summarizes a complicated world for us. This is not bad except when

we allow our models to blind us to important features of the organization. (Balrdige

1978: 28, cited in Bush, 2003)

Subjective models became prominent in educational management as a result of the

work by Thomas Greenfield in the 1970s and 1980s. Greenfield was concerned

about several aspects of Systems theory which he regarded as the dominant model

of educational management. He argues that systems theory is “bad theory” and

criticizes its focus on the institution as a concrete reality

This assignment is will give a brief research about subjective and cultural models of

educational management and their effectiveness in modern setting through a

literature review.

1

Research objectives

As the research is based on current literature, the set of research objectives are as

follows:

1. To find out the meaning and their features of subjective and cultural models.

2. To compare the models in terms of goals, structure, environment and leadership.

3. To find out the limitations in subjective and cultural models.

Research questions

Subjective and cultural models are not defined much in literature. Therefore an attempt

will be made to answer the following questions through the literature review.

1. How are subjective and cultural models related to current educational

organizations?

2. Are subjective and cultural models effective in a modern educational

organization?

2

Literature review

Subjective model

Subjective models is explained only by an author called Tony Bush and I have tried to

put forward his views in this assignment.

Subjective models assume that organizations are the creations of the people

within them. Participants are thought to interpret situations in different ways and

these individual perceptions are derived from their background and values.

Organizations have different meanings for each of their members and exist only in

the experience of those members. (Bush, 2003:113)

Subjective model is described as a phenomenological and interactive approach

where perspectives are not identical but sufficiently close to be treated together.

Phenomenological approaches give priority to people and their actions.

Major features of subjective model

They focus on the beliefs and perceptions of individual members of organizations rather

than the institutional level or interest groups while collegial and formal models stress the

total institution and political models emphasize sub groups. “Subjective models focus on

the individual and emphasize individual perspectives” (Bush, 2003).

Subjective models are concerned with the meanings placed on events by people and

focus on the individual interpretation of behavior rather than the situations and actions

themselves. As Bush, 2003 suggests that even same events can have different

meanings for different people because of the differences in the schema that they use to

interpret their experience.

The different meanings placed on situations by the various participants are products of

their values, background and experience. “Subjective models assume that meanings

are highly personal, often subtle and subject to the values and experience of

participants” (Bush, 2003).

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He also argues that, subjective models treat structure as a product of human interaction

rather than something which is fixed or predetermined. Organizations exist to serve

human needs rather than the reverse. It moves the emphasis away from the structure

towards a consideration of behavior and process.

Subjective approaches emphasize the significance of individual purposes and deny the

existence of organizational goals. It is viewed that organizations are simply the product

of the interaction of their members and leads naturally to the assumption that

individuals, and not organizations, have objectives.

In subjective model, the environment is treated as a prime source of the meanings

placed on events by people within the organization. Individuals are thought to interpret

situations in different ways and these variations in meaning are attributed in part to the

different external influences upon participants.

Subjective models and qualitative research

Subjective models relate to a mode of research that is predominantly interpretive or

qualitative. The main aim is to seek an understanding of the ways in which individuals

create, modify and interpret the social world which they inhabit.

Main features of qualitative, interpretive, research of subjective models.

The focus is on the perceptions of the individual rather than the whole. The subjects’

individual perspective is central to qualitative research.

Interpretive research is concerned with the meanings, or interpretations placed on

events by participants. All human life is experienced and constructed from a subjective

perspective.

Research findings are interpreted using ‘grounded’ theory. Theory is emergent and

must arise from particular situations; it should be ‘grounded’ on the data generated by

the research act.

4

The limitations of subjective models

The developer of this theory, Greenfield, 1978, has faced a number of criticisms

claiming that much of the model is fueled by emotion rather than reason. People has

viewed subjective model as an ideology.

According to Bush, subjective models are strongly normative in that they reflect the

attitudes and beliefs of their supporters.

Subjective models seem to assume the existence of an organization within which

individual behavior and interpretation occur but there is no clear indication of the nature

of the organization.

Subjective theorists imply that meanings are so individual that there may be as many

interpretations as people leading to unnecessary chaos. And these meanings cluster

and make observers to generalize about the organization.

Subjective models provide few guide lines for managerial action. Leaders are expected

to acknowledge the individuals meanings placed on events by members of organization

5

Cultural models

According to Bush, 2003, cultural models assume that beliefs, values and ideology are

at the heat of organizations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value preferences which

influence how they behave and how they view the behavior of other members. These

norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are

reinforced by symbols and rituals.

Societal culture

Societal culture differs mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational culture

differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices as reflected in the recognition of

particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organizational cultures to be

deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more

enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods.

Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders

must operate. They must also contend with organizational culture, which provides

a more immediate framework for leadership action (Bush, 2003).

Central features of organizational culture

It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organizations. “Shared values,

shared beliefs, shared meaning shared understanding and shared sense making are all

different ways of describing culture. These patterns of understanding also provide a

basis for making ones own behavior sensible and meaningful” (Bush, 2003).

The cultural model focuses on the single or dominant culture in organizations but this

does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one

another. According to Bush, 2003, there may be different and competing value systems

that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture.

6

Organizational culture emphasizes the development of shared norms and meanings.

The assumption is that interaction between members of the organization, or its sub

groups, eventually leads to behavioral norms that gradually become cultural features of

the school or college.

These group norms sometimes allow the development of a mono culture in a school

with meanings shared throughout the staff called as ’the way we do things around here’.

Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are used to support

and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools are rich is such symbols as assemblies and

prize giving. Symbols are central to the process of constructing meaning.

Organizational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the

value and beliefs of the organization. These honored members typify the behaviors

associated with the culture of the institution.

7

Findings and discussion

The subjective view of leadership is a product of personal qualities and skills and not

simply an automatic outcome of official authority. There is a good relationship between

post modern leadership and subjective model.

As post modern leadership states that, language does not reflect reality and reality does

not exist because there are multiple realities. Therefore, any situation is open to multiple

interpretations. Situations must be understood at local level with particular attention to

diversity.

Subjective model has brought some important considerations when leadership is

concerned. Recognition of individual perceptions is important if the leader wants to

manage them successfully. The reason is that teachers are not simply some people

who are automated and carry out a certain outlined tasks. Rather, they have certain

skills and talents that can be used to enhance teaching and learning. Leaders need to

listen to multiple voices and develop ways to improve learning. “They have to develop a

‘power to’ not a ‘power over’ model of leadership” (Bush, 2003).

Cultural model is a valuable addition to our understanding of organizations. At this time

of globalization, application of cultural models tries to re-emphasize the significance of

context at a time which can help the organizations to maintain their values.

According to Bush, 2003, externally imposed innovations and cultures often fail because

it is out of tune with teachers who have to implement it. Therefore effective

organizational change comes with the existing culture.

The emphasis on values and symbols helps to balance the focus on structure and they

are crucial for understanding how an organization functions. Leaders tend to focus on

morals and ethics which are good for any organization.

8

Conclusion

There are certain similarities between cultural and subjective models. Subjective model

relies on meaning and values of individuals while culture is an outcome of meanings

and values of people who inhibit educational institutions.

The main difference of cultural and subjective models as indicated in Bush, 2003 is that

subjective models focus on individual meanings while culture assumes that these

coalesce to produce a distinctive whole-school or sub-unit culture.

As subjective model focuses on behavior and process and culture is the values within

an organization, they are equally important to bring about change. An effective leader

can apply the models by having good control over the participants. The most effective

leaders are those who have positional power and the personal qualities to command the

respect of colleagues (Bush, 2003).

Subjective model

Subjective models is explained only by an author called Tony Bush and I have tried to

put forward his views in this assignment.

Subjective models assume that organizations are the creations of the people

within them. Participants are thought to interpret situations in different ways and

these individual perceptions are derived from their background and values.

Organizations have different meanings for each of their members and exist only in

the experience of those members. (Bush, 2003:113)

9

Subjective model is described as a phenomenological and interactive approach

where perspectives are not identical but sufficiently close to be treated together.

Phenomenological approaches give priority to people and their actions.

Major features of subjective model

They focus on the beliefs and perceptions of individual members of organizations rather

than the institutional level or interest groups while collegial and formal models stress the

total institution and political models emphasize sub groups. “Subjective models focus on

the individual and emphasize individual perspectives” (Bush, 2003).

Subjective models are concerned with the meanings placed on events by people and

focus on the individual interpretation of behavior rather than the situations and actions

themselves. As Bush, 2003 suggests that even same events can have different

meanings for different people because of the differences in the schema that they use to

interpret their experience.

The different meanings placed on situations by the various participants are products of

their values, background and experience. “Subjective models assume that meanings

are highly personal, often subtle and subject to the values and experience of

participants” (Bush, 2003).

He also argues that, subjective models treat structure as a product of human interaction

rather than something which is fixed or predetermined. Organizations exist to serve

human needs rather than the reverse. It moves the emphasis away from the structure

towards a consideration of behavior and process.

Subjective approaches emphasize the significance of individual purposes and deny the

existence of organizational goals. It is viewed that organizations are simply the product

of the interaction of their members and leads naturally to the assumption that

individuals, and not organizations, have objectives.

In subjective model, the environment is treated as a prime source of the meanings

placed on events by people within the organization. Individuals are thought to interpret

10

situations in different ways and these variations in meaning are attributed in part to the

different external influences upon participants.

Subjective models and qualitative research

Subjective models relate to a mode of research that is predominantly interpretive or

qualitative. The main aim is to seek an understanding of the ways in which individuals

create, modify and interpret the social world which they inhabit.

Main features of qualitative, interpretive, research of subjective models.

The focus is on the perceptions of the individual rather than the whole. The subjects’

individual perspective is central to qualitative research.

Interpretive research is concerned with the meanings, or interpretations placed on

events by participants. All human life is experienced and constructed from a subjective

perspective.

Research findings are interpreted using ‘grounded’ theory. Theory is emergent and

must arise from particular situations; it should be ‘grounded’ on the data generated by

the research act.

The limitations of subjective models

The developer of this theory, Greenfield, 1978, has faced a number of criticisms

claiming that much of the model is fueled by emotion rather than reason. People has

viewed subjective model as an ideology.

According to Bush, subjective models are strongly normative in that they reflect the

attitudes and beliefs of their supporters.

Subjective models seem to assume the existence of an organization within which

individual behavior and interpretation occur but there is no clear indication of the nature

of the organization.

11

Subjective theorists imply that meanings are so individual that there may be as many

interpretations as people leading to unnecessary chaos. And these meanings cluster

and make observers to generalize about the organization.

Subjective models provide few guide lines for managerial action. Leaders are expected

to acknowledge the individuals meanings placed on events by members of organization

Cultural models

According to Bush, 2003, cultural models assume that beliefs, values and ideology are

at the heat of organizations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value preferences which

influence how they behave and how they view the behavior of other members. These

norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are

reinforced by symbols and rituals.

Societal culture

Societal culture differs mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational culture

differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices as reflected in the recognition of

12

particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organizational cultures to be

deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more

enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods.

Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders

must operate. They must also contend with organizational culture, which provides

a more immediate framework for leadership action (Bush, 2003).

Central features of organizational culture

It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organizations. “Shared values,

shared beliefs, shared meaning shared understanding and shared sense making are all

different ways of describing culture. These patterns of understanding also provide a

basis for making ones own behavior sensible and meaningful” (Bush, 2003).

The cultural model focuses on the single or dominant culture in organizations but this

does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one

another. According to Bush, 2003, there may be different and competing value systems

that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture.

Organizational culture emphasizes the development of shared norms and meanings.

The assumption is that interaction between members of the organization, or its sub

groups, eventually leads to behavioral norms that gradually become cultural features of

the school or college.

These group norms sometimes allow the development of a mono culture in a school

with meanings shared throughout the staff called as ’the way we do things around here’.

Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are used to support

and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools are rich is such symbols as assemblies and

prize giving. Symbols are central to the process of constructing meaning.

13

Organizational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the

value and beliefs of the organization. These honored members typify the behaviors

associated with the culture of the institution.

Findings and discussion

The subjective view of leadership is a product of personal qualities and skills and not

simply an automatic outcome of official authority. There is a good relationship between

post modern leadership and subjective model.

As post modern leadership states that, language does not reflect reality and reality does

not exist because there are multiple realities. Therefore, any situation is open to multiple

interpretations. Situations must be understood at local level with particular attention to

diversity.

14

Subjective model has brought some important considerations when leadership is

concerned. Recognition of individual perceptions is important if the leader wants to

manage them successfully. The reason is that teachers are not simply some people

who are automated and carry out a certain outlined tasks. Rather, they have certain

skills and talents that can be used to enhance teaching and learning. Leaders need to

listen to multiple voices and develop ways to improve learning. “They have to develop a

‘power to’ not a ‘power over’ model of leadership” (Bush, 2003).

Cultural model is a valuable addition to our understanding of organizations. At this time

of globalization, application of cultural models tries to re-emphasize the significance of

context at a time which can help the organizations to maintain their values.

According to Bush, 2003, externally imposed innovations and cultures often fail because

it is out of tune with teachers who have to implement it. Therefore effective

organizational change comes with the existing culture.

The emphasis on values and symbols helps to balance the focus on structure and they

are crucial for understanding how an organization functions. Leaders tend to focus on

morals and ethics which are good for any organization.

Conclusion

There are certain similarities between cultural and subjective models. Subjective model

relies on meaning and values of individuals while culture is an outcome of meanings

and values of people who inhibit educational institutions.

The main difference of cultural and subjective models as indicated in Bush, 2003 is that

subjective models focus on individual meanings while culture assumes that these

coalesce to produce a distinctive whole-school or sub-unit culture.

15

As subjective model focuses on behavior and process and culture is the values within

an organization, they are equally important to bring about change. An effective leader

can apply the models by having good control over the participants. The most effective

leaders are those who have positional power and the personal qualities to command the

respect of colleagues (Bush, 2003).

References

Bush, T. (2003) Theories of Educational Leadership and Management, Third Edition,

Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd, London.

Coulson, A.(1985)The managerial behaviour of Primary School Heads, Collected

Original Resources in Education, Abingdon: Carfax.

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