submitted in partial ful llment of the requirement of the...

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Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirementof the degree of Electronic Engineering from the Technic University FedericoSanta Maria

Design and Construction of an Smart

Antenna GSM 900 MHz for Marine

Applications

Thesis work

Nestor HernandezSchool of Engineering, Griffith University,

Industrial Partner: Dr. Junwei LuCentre for Wireless Monitoring and Applications, CWMA,

Griffith UniversityBrisbane, Australia

[email protected]

July 11, 2007

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Statement Of Originality

This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma inany university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains nomaterial previously published or written by another person except where duereference is made in the thesis itself.

—————————————————–Nestor Hernandez, Brisbane, Australia

—————————————————–Junwei Lu, Brisbane, Australia

Acknowledgment

The author would like to thank to the Dr. Junwei Lu for the opportunity gaveme, to investigate and obtain more knowledge in this Area. Also I would liketo thanks to the Dr. David Thiel, Dr. David Rowlands Dr. Steven O’kefe, Dr.Denis Sweatman and David Ireland for their advices.

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This work is dedicated to the beautiful souls that have supported me during thiswonderful journey; My Parents, My Spouse and our coming Son.

Contents

1 Introduction 121.1 Project Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.2 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.3 Problem Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.4 Wider professional issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.4.1 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.5 Smart antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.6 Marine Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.6.1 Fixed Wireless Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.7 GSM - Global system for mobile Communications . . . . . . . . 15

2 Antenna System 182.1 Introducction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.2 Antenna Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.3 3 Beam / 13 Elements ESMB Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.3.1 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202.4 Simulation Software. NEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.4.1 Antenna Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.4.2 Ground Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.4.3 Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.4.4 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.4.5 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.5 Design A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242.5.1 Results Simulation A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.6 Design B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.6.1 Results Simulation B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.7 Real Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3 RF System 343.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343.2 RF Characteristics GSM 900 MHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.3.1 Directional Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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CONTENTS 4

3.3.2 Ultra Low Noise Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363.3.3 Pass Band Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.3.4 Amplifier 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.3.5 Variable Gain Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.3.6 RF Power Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.3.7 Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.3.8 Power Splitter/Combiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.3.9 Termination SMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.4 Power Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413.5 PCB Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.5.1 Microstrip Transmsion Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.5.2 Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453.5.3 Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453.5.4 RF module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453.5.5 Splitter/Combiner Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4 Control System 484.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484.2 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484.3 High Level Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504.4 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.4.1 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514.4.2 Amplifier Control Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514.4.3 Switch Control Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524.4.4 Microcontroller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4.5 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5 Verification and Validation of the Project 565.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565.2 Antenna Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

5.2.1 Reflection Coefficient S11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565.2.2 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575.2.3 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585.2.4 Radiation Pattern Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615.2.5 Beam-width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

5.3 RF System Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.3.1 RF Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.3.2 RF Detector Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.3.3 Splitter/Combiner Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675.3.4 RF System Complete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

5.4 Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705.4.1 ADC Module and Comparator Test . . . . . . . . . . . . 705.4.2 Switching Latency Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5.5 Complete System Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

CONTENTS 5

5.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

6 General Comments 736.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736.2 Future Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Bibliography 74

Appendices 76

A Code NEC 77

B Schematic of the RF module 83

C Schematic of the Splitter/Combiner module 85

D PCB layout of the ”RF” module 86

E PCB layout of the Splitter/Combiner” module 87

F Devices Values 88

G Control System Schematic 89

H Datasheets RF System 91

I Datasheets Control System 93

J Code control.c 95

K Cost of the project 101

L Planning Report 103

M Milestone Reports 117

List of Figures

1.1 Smart antenna diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.2 Time Division Multiplexing Access/Frequency Multiple Access

system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.3 Function of the bits of a normal transmission burst. . . . . . . . 161.4 The alignment of times slots in the uplink and downlink. . . . . . 17

2.1 Diagram of the 13 element ESMB antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . 202.2 Performance graph of the ESMB antenna with different number

of cross arms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202.3 Model of the ESMB antenna with 4NEC2 software. . . . . . . . . 222.4 Azimuth and elevation coordinate system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232.5 Plot of the gain, SWR and Front back ratio for each antenna

model with different number of arms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.6 Radiation pattern in dBi of the design A, at the center frequency

of the GSM band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262.7 Radiation pattern in dBi of the design A, at the maximum gain

over GSM band at the 945 Mhz ”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272.8 3D radiation pattern of the model A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.9 Standing Wave Ratio and Reflection Coefficient of the design A,

in the GSM band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.10 Azimuthal radiation pattern in dBi of the design B. . . . . . . . 302.11 3D radiation pattern of the model B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302.12 Standing Wave Ratio and Reflection Coefficient of the design B,

in the GSM band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.13 Radiation pattern of the multi beam antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . 322.14 Diagram of the 13 element ESMB antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.1 Schematic of the RF system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353.2 Operating circuit recommended by the manufacturer. . . . . . . 363.3 Frequency response of the band pass filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.4 Response of the variable Gain amplifier, with the analog control

signal VCNTL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.5 In Detector Mode (RSSI), OUTA/OUTB is a DC Voltage Pro-

portional to the Input Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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LIST OF FIGURES 7

3.6 Response of the RF detector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.7 Schematic of the switch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.8 Switch control voltages values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.9 Recommended configuration for the splitter/combiner. . . . . . 413.10 Power budget of the RF system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.11 Power budget of the Main Line, and the RF power detector line. 423.12 Maximum input power of the RF devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433.13 Modules of the smart antenna system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.14 View of a micro strip line. h is the thick of the dielectric material,

w is the width of the conductor, and t is the thickness of theconductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.15 Screenshot of the Java applet, MWIJ, used to find the width ofthe RF tracks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.1 Schematic of the input and output of the Control system. . . . . 494.2 Input value’s range of the internal ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494.3 Schematic of the switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504.4 Gain response of the amplifier 3, with the analog control signal

Vcntl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514.5 Flowchart diagram of the program for the control of the Smart

antenna’s beam direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524.6 +-5 V power supply circuit used in the Control system. . . . . . 534.7 Schematic of the gain amplifier control circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 534.8 Schematic of the gain amplifier control circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 544.9 Stamp AVR Atmega 128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.1 Photo of the 3 Beam / 13 elements antenna array. . . . . . . . . 575.2 Reflection coefficient graph of the driven 1, with the driven 2 and

3 connected to a 50 Ω Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585.3 Reflection coefficient graph of the driven 2, with the driven 1 and

3 connected to a 50 Ω Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595.4 Reflection coefficient graph of the driven 3, with the driven 1 and

2 connected to a 50 Ω Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605.5 Anechoic chamber, where were carry out the measurement of the

Radiation pattern, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615.6 Real radiation pattern of the three beam directions in the az-

imuthal plane, 0elevation angle, of the antenna array. . . . . . . 625.7 Comparison plot of the real and simulated radiation pattern, az-

imuthal plane, 0elevation angle, of the antenna array. . . . . . . 645.8 Real radiation pattern of the elevation plane of the antenna array. 655.9 Comparison plot of the real and simulated radiation patterns,

elevation plane of the antenna array. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655.10 Photo of the RF module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.11 Image of the Splitter/Combinner module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685.12 Detail photo of the defects in the construction of the Splitter/Combinner

module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

LIST OF FIGURES 8

5.13 Schematic of the ADC and comparator test module. . . . . . . . 705.14 Response time of the RF switch control signal. . . . . . . . . . . 71

F.1 Values of the electronic devices used in the PCB design. . . . . . 88

List of Tables

2.1 Requirements of the ESMB antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.2 Element’s dimension of the ESMB antenna design A, proposed

by the S.L. Preston, J.W. Lu and D.Thiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242.3 Variables in the optimization of the ESMB antenna design with

the limit values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.4 Variables in the optimization of the ESMB antenna design, using

λ=32.4 [cm]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.5 Requirements of the ESMB antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1 Specifications of the directional coupler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363.2 Details about the Board FR-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453.3 Voltage supply for the RF system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.1 Micro controller signals, Control signals of the switch and thestate of the RF switch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.1 Measurement of the reflection coefficient of the ESMB antennain the central frequency 925 MHz and for the Resonant Frequency. 57

5.2 Measured Bandwidth of the ESMB antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . 575.3 Obtained values for the 3 beam/ 13 elements antenna gain mea-

surement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605.4 Comparison table of the real beam width and simulated beam

width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635.5 Measurement of the reflection coefficient , and insertion loss of

the RF module, with the switch in ON and OFF state. . . . . . . 675.6 Measurement of the Reflection coefficient and Insertion loss of

the Splitter/Combiner module, between the ports 1,2,3 with theSum port. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.7 Measurement of the Insolation of the Splitter/Combiner module,between the ports 1-2 and 1-3 with the sum port terminated to50 Ω. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5.8 Measurement of the Insertion loss of the RF system. . . . . . . . 69

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LIST OF TABLES 10

Abstract

GSM communications are continuously improving their coverage, performanceand accessibility. These characteristics give it the potential to use this technol-ogy for other applications, such as communications between marine vessels andthe coast. This project addresses the need to create a ESMB Antenna for theGSM 900 MHz band for marine applications. The antenna will be mounted onthe boat. As the boat changes direction, the orientation of the antenna beamhas to change to maintain the link to the base station on the coast. This an-tenna has three possible active beams, which all together covers communicationin 360. The requirements were to design and construct a prototype of 13 ele-ments ESMB antenna, with 3 beams directions, 6 dB of gain and with a beamwidth bigger than 120, for cellular comunications in the GSM 900 MHz band.

The main advantages of this project are; Increase of coverage and transmis-sion distance for the cellular communications, decrease the transmitted power,improves of link quality, eliminates the uses of booster (RF Amplifiers) andreduce the cost of marine communications.

The model is following described: the system automatically detects signalstrength from the three directions. Selects the strongest signal and switches theRF transceiver from one beam to another as the ship changes the position.

An array of 13 elements configured like 3 Yagi-Uda Antenna with a cornerreflector, was designed to satisfy the requirements. The model has 3 possiblebeam directions. The simulated and optimized values with the software 4NEC2,gave a gain value of 9.5 dB and the beam width of the each sector was 140.This antenna was optimized using genetic algorithms, with a cost function thatmaximized the Gain in the end of the beam width ( 60 azimuthal plane) andminimized the Reflection Coefficient, for the frequency band between 890 MHzand 925 MHz.

This RF system is in charge to measure the reception signal from each beamdirection and allow communication between the RF transceiver and the antennain order to have the best position to communicate with the Base Station. Thesolution includes a RF module for each antenna, that uses a directional couplerto provided some signal power proportional to the receiver signal. This mod-ule was constructed with microstrip transmission lines theory and with surfacemount technology

The control system is used to compare the RF power level received from eachbeam pattern and obtain the beam direction where arrives strongest signal, thenswitches the beam direction of the antenna to the RF Terminal. This processis performed with a micro controller AVR ATMega 128.

This document explains the theory behind the idea, the designs and theresults of this IAP project.

The requirements made for the antenna design were not satisfy completely,although optimization with GA of the ESMB antenna was successful, improvingthe gain to 9.6 dB using the software 4NEC2. The reflection coefficient gavegood results, less than -11 dB, with a band width that covers the GSM 900 MHzband from 890 MHz to 960 MHz . Also the obtained gain was over the 6 dBi,

LIST OF TABLES 11

however the radiation pattern in the azimuthal plane, 0elevation angle, suffereda decreasing in the beam width from 140to 70, this results are produced by adecreasing of the radiation pattern in the elevation angle.

The RF system were not completely satisfied, because of the high insertionloss, produced by manufactured mistakes and lack of technology in the electronicworkshop with the mounting process of the devices. Also the RF power detectordid not work, for the same reason previous explained. Anyhow the switchingsystem works.

The Control module works perfectly, comparing the values and controllingthe RF switches. Also the variable gain controller fulfill the requirements.

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Project Stakeholders

The present thesis was realized in the Griffith University, School of Engineeringon the Nathan Campus, with the following team.Student detailsStudent name: Nestor HernandezStudent Number: s2612872E-mail: [email protected] number: 61-04-20756717

Industry partnerCompany name: Centre of Wireless Monitoring and Applications, Griffith Uni-versityCompany contact: Dr. Junwei LuE-mail: [email protected] number: 61-7-373 55118

Academic supervisorName: Dr. David RowlandsE-mail: [email protected] number: 61-7-373 55383

1.2 Problem Definition

In Australia obtain a commercial boat is relativity simple and cheap, this createa large quantity of users that need a cheap communication system for theirmarine vessels.

The marine communications are always been evolved in researches and de-velopment by the Navy for military issues, using some actual methods like UHF

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 13

communications and Satellite communications, However there is one possibiitythat has not been fully developed, use the cellular network in marine applica-tions.

The cellular communications are shortly been used for marine applications,with the inclusion of fixed terminals, mechanical rotational directives antennas,etc.,the main problem is the short distance of the link. This limitation canbe enhance changing the normal omnidirectional antennas used in the marinevessel for a directional antenna that always be aiming to the base station in thecoast.

Summarizing the main problem is the needs of design and construct anantenna that maintain the beam direction to the coast while the boat changesthe orientation and position.

1.3 Problem Solution

The explained problem can be solved using an smart antenna system for thecellular communication. This antenna changes constantly the beam direction tothe base station in the coast. This process is done with three different modules,Antenna system , RF system and Control system as is shown in the Figure 1.1.

GSM Base stationin the Coast.

GSM Base stationin the Coast.

CommunicationTerminal

RF System

ControlSystem

AntennaDirectionSelector

RF Receiver

Figure 1.1: Smart antenna diagram.

The system is constantly measuring with the RF system the power of thereceived signal from each antenna beam (Downlink path 935 MHz 960 MHz).Then the control system detects from where comes the strongest signal and thenswitch on the RF transceiver to this new beam direction of the antenna.

The antenna system is an Electronic Switched Multiple Beam Antenna .array of 13 elements, this antenna create three independent beam that covers


the horizontal plane in 360, this gives the capacity to the antenna to switch onone beam to another maintaining the communication with the base station.

The RF module takes a portion of the receiver signal and detects the powerof that signals. Also allows the communication between the RF transceiver andthe selected beam direction of the antenna. Also using a directional coupler, it

1.4 Wider professional issues

This project is novel idea given by the Dr. Junwei Lu, in the area of the marinecommunications, and a pioneer development by the student in this area.

This project gives important advances to the marine communication systems,because currently does not exist any product like this.

1.4.1 Advantages

• Increase of coverage: The energy supplied to the antenna will be transmit-ted only to one direction, this concentrate the power just in one zone. Alsothe antenna is directive, these give to the system the feature to increasethe distance between the marine vehicle and the base station.

• Decrease of transmitted power : ESMB antenna uses the third part of thepower required by the omni-directional antennas system used in the ships.This involves the reduction of the cost of the amplifiers, an essential partof the wireless communication system.

• Improvement of link quality : by increasing the signal power and/or de-creasing interference power, the system can also increase the transmissionquality on each single link.

• Elimination of booster : Australian Communication and Media Authority(ACMA) prohibits the use of booster ( amplifiers ) for cellular communi-cations, this due the receiver system of the base station are very sensitive,and this booster introduce noise in the channel and could damage thereceptors.

• Reduce the cost of communications: GSM Communications are 5 timescheaper than satellite communications, also the equipment to communi-cate with the satellite is considerable more expensive.

1.5 Smart antennas

Since 1990s, there has been enormous interest in multi antenna systems. Asspectrum became a more and more precious resources, smart antenna systemsoffer such possibility.

A switched-beam antenna is an antenna array that can form a small set ofpatterns, i.e., beams pointing in certain discrete directions.


1.6 Marine Communications

Using the mobile network to communicate whilst out on the water is significantlycheaper than using satellite to keep in touch most of the time it is one fifth ofthe price of satellite.

GSM hardware for voice, fax and data communication are in a marine envi-ronment.

1.6.1 Fixed Wireless Terminals

Fixed Wireless Terminals (FWTs) are a solution for clear and reliable phonereception via the GSM mobile network whilst on board any marine vessel. Al-though calls are being sent over the mobile network, call quality is identical toa fixed line telephone call.

This equipment also provides Internet and Fax.

1.7 GSM - Global system for mobile Communi-cations

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is an open, digital cellulartechnology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.

GSM uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) as a modulation format.GSMK is a variant of Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) the difference is that thedata sequence is passed through a filter with a Gaussian impulse response (timebandwidth product BGT=0.3)

GSM employs a combined FDMA/TDMA approach which further combineswith FDD, this acronyms are following presented.

Frequency Division Duplex(FDD). The frequencies from 890 to 915 MHzand from 935 to 960 MHz are available. The lower band is used for the uplink(connection from the Mobile Station to the Base station). The upper bandis used for the downlink. The frequency spacing between the uplink and thedownlink for any given connection is 45 MHz.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). The Frequency band is par-titioned into 200 KHz grid. The outer 100 KHz of each 25 MHz band are notused, as they are guard bands to limit inteference in the adjoined spectrum,which is used by other system. The remaining 124 200 KHz sub bands arenumbered consecutively by the so-called Absolute Radio Frequency ChannelNumbers (ARFCNs).

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). Due to the very-bandwidth-effiiecntmodulation technique (GSMK), each 200 kHz sub band support a data rate of271 Kbit/s. Each sub band is shared by eight users. The time axis is partitionedinto time slots, which are periodically available to each of the possible eight users(see Figure 1.2). Each time slot is 576.92 µ s long, which is equivalent to 156.25bits. A set of eight time slots is called a frame; it has a duration of 4.615 ms.Within each frame the time slot are numbered from 0 to 7. Each subscribe


periodically accesses one specific time slot in every frame on one frequency subband. The combination of time slot number and frequency band is called thephysical channel.

Figure 1.2: Time Division Multiplexing Access/Frequency Multiple Access sys-tem.

The assignment of time slots in the uplink and downlink. A subscriber uti-lizes the time slots with the same number (index) in the uplink and downlink.However, numbering in the uplink is shifted by three slots relative to the num-bering in the downlink. This facilitates the design of the transmitter/receiver,because reception and transmission do not occur at the same time, see Figure1.3.

Figure 1.3: Function of the bits of a normal transmission burst.

Structure of a time slot. Figure 1.4 illustrates the data contained in a timeslot with a length of 148 bits. However, not all of these bits are payloads data.Payload data are transmitted over two blocks of 57 bits, between these blocks


in the so-called midamble. This is a known sequence of 26 bits and providesthe training for equalization. Also, the midamble serves as an identifier of theBS. There is an extra control bit between the midamble and each of the twodata-containing blocks. Finally the transmission burst starts and ends with atail bits. These bits are known, and enable termination of Maximum LikehoodSequence Estimator (MLSE) in defined states at the beginning and end of thedetection of the burst data. This reduces the complexity and Increases theperformance of decoding. The time slot ends with a guard period of 8.25 bits.[1]

Figure 1.4: The alignment of times slots in the uplink and downlink.

Chapter 2

Antenna System

2.1 Introducction

This chapter describes the theory, design and simulations of a 3 Beam / elementsantenna array. This type of antenna will be used in marine vehicles for mobilecommunications working in the cellular band GSM 900 MHz ( 890 MHz to 960MHz).

The design and the simulations were made using the software 4NEC2, ob-taining the Gain, the SWR plot and the 3D model of the radiation pattern.

Two model are discussed and simulated. The first model is the one took itfrom the work shown in the paper[2]. The second model presented was obtainedusing optimization procedure based in the first model. The objective functionincorporates the SWR (Standing Wave Ratio) and the gain in the limit of thebeam width of the beam direction.

2.2 Antenna Theory

The antenna array functions on the principle of mutual coupling, a fundamen-tal principle in multi-element antenna systems describing the interchange ofelectromagnetic radiation between the radiating elements of the antenna array.Modelling of the electromagnetic coupling and its influence on the behaviour ofan antenna array made up of N can be modelled using a system of N simulta-neous equations, as shown in the following equation.

V1 = I1Z11 + I2Z12 + I3Z13 + ...+ INZ1N

V2 = I1Z21 + I2Z22 + I3Z23 + ...+ INZ2N

V3 = I1Z31 + I2Z32 + I3Z33 + ...+ INZ3N

...

VN = I1ZN1 + I2ZN2 + I3ZN3 + ...+ INZ1N

18

CHAPTER 2. ANTENNA SYSTEM 19

ZNN is referred to as the self impedance of element N, and relates the volt-age VN at the element to the current IN in the element when there are zeroinduced currents, and can thus be expressed as equation 2.1.

ZNN =VN

IN(2.1)

ZNM relates the voltage VN induced at element N by the current IM inelement M, and is referred to as the coupled impedance of the element, as isexpress as equation 2.2.

ZNM =VN

IM(2.2)

The far-field radiation pattern of an antenna array can be derived throughthe superposition of the individual radiation fields of each element weighted bythe element currents, as expressed in equation 2.3

ETOTAL =∑

INEN (2.3)

In equation 2.3 ETOTAL is the far field radiation pattern of the N elementantenna array, In is the current in element N and EN is the radiation patternproduced by individual element N. The far field radiation pattern of the antennaarray is changed by varying the currents in each element.

2.3 3 Beam / 13 Elements ESMB Antenna

The main model is an array of 13 monopoles elements [2] shown in the Figure2.1. The number of arm used in this work is taken from the Figure 2.2 wherethe antenna with 3 arms gives the best comprise between gain, front back ratioand beamwidth. This array has a central reflector, 3 passive arms of reflectorsand 3 active arms, set with the driven elements S1, S2 and S3, and a directorfor. each arm. This model functions on the principle of a Yagi-Uda antennawith a corner reflector.

Also the inclusion of a skirt, was investigated [3]. The metallic skirt improvethe elevation angle of the peak directivity and the horizontal gain for a ground-based communication system. An increase in the horizontal gain of about 2 dBwas obtained in the refereed research when the total length the skirt length wasabout 0.25 wavelengths. In other words the skirt make the beam more directivein the vertical plane.


d aR S1

S2

S3

D1

D2

D3

R

R

R

R

RR x

dri a

h

LiLr

Lo

Figure 2.1: Diagram of the 13 element ESMB antenna.

Figure 2.2: Performance graph of the ESMB antenna with different number ofcross arms.

2.3.1 Requirements

The requirement for the ESBM antenna are shown in the Table 2.1. The mostimportant items are the beam width ( bigger than 120) and SWR for the GSM900 MHz band.

2.4 Simulation Software. NEC

The numerical Electromagnetic code software was used to simulate the designsof the ESMB antenna. NEC models can include wires buried in a homogeneousground, insulated wires and impedance loads. The code is based on the methodof moments solution of the electric field integral equation for thin wires and the


Operation frequency Between 890 MHz and 960 MHzBeam position 3Beam Width 120 degree Azimuthal plane

Gain 6 dBi (directional)Polarization Vertical

External connector Male SMA 50 OhmCharacteristic impedance 50 Ohm

Table 2.1: Requirements of the ESMB antenna.

magnetic field integral equation for closed, conducting surfaces. The algorithmhas no theoretical limit and can be applied to very large arrays or for detailedmodelling of very small antenna systems. Models are defined as elements of wireor similar as an input text file (typically in ASCII). They are then input intothe NEC[4] application to generated tabular results. The results can then beinput into subsequent ’helper’ applications for visual viewing and the generationof other graphical representations as smith charts, etc. The way of modelingand simulating the models is using Cards. This card allows you to draw thestructure’s wires, add voltage sources, include different ground planes, simulatesradiation patterns, etc.

2.4.1 Antenna Modeling

The construction of the model was made by the student. To model a wire isnecessary write the GW card with the following values; the tag of the wire, thenumber of segments that divides the wire, the coordinates (x,y,z) of the wire’sfirst end, the coordinates (x,y,z) of the wire’s second end and the radius of thewire.

The cartesian coordinates and the radius of the wires were written in functionof variables. This is the way that NEC optimizer achieves to change the valueof the variables.

The circle ground and the skirt were constructed by the helper 4NEC2 pro-gram ”Geometry Builder” included in the 4NEC2 V.5.6.8 package. The simu-lation’s code of the design is included in the appendix.

The ground plane is made by a mesh of radial wires and concentrical circlesof wires with a minimum space between preferable less than λ /10. This valuegives enough accuracy to simulate a real ground plane.

The monopoles must be mounted over the wires junction of the ground planemesh, to permit the movement of the current over the ground plane.

The antenna’s model is shown in the Figure 2.3.


Figure 2.3: Model of the ESMB antenna with 4NEC2 software.

2.4.2 Ground Plane

Due the inclusion of an skirt, the model is represented over an infinite plane.The card for the ground plane GE, is set in a free space mode.

The ground plane must be infinitely thin, otherwise the charge can be storedalong the circunference and the current may not be zero at the edges of theground plane. This can alter the impedance and the radiation pattern of theantenna [5]

2.4.3 Excitation

The source of power is located in the first segment of driven element situatedover the X axis (source 1). The card EX includes the type of excitation, thewire tag and the segment where is applied the excitation and the voltage value.

2.4.4 Plotting

4NEC2 uses a coordinate system of azimuth and elevation angles, as can be seenin the Figure 2.4.

The antenna’s models will be characteristic by the following parameters. Thedefinitions are taken from IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas [6].

Gain

In antenna design, gain is the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of anantenna’s radiation pattern in the direction of strongest radiation to that of areference antenna. If the reference antenna is an isotropic antenna, the gainis often expressed in units of dBi (decibels over isotropic). The gain of anantenna is a passive phenomenon - power is not added by the antenna, butsimply redistributed to provide more radiated power in a certain direction than


Figure 2.4: Azimuth and elevation coordinate system.

would be transmitted by an isotropic antenna. If an antenna has a positive gainin some directions, it must have a negative gain in other directions as energyis conserved by the antenna. The gain that can be achieved by an Antenna istherefore trade-off between the range of directions that must be covered by anAntenna and the gain of the antenna.

SWR

Standing Wave Ratio is defined by the ratio of the maximum/minimum valuesof standing wave pattern along a transmission line to which a load is connected.

The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called the VSWR, for voltagestanding wave ratio. It is also possible to define the SWR in terms of current,resulting in the ISWR, which has the same numerical value. The power standingwave ratio (PSWR) is defined as the square of the VSWR.

The voltage component of a standing wave in a uniform transmission lineconsists of the forward wave (with amplitude Vf) superimposed on the reflectedwave (with amplitude Vr). Reflections occur as a result of discontinuities, suchas an imperfection in an otherwise uniform transmission line, or when a trans-mission line is terminated with other than its characteristic impedance.

VSWR value ranges from 1 (matched load) to infinity for a short or an openload. For most base station antennas the maximum acceptable value of VSWRis 1.5. VSWR is related to the reflection coefficient Γ by:

VSWR=1+— Γ| 1−|Γ|(2.4)


The reflection coefficient Γ is defined by the equations below, where Z0 is theimpedance toward the source, ZL is the impedance toward the load:

Γ =ZL− Z0ZL+ Z0

(2.5)

2.4.5 Optimization

The software 4NEC2 V.5.6.8 has the optimization feature of different objectivefunctions, like Gain, SWR. Nec uses a genetic algorithm (GA), which is a real-value based algorithm. This GA includes a number of selection-, crossover-and mutation-techniques like Roulette-Wheel-, SUS-, or tournament selection,N-point-, Blend- or Simulated binary crossover and random-, gaussian- or none-uniform mutation.

2.5 Design A

The design A was taken from the article [2] in which the industrial supervisor,Dr. Junwei Lu participated. This article explains the systematic approach tothe design of directional antennas using switched parasitic and switched activeelements. The Electronic Switched Multiple Beam antenna with three crossarms( three switched active elements) gives the best compromise between gain,front to back ratio and size, as is shown the Figure 2.5. This structure in thepaper was manually optimized to improve gain and front to back ratio.

This model was simulated using the following dimensions shown in the Table2.2. The dimension are giving in function of wavelength, using a frequency of925 MHz.

Element Length WIre Radius Radial Location

Main Reflector 0.8λ 0.025λ 0Corner Reflector 0.495λ 0.0025λ 0.25λ and 0.5λ

Driven 0.495λ 0.0025λ 0.25λDirector 0.495λ 0.0025λ 0.5λ

Ground plane 0.75λ ( radius) - -Skirt 0.25λ - -

Table 2.2: Element’s dimension of the ESMB antenna design A, proposed bythe S.L. Preston, J.W. Lu and D.Thiel


Figure 2.5: Plot of the gain, SWR and Front back ratio for each antenna modelwith different number of arms.

2.5.1 Results Simulation A

For this array the obtained radiation pattern is shown in the Figure 2.6, thatbelongs to the central frequency of the GSM Band 925 GHz. The 3 dB beamwidth is 140 in the azimuthal plane, and 70 in the elevation plane,with thecenter on 20.


Figure 2.6: Radiation pattern in dBi of the design A, at the center frequency ofthe GSM band .


The maximum gain is 6.31 dB at 945 MHz., obtained in the 15of the ele-vation angle as the Figure 2.7 shows. The 3D radiation pattern is shown in theFigure 2.8.

Figure 2.7: Radiation pattern in dBi of the design A, at the maximum gain overGSM band at the 945 Mhz ”.

The Standing Wave Ratio and the Reflection coefficient obtained in thesimulations are shown in the Figure 2.9. This values are refereed to a 50 Ωtransmission line.

With the average value of the reflection coefficient equal to -0.78 at the centerfrequency, the percentage of the reflection power Pref can be obtained by thefollowing equation.

Pref

Ptrans= 10

Γ10

Pref

Ptrans= 10

−0.7810 = 0.8356

This result is not a good indicator, 83.56% of the of the transmitted powerwill be reflected and just only 16.43% will be incident power. With this resultthis model is not viable to construct.


Figure 2.8: 3D radiation pattern of the model A.

Figure 2.9: Standing Wave Ratio and Reflection Coefficient of the design A, inthe GSM band .

2.6 Design B

The design B is based in the geometry of the design A. An optimization methodwas applyed to the model using Genetic Algorithms. The cost function used


to optimized the antenna performance, was set up minimizing the SWR, andmaximize the Gain for the 30of the azimuthal plane and 5 of elevation angle.The variables of the optimization are shown in the Table 2.3.

Element min. Value [mm] Max. Value [mm]

Length Main Reflector 80 324Length Driven 40 200

Length Director 40 240Length Corner Reflector inner circle 80 324Length Corner Reflector outer circle 80 324

Radius Main Reflector 2 9Radius Driven 0.5 5

Radius Director 0.1 5Radius Corner Reflector inner circle 1 9Radius Corner Reflector outer circle 1 9

Table 2.3: Variables in the optimization of the ESMB antenna design with thelimit values.

Table 2.4 shows the results of the optimization using 50 generation, popu-lation size of 50, selection operation Roul-wheel, Crossover operation Blend-X,Mutation operation Uniform, 70 % of crossover probabilities and 4 % of Muta-tion probabilities.

Element Length Wire Radius Radial Location

Main Reflector 0.6833λ 0.0555λ 0Corner Reflector 0.7401λ 0.0123λ 0.25λCorner Reflector 0.6167λ 0.0123λ 0.5λ

Driven 0.1653λ 0.0308λ 0.25λDirector 0.2485λ 0.0031λ 0.5λ

Table 2.4: Variables in the optimization of the ESMB antenna design, usingλ=32.4 [cm].

2.6.1 Results Simulation B

As can be seen in the Figure 2.10 the horizontal radiation pattern in the centralfrequency 925 MHz gives a very good result, 9.86 dBi at 100of azimuthal angleand 5 of elevation angle.

The 3D model of the radiation pattern produced by the software 4NEC2 isshown in the Figure 2.11.

The Standing Wave Ratio and the Reflection coefficient obtained in the


Figure 2.10: Azimuthal radiation pattern in dBi of the design B.

Figure 2.11: 3D radiation pattern of the model B.

simulations are shown in the Figure 2.12, This values are refereed to a 50 Ωcharacteristic impedance.

The worst value of the reflection coefficient is present at the 890 MHz equal


Figure 2.12: Standing Wave Ratio and Reflection Coefficient of the design B, inthe GSM band .

to -8.2 dB. The percentage of the reflection power Pref can be obtain by thefollowing equation.

Pref

Ptrans= 10

Γ10

Pref

Ptrans= 10

−8.210 = 0.1577

15.77 % of the transmitted power will be reflected and 84.2 % will be incidentpower. The values of Γ below -10 dB is considered satisfactory, this mean a 90% of incident power. Analyzing the result of the reflection coefficient Γ, theband between 915 MHz and 960 MHz has a good match impedance and thehigh gain compensates the return loss.

The three radiation pattern of the antenna array are shown in the Figure2.13. The -3 dB beam width of each beam is 135, but the excelent gain obtainedjustify this low loss.

2.7 Real Design

This prototype of the Multiple Beam Antenna was manufactured by the Elec-tronic Workshop of the Griffith University, Nathan Campus. The dimension ofthe elements ( Figure 2.14) are shown in the Table 2.5. All the elements exceptthe Driven elements are connected to the ground plane.


Figure 2.13: Radiation pattern of the multi beam antenna.

Element Length [mm] Diameter [mm] Material

Ground plane - 525 FR4 d/s copperSkirt 81 - brass

Main reflector 221.6 18 rod brassCorner reflector 1 (cr1) 240 4 rod brassCorner reflector 2 (cr2) 200 4 rod brass

Driven 53.6 10 rod brassDirector 80.6 1 rod brass

Inner circle r1 95 - -Outer circle r1+r2 181 - -

Table 2.5: Requirements of the ESMB antenna.

2.8 Conclusions

The design A did not satisfied the requirements, because the SWR was too high22.32, obtaining a reflected coefficient of -0.78. With this model of antenna, 83% of the transmitted power will be reflected.

Anyway this model was used for the optimization process, using the costfunction that incorporates the SWR, the Gain at the 30 azimuthal angle,


LdrivenLdir

Lcr2

Lmr

ar2 aar1

ddir

dcr2

dmr

ddriven

b

dcr1

Lcr1

Figure 2.14: Diagram of the 13 element ESMB antenna

5elevation angle, the resistance and the reactance of the antenna.The results of the optimization were very positive, finding an array that

gives 9.86 dBi of gain, and a good values of SWR, -1.489. The beam width is135 .

Chapter 3

RF System

3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the design of a Radio Frequency system for an Electroni-cally Steering Multiple Beam Antenna (ESMB). The purpose of the RF systemis to quantify the receiving power of the GSM 900 MHz band for each antenna,while the transceiver works normally.

This process has to be faster, non-invasive, and scalable for future applica-tions in Smart Antennas with more direction of beam steering.

3.2 RF Characteristics GSM 900 MHz

The first research in this stage was to find the frequency band for the cellularmobile communications [7] and study with details the GSM modulation [8]. InAustralia the GSM 900 MHz Band includes an uplink path 890-915 MHz (signalfrom the mobile phone to the base station) and a downlink path 935-960 MHz(signal from the base station to the mobile).

The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 wattsin GSM850/900. It is also important to understand the technical requirementsof each cellular standard, and how they relate to these figures of merit. TheGSM 900 MHz band presents the most challenging standard, as it requires thereceiver to detect a signal as small as -104 dBm, or as large as -13 dBm, in thepresence of blockers and interferers.

3.3 Design

The RF systems model designed is shown in the Figure 3.1. The antenna re-ceives the signal from the base station, then the receiving signals pass througha directional coupler, this device takes a small percentage of the received signalinto the coupler port. The signal now is amplified to make up the power loss

34

CHAPTER 3. RF SYSTEM 35

in the coupler. Then the signal passes through a band pass filter, which elim-inates any frequency out of the downlink path. The next step is to match theinput power range into the power range level required by the RF detector input.Therefore the RF detector converts the AC signal into a DC voltage. Finallyan ADC is used to digitalize the RF detector output.

The main line of the directional coupler communicates the antenna with aswitch that has two states: connecting the antenna to the RF transceiver orconnecting the antenna with a 50 Ω internal load of the switch. The switch iscontrolled by a micro controller, that connects the RF transceiver to the antennawith the strongest reception signal.

Another inclusion to the system is the switching method, if the control sys-tem detects a change in the direction of arrival and has to change the beamdirection, the control system first connects the RF transceiver with the antennathat is in a better position to communicate with the base station, and then dis-connects the other antenna. This process is necessary because, if the transceiverloses communication with the base station, the communication will be termi-nated. The transceiver equipment will be connected to a Male SMA connector.Then the signal goes to a splitter/combiner, that connects the RF transceiverwith each switch.

S3

ADC 1

ADC 2

ADC 3

Switch1

Switch3

Switch2

Co

mp

ara

tor

S1

S2

S3

A1

A2

A3Directional

Coupler

DirectionalCoupler

DirectionalCoupler

RF Detector

Amp1

Amp2

Amp3

RF Detector

Amp1

Amp2

Amp3

RF Detector

Amp1

Amp2

Amp3

RF

MaleSMA

Spliter

S2

S1

S2

S2

Pass bandFilter

Pass bandFilter

Pass bandFilter

Figure 3.1: Schematic of the RF system.


3.3.1 Directional Coupler

The directional coupler takes a portion of the signals coming from the antenna tothe RF system. After reviewing literature about the use of directional couplersin mobile phones [9], the chosen model was the SCDC-11-2 from the companyMinicircuits. The device works in the frequency band used for the downlinkband (base station to mobile) 935-960MHz. Another consideration is that thedevice must have a high coupling factor, otherwise the RF transceiver will loose aconsiderable amount of input power from the receiving signal. The specificationsof the directional coupler are included in the Table 3.1.

Application F. Band[MHz]

Coupling[dB]

I. Loss[dB]

ReturnLoss [dB]

Directivity[dB]

GSM 500-1100 10.78 1.02 20.76 - 17.06 16.58

Table 3.1: Specifications of the directional coupler.

Another important aspect of this coupler is that allows a maximum inputpower of 25 W through the main line, this is useful in the case that the clientwill want to include a booster between the smart antenna and the mobile phone.

3.3.2 Ultra Low Noise Amplifier

The signal that comes from the coupler is very low, that is why an amplifierneeds to be included. The MAX 2604 is an ultra low noise amplifier, optimizedfor 400 MHz to 1500 MHz applications, with a performance of 15.1 dB and anoise figure of 0.9 dB at 947.5 MHz. The amplifier operates on a 5 Volts powersupply. Figure 3.2 shows the typical operating circuit and the electronic devicesvalues.

Figure 3.2: Operating circuit recommended by the manufacturer.


3.3.3 Pass Band Filter

This device filters the frequencies bands out of the downlink path (935-960MHz.) The bandwidth of the pass band filter is 25MHz, with a central frequencyof 947.5 MHz. This device is necessary because a portion of the transmitterpower from the mobile phone could pass to the coupler port, otherwise the RFdetector could measure a wrong input. The maximum input power level is 10dBm. The model used is the TA947FG from the company Golledge electronicsLtd. This device introduces a loss of 3 dB. The frequency response is shown inthe Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Frequency response of the band pass filter.

3.3.4 Amplifier 2

The second amplifier is used to match up the voltage range of the output cou-pler port signal to the RF power detector. The VNA-23, manufactured byMinicircuits, is used to compensate 18 dB of the 33 dB of loss power. The maincharacteristics is that no external biasing circuit are required, works betweenthe 0.5 and 2.5 GHz. and introduce a figure noise of 4.7 dB.

3.3.5 Variable Gain Amplifier

A third amplifier is used to match up the voltage range of the output couplerport signal with the RF power detector range. The amplifier model MAX2056,has the feature to change the gain with an external control voltage.This devicewill be controlled by the micro controller with an analog input voltage. Theresponse of the gain under the control signal is shown in the Figure 3.4.

Due the RF power detector MAX2016 has a maximum input power of 19dBm, is necessary control the gain of the amplifier 3 to avoid damages of the RFpower detector. This mean that the system will work in two states of operation.

• State HIGH, Gain 15 dB, Control voltage 1.5 V


Figure 3.4: Response of the variable Gain amplifier, with the analog controlsignal VCNTL.

Works when the vessel moves further away from the base station. In thisscenery the power detector will reach a value under -60 dBm( 0.7 V powerdetector’s output), then the micro controller will activate the gain of allamplifiers 3 to 15 dB.

• State LOW, Gain 0 dB, Control voltage 3 V

This state will be activated when the power of any RF power detectorinput reaches the -30 dBm (1.25 V power detector’s output). Then themicro controller will change the gain of all variable gain amplifiers to 0dBm. In this way, the maximum received power will be match up withthe RF power detector.

3.3.6 RF Power Detector

The purpose of using a RF detector is to convert the RF signal sample receivedby the antenna into a DC voltage, which is processed by the control system todirect the beam.

The MAX2016 is a dual logarithmic detector for the wideband (low fre-quency to 2.5GHz), ideal for GSM/EDGE applications. In detector mode, theMAX2016 acts like a receive-signal-strength indicator (RSSI), wich provides anoutput voltage proportional to the input power. This is accomplished by provid-ing a feedback path from OUTA(OUTB) to SETA (SETAB) (R1/R2 = 0; seeFigure 3.5).This device works between the -70 dBm and the 10 dBm, as is shownin the FIgure 3.6. By connecting SET directly to OUT, the op-amp Gain is setto 2V/V due to two internal 20 k feedback resistors. This provides a detectorslope of approximately 18 mV/dB with a 0,5V to 1,8 V output range.This device


supports a maximum input power of 19 dBm, stresses beyond this parametermay cause a permanent damage of the device.

A similar device for the 2.4 GHz band was used in the thesis [10], givinggood results.

Figure 3.5: In Detector Mode (RSSI), OUTA/OUTB is a DC Voltage Propor-tional to the Input Power.

Figure 3.6: Response of the RF detector.


3.3.7 Switch

The switch is the responsible to connect the antenna with the RF transceiveror with an internal 50 Ohm load. The switch needs to be controlled by twocontrol signals. The advantage of this device is its very fast switching, 5 nstypically.The schematic and the control values of the switch are shown in theFigures 3.7 and 3.8.

Antenna 1

Control 1

Coupler

Control 2

50 Ω 50 Ω

50 Ω

Splitter/Combiner RF TransceiverSwitch 2

Switch 3

Switch 1

Figure 3.7: Schematic of the switch.

Figure 3.8: Switch control voltages values.

3.3.8 Power Splitter/Combiner

The signal of the RF transceiver must be available for the three switches, thebest solution was include a power Splitter and Combiner. This device has lowinsertion loss, 1 dB typ. The device used is the SCN-3-13, 50 Ohm, 750 to 1325MHz, manufactured by Minicircuits. The sum port of this device has 16 dB ofreturn loss, this mean the reflected energy from that device is always 16dB lower


than the energy presented for the RF Transceiver. The recommended circuit isshown in the Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: Recommended configuration for the splitter/combiner.

3.3.9 Termination SMA

A male SMA termination is needed in the end of the RF system. A mobilephone or another type of transceiver will be connected to the Smart Antenna.This specifications were given to the student by the industrial Partner.

3.4 Power Budget

The main idea of the power budget is to calculate the values of the amplifiersto match up the loss of the RF components, and adapt the input power to theRF power detector levels.

Figure 3.10 shows the power budget of the RF system, which has a couplingfactor of C= 10.78 dB.The gain of the low noise amplifier 1, Gamp1= 15 dB. Theloss of the band pass filter is Lf= 3 dB. The gain of the amplifier 2, Gamp2=18 dB. The two gain values of the Amplifier 3 are Gamp3= 15 or 0 dB. Theminimum detected power for the RF detector is - 70 dB, and the maximum 10dB.

In the other side of the RF system, the main line, the Directional couplerhas a insertion loss Lc= 1 dB. the Switch has a insertion loss Lsw= 1 dB. Thesplitter has a loss, Lsp= 1 dB, and the loss for the connector and the wires isLcw= 1 dB.

With this range of value and considering the loss of the devices, L1, ispossible calculate the input power in the coupler Pin− c.

L1 = Lc+ Lsw + Lsp+ Lcw

L1 = 1.02dB + 1dB + 1dB + 1dB = 4.02dB

Pr = Pin− c− C +Gamp1− Lf +Gamp2 +Gamp3


RF

ADC 1

Ls= 1dB

Co

mp

ara

tor

S1

A1Ga=6 dB Lc= 0.4 dB

C=14.3 dB

Lf= 3 dBGamp1= 15 dB

RF Detector

Amp1

-104 dBm < Prx < -10.4 dBm

MaleSMA

Spliter

S2

S3

S1

-70 dBm <Pr<10 dBm

Amp2

-100.6 dBm < Pin-c

< -17 dBm

Pin-c

Lconector+wires = 1 dB

Ls = 1 dB

Gamp2= 18 dB

Pin

Amp3

Gamp3= 15 or 0 dB

2

-106.6 dBm < Pin

< -13 dBm

C=10.78 dB

Lc=1.02 dB

Lsp=1dB -->>

5.2 dB <<--

-105.98 dBm < Pin <

-8.91 dBm

-99.98 dBm < Pin-c <

-2.91 dBm

-104 dBm < Prx < -6.93 dBm

Figure 3.10: Power budget of the RF system

.Considering the power budget equation, the system match perfectly with

this values. This values are shown in the Figure 3.11 with the minimum andmaximum values of the reception power range.

Figure 3.11: Power budget of the Main Line, and the RF power detector line.

The minimum power value before the coupler Pin− c. is -99.98 dBm. Thissignal must be amplified to match up the minimum input power level of the RFdetector.

(1) This scenario happens when a mobile phone is transmitting at the max-imum of its power ( 2 W, 33 dBm) located close to the Smart antenna. The


Smart antenna will be receiving that power. Considering a minimum distanceto the antenna of 1.5 meter and a frequency of 902.5 MHz, the Free space Lossare 35.03 dB, This gives an input to the antenna of -2.03 dBm.

(2) This value is not important, due the antenna array is working as a mobilenot as a base station.

(3) This scenario happens when the boat is in the bay close to the basestations. Lets consider a minimum distance from the base station of 50 metres,with a sownlink frequency 947.5 MHz ( centre ferquency of the downlink band).The Free Space Loss are 65.91 dB, and the transmision power of the base stationin the worst case is 47 dBm, the antenna of the base station has a gain of 10dB, Resulting a Receiver power of Prx=47+10-65.91=-8.91 dBm.

(4) This scenario is considered when the vessel is far away from the basestation. The minimum input receiver signal is limited for the sensibility of theFixed Terminal equal to -104 dBm.

The maximum input values of the RF devices are shown in the Figure 3.12.The maximum values are not exceeded, as shown in the Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.12: Maximum input power of the RF devices.

3.5 PCB Design

The design of the PCB is being creating with the software Adium V.6 [11].Someconsiderations of the PCB design are:

• Each RF power detector will be constructed in a separed pcb board, cre-ating 3 modules RF, one for each antenna.

• The Splitter/ combiner will be mounted in a separate PCB board, calledSplitter/Combiner Module.

• MicroStrip lines are used to avoid problems with the characteristic impedanceof the transmission lines. The required impedance is 50 ohm.

• Propper voltage-supply bypassing is essential for high frequency circuitstability. Bypass each VCC pin with capacitors placed as close to thedevice as possible.

• The control Module will be developed in a develop board, to make testand to manage the system like modules.

The PCB design is shown in the Figure 3.12, where the system is divided inthe modules; Splitter/combinner, RF 1-2-3 and Control-Power.


RF 1 Module

RF 2 Module

RF 3 Module

StampAVR

ATMega128

DAC

VoltageRegulator

+5 V-5 V

A1

A2

A3

Splitter/Combiner

Control & Power Module

RF

5

5

5

Control switch AControl switch B

Control amp3RSSI

Ground

12 V

Figure 3.13: Modules of the smart antenna system.

3.5.1 Microstrip Transmsion Lines

Microstrip lines is a thin, flat electrical conductor separated from the groundplane by a dielectric layer. Figure 3.13 shows a microstrip line. Microstrips areused in printed circuit designs where high frequency signals need to be routedfrom one part of the assembly to another with high efficiency and minimalsignal loss due to radiation. They are from a class of electrical conductors calledtransmission lines, having specific electrical properties that are determined byconductor width and resistivity, spacing from the ground plane, and dielectricproperties of the insulating layer. A microstrip transmission line is similar toa stripline, except that the stripline is sandwiched between two ground planesand respective insulating layers [12].

Figure 3.14: View of a micro strip line. h is the thick of the dielectric material,w is the width of the conductor, and t is the thickness of the conductor.


3.5.2 Board

The PCB board available in the Electronic Workshop is the FR-4 FiberglassEpoxy-Resin Boded laminated . The most important characteristics are shownin the Table 3.2. The guide lines for the design, document emitted by the officeof technical services, is included in the appendix section.

Item Value

Board Thickness 0.4 mmCoper Thickness 18 um

Dielectric Constant 4.34 at 1 GHzLost Tangent 0.016 at 1 GHz

Table 3.2: Details about the Board FR-4

Java applet Microwave impedance Calculator (MWIJ1.0) [13] was used toobtain the width of the Microstrip lines. The screenshot of the program is shownin the Figure 3.14.

The optimal width of the micro strip lines is 0.7544 mm. The characteristicimpedance obtain is 49.98 Ohm, working in a frequency of 947 Mhz.

3.5.3 Schematic

The circuit design was made with the software Altium Designer V.6 . Most ofthe devices were not in the library and the construction of the devices footprintand schematic were made by the student. This activity took a considerable timestudying the training module of the software [14].

3.5.4 RF module

The RF module is located between the antenna and the spliter/combiner mod-ule. The main function is measure the power of the signals in the band betweenthe 935 and 960 MHz coming from the antenna. Figure 4 shows the schematicof the RF module.

3.5.5 Splitter/Combiner Module

This module connects the RF transceiver with the RF modules, The PCB designinclude micro strip lines technic, using a ground plane in the bottom layer of theboard. The Sum port will be end with a female SMA connector, and the othersports will be end with a low loss cable, that end with female SMB connector.The Figure 7, 8 and 9 show the schematic design and the PCB respectively.

The PCB must include the following voltage supply for each component, asare shown in the Table 3.3.


Figure 3.15: Screenshot of the Java applet, MWIJ, used to find the width of theRF tracks.

Device Voltage

Amplifier MAX2640 5 VAmplifier VNA23 5 V

Amplifier MAX2056 5 VRF Detector MAX 2016 5 V

Switch -5 V

Table 3.3: Voltage supply for the RF system

3.6 Conclusions

In this chapter was explained the design of the RF modules of the smart antenna.The solution fulfill the requirements for the GSM 900 MHz and for the different


scenarios that the Smart Antenna will be exposed. The power budget of the RFdesign showed the functioning of the RF system working in the secure levels.

The PCB design was described. This PCB was made using micro striptransmission lines technic to match the characteristic impedance of 50 Ω.

Chapter 4

Control System

4.1 Introduction

This chapter explains the design and construction of the Control System of theSmart Antenna prototype.

The main idea of the control system is to measure periodically the signalstrength indicator output, find the strongest signal coming from the antennas,switch the RF transceiver to the antenna in the best position. Also the systemcontrols the gain of the variable gain RF amplifier of the RF modules, main-taining the RF power detector between the secures levels, when the boat comecloser to the base station.

The requirements of the control system are explained with details, next isdescribed the the solution, explaining the hardware used for power the switchesand the variable gain amplifiers . Afterwards is describe the code that managedthe micro controller.

4.2 Requirements

The requirement for the control system are presented in the Figure 4.1. Thismodel was design in the RF system stage, where a micro controller is used likethe main core of the Control System. Also where defined the inputs and outputsof the micro controller.

Measurement of the Receiver Signal Strength Indicator’s output Themicro controller must measure the analog DC signal comming from the RSSIoutput of each RF module. The quantization of the analog signal into a digitalsignal is made by an internal analog to digital converter with 10 bit of resolution.The input values of the ADC cover the range from 0.5 V to 2.25 V, as is shownin the Figure 4.2.

48

CHAPTER 4. CONTROL SYSTEM 49

AVR ATMega 128

Switch control

Gain Amplifier control

RSSI 2 Output

RSSI 3 Output

RSSI 1 Output

Figure 4.1: Schematic of the input and output of the Control system.

Figure 4.2: Input value’s range of the internal ADC

Find the strongest signal After the input signals are digitalized, the microcontroller must find the maximum values between the 3 input saved in theinternal register.

Control the switching of the 3 RF modules The switches that connectsthe RF transceiver with the antennas are set as the configuration shown in theFigure 4.3. Each RF module has a switch that is controlled by two signals,control A and control B. The states of the switch and the respectively values ofthe control values are shown in Table 4.1.

Supply +5V and -5 V The positive 5 volts are necessary for the microcontroller and general devices like operational amplifiers, RF power detector,whereas the negative 5 volts are required to control the RF switches.


Antenna 1

Control 1

Coupler

Control 2

50 Ω 50 Ω

50 Ω

Splitter/Combiner RF TransceiverSwitch 2

Switch 3

Switch 1

Figure 4.3: Schematic of the switch

Pin 1 u-c Pin 2 u-c Control A Control B Antenna

0V 5V 0V -5V OFF5V 0V -5V 0V ON

Table 4.1: Micro controller signals, Control signals of the switch and the stateof the RF switch.

Control the amplifier 3 A protection system for the maximum input powerof the RSSI device is included, because the input range levels of the antenna arebigger than the RF power detector range. The gain of the amplifier 3 maintainthe input values of the RSSI between secure levels. A control voltage, Vcntl willchange the gain from 3V (Low State 0 dB of gain) to 1.5 V (High State 15 dBof gain). Figure 4.4 shows the gain curve with the variable voltage Vcntl.

4.3 High Level Design

The designed program that meet the previous mentioned requirements is shownin the flowchart diagram of the Figure 4.5. The model start with the sequen-tially measuring of the output values of the receive signal strength indicator ofeach RF module ( each antenna). The maximum value is determined betweenthe 3 inputs, RF module 1, 2 and 3. Then, the RF switch is switched on, com-municating the RF transceiver with that RF module. Then the micro controllercompares the values of all RF power detector outputs with an upper level ( 1.25V), if one value exceed that level, the amplifier 3 of all RF modules will be set tothe Low State ( Gain amp.3 to 0 dB), switching Amp3 control. Afterwards the


Figure 4.4: Gain response of the amplifier 3, with the analog control signalVcntl

maximum value is compared with the lower level (0.7 V). If this value is smallerthan this level, the amplifiers 3 of all RF modules will be switched to the HighState (Gain 15 dB). Next, the cycle start again after a period of 3 second.

4.4 Hardware

The circuits that can achieve the requirement are following explained, The im-plementation of the circuits was made over a prototype board.

4.4.1 Power Supply

The circuit needs +5 V and -5 V to work properlly using a single 12 V powersupply from the boat.

The positive 5 V was created with a 7805c voltage regulator.The negative 5 volts are provide by a simple switching power supply [15],

this circuit which is basically a 555-based oscillator, and a voltage-doublingrectifier. The article claims the negative-voltage output should be good forabout 60 [mA]. This design feed the circuit with a higher voltage 12V and thenjust regulate the output down to -9V using a 7909 regulator. This circuit wassimulated with the the software Multisim student version [16]. The schematicof the power supply circuit is shown in the Figure 4.6.

4.4.2 Amplifier Control Circuit

The amplifier 3 of each RF module is controlled by the micro controller, as isshown in the Figure 4.7. The circuit is controlled only with one pin B.0. Whenthe pin B.0 is in low state ( 0V ) the transistor is in cut state. and the voltage


Different Maximum?

Any value over the

upper limit?

Measure Signal

Strength A1

Measure Signal

Strength A2

Measure Signal

Strength A3

Comparison of maximum

value

Switch on the new beam

direction

Switch off the old beam

direction

Yes

Compare the values of the RSSI 1,2,3

with the secure levels

No

Change Amp 3 to Low State

Yes

Maximum value down the lower

limit?

Change Amp 3 to

High State

No

Wait 3 Seconds

No

Yes

Figure 4.5: Flowchart diagram of the program for the control of the Smartantenna’s beam direction

before the operational amplifier is given by the voltage divider. This voltageis 1.5 V, and as the operational amplifier is configured as a buffer, the outputvalue is 1.5 V.

In the other case, when pin B.0 is high ( 5V), the transistor turn to be insaturation state, introducing a voltage under the operational amplifier of 3 V.

For the amplifier control signal, is suggested that a current-limiting resistorbe included in series with this connection to limit the input current to less than40 [mA]. A series resistor of 330Ω will provide compete protection for the voltageranges. Also the amplifier has a Gain-control Pin input Resistance of 500K Ω.with this values the circuit was simulated with the software Multisim [16] givinggood result.

4.4.3 Switch Control Circuit

The switching hardware was designed to be controlled by a TTL voltage (0Vand 5V), The inverter configuration of an operational amplifier ( LM741) wasused. The positive power voltage of the operational amplifier is connected to+5 V, and the negative supply voltage is -9 V. The design has six individual


Vcc= 5V

Vdd= -9V

Figure 4.6: +-5 V power supply circuit used in the Control system.

Port B.00V / 5V

Vin

Vout

Figure 4.7: Schematic of the gain amplifier control circuit

inverters to control each control signal, (two control signals of each switch). Theschematic is shown in the Figure 4.8.


Switch 2 APA.2

Switch 1 APA.0

Switch 3 APA.4

Switch 3 BPA.5

Switch 1 BPA.1

Switch 2 BPA.3

Figure 4.8: Schematic of the gain amplifier control circuit

4.4.4 Microcontroller

The core used to control the system is the AVR Stamp Atmega128 [17] shownin the Figure 4.9. The student chose this development board for the followingcharacteristics.

• Feature of high-performance, Low-power , 8-bit Micro controller, Ad-vanced RISC Architecture.

• Nonvolatile Program and Data Memories.

• Fast clock frequency. The module include a internal oscillator of 16 MHz.

• Includes 7 I/O ports, 8 ADC converter with 10 bit of resolution.

• Easy mounted and configuration. Only was necessary to connect Vcc andGnd to make it work, with this feature the student avoid possible problemwith the circuitry.

• All the hardware of control has been mounted over a prototype board.


Figure 4.9: Stamp AVR Atmega 128

The complete schematic of the control system is included in the Appendix,where is possible to see the Receiver Signal Strength Indicator output (RF powerdetector) as the input of the micro controller of the pins F.0, F.1 and F.2 . Theoutput are the amplifier 3 control, Pin B.0, and switch control signals, whichare physically pins A.0, A.1, A.2, A.3, A.4 and A.5,

4.5 Software

The code was written in C language, using a very helpful library called AVRlib[18] .That tool proportioned to the student almost all the libraries needs tocreate the source code, The student use the analag to digital converter library,the initialization and definitions of the micro controller library.

The code was compiled using AVR Studio 4 and Winavr [19] [20]. The microcontroller was programed with an ISP interface cable connected to the parallelport, using the program ponnyprog 2000 [21]. The source code is shown in theAppendix section of this report.

4.6 Conclusions

The system for the control was successfully developed, The Power supply, switch,gain amplifier, circuits were simulated obtaining good result.

Chapter 5

Verification and Validationof the Project

5.1 Introduction

In this report are included the measurements that validate the designs of the 3beam/13 elements antenna array, the RF system and the control system.

The measurements were realized in the RF laboratory and in the anechoicchamber of Griffith University.

5.2 Antenna Test

In the RF laboratory the 3 beam/13 elements array antenna, Figure 5.1, wastested to identify important features like reflection coefficient, BW, gain andradiation pattern.

Each measure was made for each driven element. When a measurement wasrealized, one driven element was connected to VNA and the two others drivenelements were connected to a 50 Ω load.

5.2.1 Reflection Coefficient S11

The values of the reflection coefficient for the driven elements 1, 2 and 3. betweenthe frequency band 890/960 MHz are shown in the Figure 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4.Also the values of the reflection coefficient for the frequency 925 MHz and theresonant frequency were recorded in the Table 5.1.To refine the real performanceof the antenna, was used a tuner in the driven elements. This tuner improvedthe reflection coefficient in the GSM band.

56

CHAPTER 5. VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION OF THE PROJECT 57

Figure 5.1: Photo of the 3 Beam / 13 elements antenna array.

Measurement S11 925 MHz Resonant Frequency S11 Resonant Frequency

S11 driven 1 -16 [dB] 907.8 MHz -64.42 dBS11 driven 2 -18.4 [dB] 914.85 MHz -60.01 dBS11 driven 3 -19.39 [dB] 914.675 MHz -63.73 dB

Table 5.1: Measurement of the reflection coefficient of the ESMB antenna inthe central frequency 925 MHz and for the Resonant Frequency.

5.2.2 Bandwidth

The BW is considered between the band of frequencies where the reflectioncoeficient is below -10 dB, this mean that the 90 % of the Tx power is transmittedand only a 10% is reflected. The frequency band for each driven element areshown in the Table 5.2.

Driven Frequency 1 Frequency 2 Bandwidth

Driven 1 877 MHz 985.7 MHz 108.7 MHzDriven 2 886.25 MHz 987.98 MHz 101.73 MHzDriven 3 884.8 MHz 996.1 MHz 111.3 MHz

Table 5.2: Measured Bandwidth of the ESMB antenna.


Figure 5.2: Reflection coefficient graph of the driven 1, with the driven 2 and 3connected to a 50 Ω Load.

5.2.3 Gain

To know the beam direction gain of the antenna array, was used the Friis trans-mitting equation, that gives the power transmitted from one antenna to anotherunder idealized conditions. Also in the equation was included the loss of thecables.

First was necessary to measure the gain of the horn antenna. For this taskwere achieved the following steps:

1. Make the link with 2 same horn antennas with gain GHorn, separated bya distance of 2.81 mt.

2. Carry out a calibration enhance of the VNA.

3. Measure the loss of the cables LC , using the VNA.

4. Set a transmission power PTX of the VNA with a power of 1 dBm.

5. Calculate the receiving signal of the link PRX ..

6. Calculate the free space loss LFS .

7. Calculate the gain of the antennas from equation 1, working out the valueof the GHorn from the friss equation.



GHorn =PRX + LC + LFS − PTX

2(5.1)

Obtaining a gain value of 10.8 dB for the horn antenna.

Then the steps 2 to 6 are made again, changing one antenna horn for the 3beam/ 13 elements antenna array. The Table 5.3 shows the obtained parametersfor the most relevant frequencies; 890, 925 and 960 MHz for each beam direction.

The values of the gain are considered acceptable, only for the the uplinkpath (890 MHz to 960 MHz), the gain in the downlink path gives values underthe requirements, 6 dB.

The difference of the simulated values, can be associated with the loss of thesolder between the driven element and the SMA female connector. Also in thesimulation with the software NEC, were not incorporated the resistivity of thematerials.



Beam Frequency PRX LC LFS GHorn GARRAY

1 890 MHz -27 dBm 3.75 dB 40.36 dB 10.105 dB 6.005 dB1 925 MHz -26.2 dBm 3.87 dB 40.07 dB 10.835 dB 5.905 dB1 960 MHz -27.5 dBm 3.97 dB 41.02 dB 11.495 dB 4.995 dB

2 890 MHz -26.5 dBm 3.75 dB 40.36 dB 10.105 dB 6.505 dB2 925 MHz -26 dBm 3.87 dB 40.07 dB 10.835 dB 6.105 dB2 960 MHz -27.2 dBm 3.97 dB 41.02 dB 11.495 dB 5.295 dB

3 890 MHz -26.6 dBm 3.75 dB 40.36 dB 10.105 dB 6.405 dB3 925 MHz -26.02 dBm 3.87 dB 40.07 dB 10.835 dB 6.085 dB3 960 MHz -27.3 dBm 3.97 dB 41.02 dB 11.495 dB 5.195 dB

Table 5.3: Obtained values for the 3 beam/ 13 elements antenna gain measure-ment.


5.2.4 Radiation Pattern Test

This test was achieved in the anechoic chamber. The antenna array was mountedin a mobile arm, this rotator arm has an accuracy of 977 measurements for the360. This antenna was connected to the reflection port, ( RF Transmitter) andthe receiver antenna was a horn antenna for the 1 GHz band. The measurementsof the received signal were acquired by the computer using the software Rotator.The scenario of the test is shown in the Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5: Anechoic chamber, where were carry out the measurement of theRadiation pattern, .

The Tx signal was configured between 850 MHz and 1GHz, The markers usedto measure the radiation pattern were the start, center and end frequencies ofthe GSM 900 Band (890, 925 and 960 MHz).

The results of the radiation pattern where plotted with the software Matlab.Each graphic includes the radiation pattern in the azimuth plane of the threebeams as is shown in the Figure 5.6, the elevation angle of the measurementswas 0. Also is included the -3 dB level, to identify the beam width of the eachbeam direction.


Figure 5.6: Real radiation pattern of the three beam directions in the azimuthalplane, 0elevation angle, of the antenna array.


A comparison of the real and the simulated radiation pattern are shown inthe Figure 5.7, the results of the real beam width decreased considerably.

Figure 5.8 shows the radiation pattern in the elevation angle. The azimuthangle was set to 0.

The result of the real and simulated radiation pattern in the elevation planewere plotted with Matlab, to compare the radiation patterns (Figure 5.9). Theresult shows the real maximum gain at the 25, this maximum values matchesthe simulation pattern. However the decrease of the beam width of the realpattern is the main problem, due in the angle of 0the real pattern shows adecrease of 3 dB, exactly the difference between the Simulated and Real gain.

5.2.5 Beam-width

The results of the real beam width is very narrow, compared with the simulation,this can be seen in the previous Figure 5.7 and Figure 5.8, for the azimuthaland elevation plane respectively. The Table 5.4 shows the simulated and realvalues.

Frequency Simulated Beam Width Real Beam Width

890 MHz 175 70

925 MHz 140 70

960 MHz 85 55

Table 5.4: Comparison table of the real beam width and simulated beam width.


Figure 5.7: Comparison plot of the real and simulated radiation pattern, az-imuthal plane, 0elevation angle, of the antenna array.


Figure 5.8: Real radiation pattern of the elevation plane of the antenna array.

Figure 5.9: Comparison plot of the real and simulated radiation patterns, ele-vation plane of the antenna array.


5.3 RF System Test

The tests for the RF system where divided into RF module test and the Split-ter/Combiner module test . The following activities are included to validate thedesign and construction.

5.3.1 RF Module

The electronic workshop of Griffith University fabricated this module, as isshown in the Figure 5.10 this module has two RF port; the antenna port andthe Splitter/combinner port.

SPLITTER/COMBINNERPORT

ANTENNAPORT

Figure 5.10: Photo of the RF module.

The measurement made to the RF module are shown in the Table 5. Withthe Vector Network Analyzer were calculated the Reflection Coefficient S11 ,input impedance Zin see from the input port, and the insertion losses betweenthe Antenna port and the Switch Port, with the switch on and the switch off.

5.3.2 RF Detector Test

The RF power detector was measured increasing the RF power level to theantenna port, from -30 to -1 dbm, The RF power detector, MAX 2016 did notresponse for any change in the input power. The RSSI always gave a DC valueof 0.944 V. This result is due the surface mount device was not soldering withthe necessary technology. In fact the electronic workshop mentioned that theywere not sure if the device would work. However another RF module has beensoldered in another workshop.


Input Frequency Switch S11 Zin Insertion Loss

Antenna port 890 MHz ON -22.5 dB 45.7 Ω 4.42 dBAntenna port 925 MHz ON -19.08 dB 45 Ω 5.34 dBAntenna port 960 MHz ON -15.9 dB 44.1Ω 5.9 dBAntenna port 890 MHz OFF -10.5 dB 41.3 Ω 11.96 dBAntenna port 925 MHz OFF -10.17 dB 41.0 Ω 11.65 dBAntenna port 960 MHz OFF -9.8 dB 40.7 Ω 10.9 dBSplitter Port 890 MHz ON -18.4 dB 44.8 Ω 4.3 dBSplitter Port 925 MHz ON -12.7 dB 42.7 Ω 5.4 dBSplitter Port 960 MHz ON -10.84 dB 45.4 Ω 5.88 dBSplitter Port 890 MHz OFF -7.35 dB 38.0 Ω 12 dBSplitter Port 925 MHz OFF -7.1 dB 37.7 Ω 11.54 dBSplitter Port 960 MHz OFF -7.88 dB 38.7 Ω 11.2 dB

Table 5.5: Measurement of the reflection coefficient , and insertion loss of theRF module, with the switch in ON and OFF state.

5.3.3 Splitter/Combiner Module

The same procedure was performance for the module Splitter/Combiner, asis shown in the Figure 5.11, the module is formed by a sum port, and threeisolated ports. In the measurement, two of the ports were conected to the VNA( Reflection and Transmission ports), and the other two were connected to a 50Ω terminal. The results are shown in the Table 5.6, were is displayed the Inputimpedance Zin of each port and the insertion Loss between the measured portand the sum port.

Measurement port Frequency S11 Zin Insertion loss

Port 1 890 MHz -8.66 dB 39.6 Ω 22 dBPort 1 925 MHz -9.14 dB 40.1 Ω 19 dBPort 1 960 MHz -7.8 dB 38.6 Ω 17.7 dBPort 2 890 MHz -9.89 dB 40.8 Ω 7 dBPort 2 925 MHz -9.1 dB 40.1 Ω 6.8 dBPort 2 960 MHz -11.6 dB 42.1 Ω 6.7 dBPort 3 890 MHz -8.5 dB 39.5 Ω 22.15 dBPort 3 925 MHz -9.06 dB 40.1 Ω 19.4 dBPort 3 960 MHz -7.77 dB 38.6 Ω 17.7 dB

Table 5.6: Measurement of the Reflection coefficient and Insertion loss of theSplitter/Combiner module, between the ports 1,2,3 with the Sum port.


SUM PORT

PORT 3

PORT 1

PORT 2

Figure 5.11: Image of the Splitter/Combinner module.

Isolation

To know it the module is working properly, the splitter should offer 25 to 30 dBisolation in its mid-band range. In the measurement of the isolation with thesum port properly terminated, 25 to 30 dB should be read. Then was removedthe termination. If isolation drops to 6 dB, the power splitter is OK; if isolationis still high, there is an open circuit in the power splitter.

Input port Output port Insolation with 50Ωin the Sum port

Insolation without 50Ωin the Sum port

Port 1 Port 2 -13.88 dB 14.9 dBPort 1 Port 3 -13 dB 14.5 dB

Table 5.7: Measurement of the Insolation of the Splitter/Combiner module,between the ports 1-2 and 1-3 with the sum port terminated to 50 Ω.

The data from the Table 5.7 shows that the module presents problems,because the module did not decrease in 6dB of the isolation. Also the moduleincludes a high amount of losses, if can be seen in details the Figure 5.12, showssome defects in the mounting of the splitter/combiner, It is mounted upsidedown, and was not constructed with the appropriated technology. This pointwas very crucial because, the thickness of the tracks and the ground layer, hasa different size from the requirements.


MANUFACTURE MISTAKES

Figure 5.12: Detail photo of the defects in the construction of the Split-ter/Combinner module.

5.3.4 RF System Complete

The total insertion loss of the RF system were obtained, this value was measuredwith the input power connected to the antenna port, and the sum port of thesplitter module connected to the receiver port of the VNA. The RF modulewas connected to the port 2 of the Splitter module, and the ports 1 and 3 wereterminated to 50 Ω. The result are Shown in the Table 5.8.

Frequency Theoretical Insertion Loss Real Insertion Loss

890 MHz 4.02 dB 11.22 dB925 MHz 4.02 dB 13.05 dB960 MHz 4.02 dB 13.88 dB

Table 5.8: Measurement of the Insertion loss of the RF system.

The values are to high compare with the theory, These losses could be forthe impedance mismatch caused for:

• The tracks of the PCB were tined, and this process change the thickness ofthe micro-strip transmission lines, changing the characteristic impedance.

• The splitter combiner chip, was soldered upside down, this technique usedin the workshop was not appropriated to RF devices, because radiates alot amount of RF energy.


5.4 Control System

5.4.1 ADC Module and Comparator Test

A 10 KΩ potentiometer, was used to change the voltage from 0 to 5V, as shownin the Figure 13. The input voltage value of the micro controller was measuredwith a tester.

To measure the comparator test, a LED connected to ground in series witha 580 Ω resistor, was connected to the output of the micro controller. Thisoutput is connected to the operational amplifier connected like inverter, whichare the control signal of the RF switches, as is shown in the Figure 5.13. Withthis method was visually known which switch was active.

Figure 5.13: Schematic of the ADC and comparator test module.

5.4.2 Switching Latency Test

Using a digital oscilloscope, was measured the fall time response of the RFswitch control signal. As the Figure 5.14 shows the response time as 9 ns. Inthe previous chapter was explained that is necessary to follow this sequence,activate the new antenna direction, wait until the switch has been activatedand then turn off the previous active beam. This was achieved programming adelay time between the switch off and switch on of the RF system. ( note thatthe On signal is -5V and the OFF signal is 0 V).

In the Chapter one was explained the duration of the GSM time slot is 575.92us, divided in 156.25 bits, this gives a bit duration of 3.69 us. The time weretwo antennas are connected to the splitter/combinner is 2.5 us. This meansthat possible destructive interference caused by the phase of the input signalswill affect only to one bit. This bit could be easily corrected by algorithms thatthe RF transceiver uses.


Figure 5.14: Response time of the RF switch control signal.

5.5 Complete System Test

This test could not be achieved, because the PCB of the RF module are infabrication in another workshop. This test will be performance in the nextweeks, when the module arrives.


5.6 Conclusions

The requirements made for the antenna design were not completely satisfying,the reflection coefficient gave good results, with a band width that covers theGSM 900 MHz band from 890 MHz to 960 MHz . Also the obtained gain wasover the 6 dBi, however the radiation pattern in the azimuthal plane, 0elevationangle, suffered a decreasing in the beam width from 140to 70, this results areproduced by a decreasing of the radiation pattern in the elevation angle.

The RF system were not completely satisfied, because the high insertionloss, produced by mistakes and lack of technology in the electronic workshopwith the mounting process of the devices. Also the RF power detector did notwork, for the same reason previous explained. Anyhow, the switching systemworks.

The Control module works perfectly, comparing the values and controllingthe RF switches. Also, the variable gain controller fulfills the requirements.

Chapter 6

General Comments

6.1 Conclusion

The work presented in this thesis was the first approach in the design of asmart antenna GSM 900 for marine applications. Representing a big step in theimplementation of cellular networks in marine applications.

The simulation and optimization of the 3 beam /13 elements antenna arraywas made with the software 4NEC2, using Genetic Algorithms, with a costfunction that maximized the Gain in the edge of the beam width(60azimuthalplane) and minimized the Reflection Coefficient, for the frequency band between890 MHz and 925 MHz. The theoretical results improved the gain to 9.6 dBi ,and the beam width of the each sector is 140and a S11 below -8.2 dB.

Otherwise the real parameter were measured in the anechoic chamber. Thereflection coefficient gave good results, less than -11 dB, with a band width thatcovers the GSM 900 MHz band from 890 MHz to 960 MHz . Also the obtainedgain was over the 6 dBi, however the radiation pattern in the azimuthal plane,0elevation angle, suffered a decreasing in the beam width from 140to 70, thisresults are produced by a decreasing of the radiation pattern in the elevationangle.

This real values do not satisfy completely, the requirements made for the 3beam / 13 elements antenna array.

The solution of the RF system fulfills the requirements for the GSM 900 MHzand for the different scenarios that the Smart Antenna will be exposed. Thepower budget of the RF design showed in the chapter 3, describe the functioningof the RF system working in the secure levels. Also the system was design usingmicro strip transmission lines technic to match the characteristic impedance of50 Ω.

Experimentally the RF system were not completely satisfied, because of thehigh insertion loss, produced by manufactured mistakes and lack of technology inthe electronic workshop with the mounting process of the devices. Also the RFpower detector did not work, for the same reason previous explained. Anyhow

73

CHAPTER 6. GENERAL COMMENTS 74

the switching system works. However the PCB is being mounted in anotherworkshop.

The control module is used to compare the RF power received from eachbeam pattern and obtain the strongest signal, then switch the direction of theantenna to the RF Terminal. This process is performed with a micro controllerAVR ATMega 128.

The Control module works perfectly, comparing the values and controllingthe RF switches. Also the variable gain controller fulfills the requirements.

This project is a novel idea in the marine communications area, becausecurrently does not exist any commercial product like this.

6.2 Future Works

This project was the beginning of the development of the smart antennas forcellular networks for marine applications, which implies a great number of im-provement that could be done in this area, in future researches.

• Reduce the size of the antenna using dielectric embedded antenna theory,with this method the size could be decreased up to 80 %.

• Use a down-converter circuit and process the signals in the intermediumband with FPGA. With this method the number of RF elements willdecrease, avoiding loss for insertion and reflection caused by the impedancemismatching.

• Develop a system for 3G technology. This can be achieved using a com-mercial OEM cellular Module. Also, this module can detect the time whenthe transceiver is not transmitting and receiving data, in this moment theRF system can switch between one antenna to another without problems.Also it could be used to detect the transmitting frequency of the antenna,and switch to the required band pass filter, this idea needs a long time ofresearch.

• Develop from this Idea, a smart repeater. This system has an omnidirec-tional antenna for the cellular band connected at the end of the Smartantenna, this omnidirectional antenna is located inside vessels, like touristcatamaran, ferries, etc.

Bibliography

[1] A. Molisch, Wireless Communications. Wiley-IEEE Press, 2005.

[2] D. T. S. Preston, J. Lu, “Systematic approach to the design of directionalantennas using switched parasitic and swithced active element,” in Proc.APMC, pp. 531–534, Dec. 1998.

[3] T. O. Haruo Kawakami, “Electrically steerable passive array radiator (es-par) antennas,”

[4] N. S. Inc., “Nec, ”antenna analisys software version 5.8.9”,” California,2007.

[5] D. Thiel and S. Smith, Switched Parasitic Antennas for Cellular Commu-nications. Artech House, 2001.

[6] IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas. No. 0-7381-4343-X,Antenna Standards Committee of the IEEE Antennas and PropagationGroup, USA;, 1983.

[7] G. association.

[8] R. Blake, Electronic Communication Systems. International Thomson,2001.

[9] Mini-circuits, Technical infromation about Directional Couplers, 1999.

[10] M. Shah, “Smart antenna control system for wireless ad hoc mobile com-puting,” 2005.

[11] “Pcb software creator, altium designer v6.”

[12] C. Sayre, Complete Wireless Design. McGraw-Hill, 2001.

[13] “Microwave impedance calculator (mwij 1.0).”

[14] A. CO., PCB Design Training Module, Altium Designer., training mod-ule ed.

[15] R. Grossblatt, “Issues of radio-electronics,” March 1984.

75

BIBLIOGRAPHY 76

[16] “Multisim simulator, electronic workbench.”

[17] Futurlec, “Et avr stamp avr atmega128.”

[18] P. Stang, “C-language function library for atmel avr processors.”

[19] ATMEL, “Avr studio R© 4, integrated development environment (ide).”

[20] “Open source software development tools for the atmel avr.”

[21] C. Lanconelli., “Ponyprog2000, serial device programer software.”

Appendix A

Code NEC

77

CM Design B: 3Beam/13 Elemnts over the circular ground plane with a skirt. CM Model; Optimization base of the paper Paper Junwei LuCM Skirt 1/4 LamdaCM Re!ector Wire 1, 11 segmentsCM Driven 1 Wire 2, 11 segmentsCM Driven 2 Wire 3, 11 segmentsCM Driven 3 Wire 4, 11 segmentsCM Director 1 Wire 5, 11 segmentsCM Director 2 Wire 6, 11 segmentsCM Director 3 Wire 7, 11 segmentsCM CESY r1=0.081 'Radius inner circleSY r2=0.081 'Radius outter circleSY Lmr=0.221662 'Main Re!ector lengthSY Ldriven=0.053579 'Driven Wire lengthSY Ldirec=0.08057 'Director Wire lengthSY Lcr1=0.24 'Corner Re!ector 1 lengthSY Lcr2=0.200031 'Corner Re!ector 2 lengthSY rmr=9.e-3 'Radius main re!ectorSY rdriven=5.e-3 'Radius of the inner elementsSY rdirec=5.e-4 'Radius of the outer elementsSY rcr1=2.e-3 'Radius of corner re!ectorsSY rcr2=2.e-3 'Radius corner re!ector 2SY d=0.SY s=11 'SegmentationGW 1 s .0 .0 d .0 .0 d+Lmr rmrGW 2 s r1*cos(0) r1*sin(0) d r1*cos(0) r1*sin(0) d+Ldriven rdrivenGW 3 s r1*cos(120) r1*sin(120) d r1*cos(120) r1*sin(120) d+Ldriven rdrivenGW 4 s r1*cos(240) r1*sin(240) d 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.000002GW 510 3 -.23769 -.050523 -.054 -.221992 -.098837 -.054 .000002GW 511 3 -.221992 -.098837 -.054 -.196591 -.142832 -.054 .000002GW 512 3 -.196591 -.142832 -.054 -.162599 -.180584 -.054 .000002GW 513 3 -.162599 -.180584 -.054 -.1215 -.210444 -.054 .000002GW 514 3 -.1215 -.210444 -.054 -.075091 -.231107 -.054 .000002GW 515 3 -.075091 -.231107 -.054 -.0254 -.241669 -.054 .000002GW 516 3 -.0254 -.241669 -.054 .0254 -.241669 -.054 .000002GW 517 3 .0254 -.241669 -.054 .075091 -.231107 -.054 .000002GW 518 3 .075091 -.231107 -.054 .1215 -.210444 -.054 .000002GW 519 3 .1215 -.210444 -.054 .162599 -.180584 -.054 .000002GW 520 3 .162599 -.180584 -.054 .196591 -.142832 -.054 .000002GW 521 3 .196591 -.142832 -.054 .221992 -.098837 -.054 .000002GW 522 3 .221992 -.098837 -.054 .23769 -.050523 -.054 .000002GW 523 3 .23769 -.050523 -.054 .243 .0 -.054 .000002GW 524 3 .243 .0 -.027 .23769 .050523 -.027 .000002GW 525 3 .23769 .050523 -.027 .221992 .098837 -.027 .000002GW 526 3 .221992 .098837 -.027 .196591 .142832 -.027 .000002GW 527 3 .196591 .142832 -.027 .162599 .180584 -.027 .000002GW 528 3 .162599 .180584 -.027 .1215 .210444 -.027 .000002GW 529 3 .1215 .210444 -.027 .075091 .231107 -.027 .000002GW 530 3 .075091 .231107 -.027 .0254 .241669 -.027 .000002

GW 531 3 .0254 .241669 -.027 -.0254 .241669 -.027 .000002GW 532 3 -.0254 .241669 -.027 -.075091 .231107 -.027 .000002GW 533 3 -.075091 .231107 -.027 -.1215 .210444 -.027 .000002GW 534 3 -.1215 .210444 -.027 -.162599 .180584 -.027 .000002GW 535 3 -.162599 .180584 -.027 -.196591 .142832 -.027 .000002GW 536 3 -.196591 .142832 -.027 -.221992 .098837 -.027 .000002GW 537 3 -.221992 .098837 -.027 -.23769 .050523 -.027 .000002GW 538 3 -.23769 .050523 -.027 -.243 .0 -.027 .000002GW 539 3 -.243 .0 -.027 -.23769 -.050523 -.027 .000002GW 540 3 -.23769 -.050523 -.027 -.221992 -.098837 -.027 .000002GW 541 3 -.221992 -.098837 -.027 -.196591 -.142832 -.027 .000002GW 542 3 -.196591 -.142832 -.027 -.162599 -.180584 -.027 .000002GW 543 3 -.162599 -.180584 -.027 -.1215 -.210444 -.027 .000002GW 544 3 -.1215 -.210444 -.027 -.075091 -.231107 -.027 .000002GW 545 3 -.075091 -.231107 -.027 -.0254 -.241669 -.027 .000002GW 546 3 -.0254 -.241669 -.027 .0254 -.241669 -.027 .000002GW 547 3 .0254 -.241669 -.027 .075091 -.231107 -.027 .000002GW 548 3 .075091 -.231107 -.027 .1215 -.210444 -.027 .000002GW 549 3 .1215 -.210444 -.027 .162599 -.180584 -.027 .000002GW 550 3 .162599 -.180584 -.027 .196591 -.142832 -.027 .000002GW 551 3 .196591 -.142832 -.027 .221992 -.098837 -.027 .000002GW 552 3 .221992 -.098837 -.027 .23769 -.050523 -.027 .000002GW 553 3 .23769 -.050523 -.027 .243 .0 -.027 .000002GW 554 3 .243 .0 .0 .23769 .050523 .0 .000002GW 555 3 .23769 .050523 .0 .221992 .098837 .0 .000002GW 556 3 .221992 .098837 .0 .196591 .142832 .0 .000002GW 557 3 .196591 .142832 .0 .162599 .180584 .0 .000002GW 558 3 .162599 .180584 .0 .1215 .210444 .0 .000002GW 559 3 .1215 .210444 .0 .075091 .231107 .0 .000002GW 560 3 .075091 .231107 .0 .0254 .241669 .0 .000002GW 561 3 .0254 .241669 .0 -.0254 .241669 .0 .000002GW 562 3 -.0254 .241669 .0 -.075091 .231107 .0 .000002GW 563 3 -.075091 .231107 .0 -.1215 .210444 .0 .000002GW 564 3 -.1215 .210444 .0 -.162599 .180584 .0 .000002GW 565 3 -.162599 .180584 .0 -.196591 .142832 .0 .000002GW 566 3 -.196591 .142832 .0 -.221992 .098837 .0 .000002GW 567 3 -.221992 .098837 .0 -.23769 .050523 .0 .000002GW 568 3 -.23769 .050523 .0 -.243 .0 .0 .000002GW 569 3 -.243 .0 .0 -.23769 -.050523 .0 .000002GW 570 3 -.23769 -.050523 .0 -.221992 -.098837 .0 .000002GW 571 3 -.221992 -.098837 .0 -.196591 -.142832 .0 .000002GW 572 3 -.196591 -.142832 .0 -.162599 -.180584 .0 .000002GW 573 3 -.162599 -.180584 .0 -.1215 -.210444 .0 .000002GW 574 3 -.1215 -.210444 .0 -.075091 -.231107 .0 .000002GW 575 3 -.075091 -.231107 .0 -.0254 -.241669 .0 .000002GW 576 3 -.0254 -.241669 .0 .0254 -.241669 .0 .000002GW 577 3 .0254 -.241669 .0 .075091 -.231107 .0 .000002GW 578 3 .075091 -.231107 .0 .1215 -.210444 .0 .000002GW 579 3 .1215 -.210444 .0 .162599 -.180584 .0 .000002GW 580 3 .162599 -.180584 .0 .196591 -.142832 .0 .000002GW 581 3 .196591 -.142832 .0 .221992 -.098837 .0 .000002GW 582 3 .221992 -.098837 .0 .23769 -.050523 .0 .000002GW 583 3 .23769 -.050523 .0 .243 .0 .0 .000002GE 0LD 4 3 1 0 50

'Load in the Driven 2LD 4 4 1 0 50

'Load in the Driven 3GN -1EKEX 0 2 1 11 1 0 'Voltage source (1+j0) at wire 2 segment 1.EN

Appendix B

Schematic of the RFmodule

83

APPENDIX B. SCHEMATIC OF THE RF MODULE 84

Appendix C

Schematic of theSplitter/Combiner module

85

Appendix D

PCB layout of the ”RF”module

86

Appendix E

PCB layout of theSplitter/Combiner” module

87

Appendix F

Devices Values

Figure F.1: Values of the electronic devices used in the PCB design.

88

Appendix G

Control System Schematic

89

APPENDIX G. CONTROL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC 90

12

34

ABCD

43

21

D C B AT

itle

Num

ber

Rev

isio

nS

ize

A4

Dat

e:5-A

pr-

2006

Shee

t o

f F

ile:

D:\

ET

-BA

SE

AT

meg

a64_128.D

db

Dra

wn B

y:

XT

AL

124

XT

AL

223

VCC21

VCC52

GND22

GND53

PE

N1

PA

0(A

D0)

51

PA

1(A

D1)

50

PA

2(A

D2)

49

PA

3(A

D3)

48

PA

4(A

D4)

47

PA

5(A

D5)

46

PA

6(A

D6)

45

PA

7(A

D7)

44

PB

0(S

S)

10

PB

1(S

CK

)11

PB

2(M

OS

I)12

PB

3(M

ISO

)13

PB

4(O

C0)

14

PB

5(O

C1A

)15

PB

6(O

C1B

)16

PB

7(0

C2/O

C1C

)17

PC

0(A

8)

35

PC

1(A

9)

36

PC

2(A

10)

37

PC

3(A

11)

38

PC

4(A

12)

39

PC

5(A

13)

40

PC

6(A

14)

41

PC

7(A

15)

42

PD

0(S

CL

/IN

T0)

25

PD

1(S

DA

/IN

T1)

26

PD

2(R

XD

1/I

NT

2)

27

PD

3(T

XD

1/I

NT

3)

28

PD

4(I

CP

1)

29

PD

5(X

CK

1)

30

PD

6(T

1)

31

PD

7(T

2)

32

PG

0(W

R)

33

PG

1(R

D)

34

PG

2(A

LE

)43

PG

3(T

OS

C2)

18

PG

4(T

OS

C1)

19

RE

SE

T20

PF

7(A

DC

7/T

DI)

54

PF

6(A

DC

6/T

DO

)55

PF

5(A

DC

5/T

MS

)56

PF

4(A

DC

4/T

CK

)57

PF

3(A

DC

3)

58

PF

2(A

DC

2)

59

PF

1(A

DC

1)

60

PF

0(A

DC

0)

61

GN

D63

AR

EF

62

AV

CC

64

PE

7(I

CP

3/I

NT

7)

9P

E6(T

3/I

NT

6)

8P

E5(O

C3C

/IN

T5)

7P

E4(O

C3B

/IN

T4)

6P

E3(O

C3A

/AIN

1)

5P

E2(X

CK

0/A

IN0)

4P

E1(T

XD

0/P

DO

)3

PE

0(R

XD

0/P

DI)

2

16M

Hz

22pF

22pF

10

10k

RE

SE

T

+5V

RE

SE

T

PA

0

PE

7P

E6

PE

5P

E4

PE

3P

E2

PE

1P

E0

PA

1P

A2

PA

3P

A4

PA

5P

A6

PA

7

PB

0P

B1

PB

2P

B3

PB

4P

B5

PB

6P

B7

PC

0P

C1

PC

2P

C3

PC

4P

C5

PC

6P

C7

PD

0P

D1

PD

2P

D3

PD

4P

D5

PD

6P

D7

PF

7P

F6

PF

5P

F4

PF

3P

F2

PF

1P

F0

PG

0P

G1

PG

2P

G3

PG

410k

+5V

12

34

56

78

910

ISP

LO

AD

12

34

56

78

910

PO

RT

A

PC

1P

C3

PC

5P

C7

PC

0P

C2

PC

4P

C6

GN

D+

5V

0.1

uF

+5V

0.1

uF

+5V

+5V

PE

1

PE

0

GN

D

RE

SE

TP

B1

+5V

GN

DM

ISO

MO

SI

SC

K

MO

SI

MIS

O

SC

K

RE

SE

T

AT

ME

GA

64/1

28

RE

SE

T

12

34

56

78

910

PO

RT

B

PB

1P

B3

PB

5P

B7

PB

0P

B2

PB

4P

B6

GN

D+

5V

12

34

56

78

910

PO

RT

C

PC

1P

C3

PC

5P

C7

PC

0P

C2

PC

4P

C6

GN

D+

5V

12

34

56

78

910

PO

RT

D

PD

1P

D3

PD

5P

D7

PD

0P

D2

PD

4P

D6

GN

D+

5V

12

34

56

78

910

PO

RT

E

PE

1P

E3

PE

5P

E7

PE

0P

E2

PE

4P

E6

GN

D+

5V

12

34

56

78

910

PO

RT

F

PF

1P

F3

PF

5P

F7

PF

0P

F2

PF

4P

F6

GN

D+

5V

10

0.1

uF

12

34

56

78

910

11

12

13

14

ET

-CL

CD

10K

GN

D

+5V

VO

RW

D0

D2

D4

D6

+V

D1

D3

RS

EN

D5

D7

PG

0P

G2

PG

1P

G3

PG

4P

D7

C1+

1

C1-

3

C2+

4

C2-

5

R1O

12

T1I

11

R2O

9

T2I

10

VC

C16

V+

2

V-

6

GN

D15

R1I

13

T1O

14

R2I

8

T2O

7

ICL

3232

1 2 3 4

RS

232-C

H0

1 2 3 4

RS

232-C

H1

+5V

+5V

0.1

uF

+5V

PD

2P

D3

PE

0P

E1

RX

DT

XD

RX

DT

XD

RX

D1

TX

D1

RX

D0

TX

D0

0.1

uF

0.1

uF

0.1

uF

0.1

uF

Adis

ak C

hooch

an

ET

T C

O.,L

TD

. (W

WW

.ET

T.C

O.T

H)

Rev

0

ET

-BA

SE

AV

R A

TM

EG

A64/1

28

Vin

GND

Vout

7805

0.1

uF

0.1

uF

100uF

/25V

10uF

/16V

+5V

7-1

2V

DC

1N

4001

RSSI

1

RSSI

3

RSSI

2

Cont

rol

Switc

h 1.

B

Cont

rol

Switc

h 1.

A

Cont

rol

Switc

h 3.

B

Cont

rol

Switc

h 3.

A

Cont

rol

Switc

h 2.

A

Cont

rol

Switc

h 2.

B

Cont

rol A

mp3

RF1

Cont

rol A

mp3

RF2

Cont

rol A

mp3

RF3

Appendix H

Datasheets RF System

91

APPENDIX H. DATASHEETS RF SYSTEM 92

Dev

ice

Mod

elSu

pply

UR

L

Cou

pler

SCD

C-1

1-2

Min

icir

cuit

shttp://www.minicircuits.com/pdfs/SCDC-11-2.pdf

Am

plifi

er1

MA

X26

40E

UT

+M

axim

http://datasheets.maxim-ic.com/en/ds/MAX2640-MAX2641.pdf

Filt

erT

A94

7FG

Gol

ledg

ehttp://www.golledge.com/pdf/products/saw/gsrf.pdf

Am

plifi

er2

VN

A-2

3M

inic

ircu

its

http://www.minicircuits.com/pdfs/VNA-23.pdf

Gai

nA

mpl

ifier

MA

X20

56E

TX

+M

axim

http://datasheets.maxim-ic.com/en/ds/MAX2056.pdf

RF

Pow

erD

etec

tor

MA

X20

16E

TI+

Max

imhttp://datasheets.maxim-ic.com/en/ds/MAX2016.pdf

Swit

chM

SWA

-2-2

0+M

inic

ircu

its

http://www.minicircuits.com/pdfs/MSWA-2-20.pdf

Split

ter

SCN

-3-1

3+M

inic

ircu

its

http://www.minicircuits.com/pdfs/SCN-3-13.pdf

Appendix I

Datasheets Control System

93

APPENDIX I. DATASHEETS CONTROL SYSTEM 94

Dev

ice

Mod

elU

RL

Mic

roco

ntro

ller

AV

RA

TM

ega

128

http://www.atmel.com/dyn/products/datasheets.aspfamilyid=607

SPI

Pro

gram

erL

M74

05http://www.futurlec.com.au/ET-AVR\_Stamp.jsp

5VV

olta

gere

gula

tor

LM

7805

http://www.ortodoxism.ro/datasheets/fairchild/LM7805.pdf

-9V

Vol

tage

regu

lato

rL

M79

09http://www.datasheets.org.uk/datasheet.php?article=2028216

Tim

er55

5L

M74

05http://www.national.com/pf/LM/LM555.html

Ope

rati

onal

Am

plifi

erL

M74

1http://www.national.com/pf/LM/LM741.html

Tra

nsis

tor

BC

548

http://www.ortodoxism.ro/datasheets/fairchild/BC548.pdf

Appendix J

Code control.c

95

//*****************************************************************************

//

// File Name : 'control.c'

// Title : Control Electronically Switched Multiple Beam Antenna

// Author : Néstor Hernández

// Version : 1.1

//

//*****************************************************************************

#define F_CPU 16000000

#define DELAY_MS 10000

#include <avr/io.h>

#include <avr/interrupt.h>

#include <util/delay.h>

#include "global.h"

#include "a2d.h"

//! Software flag used to indicate when

/// the a2d conversion is complete.

volatile unsigned char a2dCompleteFlag;

//global variables

int num=0;

int short x=0, y=0, z=0, k=0, u=0;

// functions

// initialize a2d converter

void a2dInit(void)

sbi(ADCSR, ADEN); // enable ADC (turn on ADC power)

cbi(ADCSR, ADFR); // default to single sample

convert mode

a2dSetPrescaler(ADC_PRESCALE); // set default prescaler

a2dSetReference(ADC_REFERENCE); // set default reference

cbi(ADMUX, ADLAR); // set to right-adjusted result

sbi(ADCSR, ADIE); // enable ADC interrupts

a2dCompleteFlag = FALSE; // clear conversion complete flag

sei(); // turn on interrupts (if

not already on)

// configure A2D converter clock division (prescaling)

void a2dSetPrescaler(unsigned char prescale)

outb(ADCSR, ((inb(ADCSR) & ~ADC_PRESCALE_MASK) | prescale));

// configure A2D converter voltage reference

void a2dSetReference(unsigned char ref)

outb(ADMUX, ((inb(ADMUX) & ~ADC_REFERENCE_MASK) | (ref<<6)));

// Perform a 10-bit conversion

// starts conversion, waits until conversion is done, and returns result

unsigned short a2dConvert10bit(unsigned char ch)

a2dCompleteFlag = FALSE; // clear conversion

complete flag

outb(ADMUX, (inb(ADMUX) & ~ADC_MUX_MASK) | (ch & ADC_MUX_MASK)); // set

channel

sbi(ADCSR, ADIF); // clear hardware

"conversion complete" flag

sbi(ADCSR, ADSC); // start

conversion

//while(!a2dCompleteFlag); // wait until conversion

complete

//while( bit_is_clear(ADCSR, ADIF) ); // wait until conversion complete

while( bit_is_set(ADCSR, ADSC) ); // wait until conversion complete

// CAUTION: MUST READ ADCL BEFORE ADCH!!!

return (inb(ADCL) | (inb(ADCH)<<8)); // read ADC (full 10 bits);

// *********MAIN*************************************************

int main(void)

a2dInit(); // Init ADC

DDRA=0xFF; //Set pins port A as output

DDRB=0xFF; //Set pins port B as output.

PORTB=0x81;

PORTA=0x29;

newmax=0;

lastmax=1;

while(1)

a2d();

compare();

if (newmax!=lastmax)

switchControl();

lastmax=newmax;

ampControl();

PORTD=0x00;

mydelay(600);

mydelay(600);

return 0;

//*************************************************************

// *********ANALOG DIGITAL CONVERTER**************

//Measure signals strength

void a2d(void)

int i;

// Make conversion and save the values in the array valuea2d

//Pins F.0, F.1 and F.2

for(i=0; i<3;i++)

valuea2d[i]=a2dConvert10bit(i);

//*************************************************************

//********COMPARATION********************************

unsigned short int compare(void)

int i;

max=valuea2d[0];

newmax=0;

//Compare values. Get maximum

for(i=1;i<3;i++)

if(valuea2d[i]>max)

max=valuea2d[i];

newmax=i;

/*

if(valuea2d[1]>max)

max=valuea2d[1];

newmax=1;

else

if(valuea2d[2]>max)

max=valuea2d[2];

newmax=2;

else

newmax=0;

*/

return newmax;

//*************************************************************

//********SWITCH CONTROL********************************

void switchControl(void)

//Set the proper switch On

switch(newmax)

case 0:

if(lastmax=1)

PORTA=0x25;

usdelay();

PORTA=0x29;

if(lastmax=2)

PORTA=0x19;

usdelay();

PORTA=0x29;

break;

case 1:

if(lastmax=0)

PORTA=0x25;

usdelay();

PORTA=0x26;

if(lastmax=2)

PORTA=0x16;

usdelay();

PORTA=0x26;

break;

case 2:

if(lastmax=0)

PORTA=0x19;

usdelay();

PORTA=0x1A;

if(lastmax=1)

PORTA=0x16;

usdelay();

PORTA=0x1A;

break;

//******************************************************************

//*********AMP CONTROL*********************************

//

void ampControl(void)

if(max>479)

PORTB=0x81; //AMP Off

else

if(max<268)

PORTB=0x00; // AMP On

//**************************************************************

void mydelay(int num)

for(x=0;x<num;x++) // THIS IS the timing loop, very critical

for(y=0;y<255;y++)

for(z=0;z<10;z++)

k++; //do something to satisfy avr-gcc

num=0;

k=0;

//**************************************************************

void usdelay(void)

u=0;

for(u=0;u<9;u++) // THIS IS the timing loop, very critical

;

Appendix K

Cost of the project

101

APPENDIX K. COST OF THE PROJECT 102

#D

EVIC

EM

OD

EL

Supplie

rU

NIT

SPa

ckPR

ICE (

UN

IT)

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Couple

rSCD

C-1

1-2

Min

icircu

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44

$11.9

5$47.8

02

Am

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MAX2640EU

T+

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im4

4$1.2

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02.1

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70 p

F8819688 (

0402)

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02.2

C2 3

pF

SM

D3.3

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0603)

Min

ikits

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$1.7

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02.3

C3 4

70 p

F8819688 (

0402)

Farn

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02.3

Z1 9

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H1198376 (

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22.4

ZM

1 2

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D2.2

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0603)

Min

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$1.7

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03

Filter

TA947FG

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dge

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$9.5

7$57.4

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Appendix L

Planning Report

103

4001ENG INDUSTRIAL AFFILIATES PROGRAM

PLANNING REPORT

“SMART ANTENNA GSM 900 MHz FOR MARINE APPLICATIONS”

NESTOR HERNANDEZ

13/4/2007

PLANNING REPORT NESTOR HERNANDEZ S2612872

ESMB FOR GSM 800/2000 MHz IN MARINE APPLICATIONS

2

CONTENTS

1. Introduction Page 3

1.1 Project description Page 3

1.2 Project Stakeholders Page 4

1.2.1 Student detail Page 4

1.2.2 Industry partner Page 4

1.2.3 Project supervisor Page 4

2. Technical specifications Page 5

2.1 Antenna system Page 5

2.2 RF system Page 6

2.3 Control system Page 7

2.4 Benefits and costs Page 8

2.4.1 Benefits Page 8

2.4.2 Costs Page 8

3. Program schedule Page 9

3.1 Scoping diagram Page 9

3.2 Resources estimates Page 9

3.3 Gantt chart Page 10

3.4 Project outcomes Page 11

4. Risk assessment Page 11

5. Quality schedule Page 12

6. Wider professional issues Page 12

7. References Page 13



3

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project description

GSM communications are continuously increasing their coverage, performance and accessibility,

with this characteristic result so interesting use this technology for other application, like the

communications between the ships and the coast. This project addresses the need to create a multi

directional antenna for the GSM band for marine application. This report explains the method of the

construction of an electronically switched multiple beam antenna. As the boat orientation changes, the

direction of the antenna beam has to change to maintain the communication between the ship and the base

station in the coast. This antenna will have three active elements (monopoles), which cover the azimuthal

plane in 360°. The system automatically detects signal strength from the three directions, selects the

strongest signal and switches, from one beam to another as the ship changes the position and orientation.

The figure 1 shows the block diagram of the project.

Figure 1. Main diagram of the project.

This project is conducted by the industrial partner, associated Professor Junwei Lu, who requires

the construction of this prototype antenna with a gain of 6 [dBi], for the frequencies between 800 [MHz]

and 2000 [MHz] using an hybrid switched-beam Array, with 13 elements based in work previously

published [1].



4

The main modules of this project are.

• Antenna system: The module consists of an ESMB antenna for the GSM 900 band with 3 possible

beams. The antenna will transmit only for the beam ( zone) with a better position to link the base

station. The antenna will be receiving for the 3 zones.

• RF receiver: Includes the electronic prototype to measure the signal’s strength of each active

element by RF power detectors.

• Control system: Acquire and compares the values of the RF detector output, selects the maximum

value, and active this antenna’s beam to keep the link with the baes station in the coast.

• Antenna direction controller switches the RF source to the monopole which is in a better condition

to transmit, and switches the other two monopoles to an open circuit

1.2 Project stakeholders

This work will be done in the Griffith University, School of Engineering on the Nathan Campus.

1.2.1 Student detail

Student name: Nestor Hernandez

Student Number: s2612872

E-mail: [email protected]

Phone number: 04-20756717

1.2.2 Industry partner

Company name: Centre of Wireless Monitoring and Applications, Griffith University

Company contact: Dr. Junwei Lu


Phone number: 373 55118

1.2.3 Projet supervisor.

Name: Dr. Junwei Lu


Phone number: 373 55118



5

2 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

The system is divided in three main areas, which are follow describe.

2.1 Antenna System

The first part of the project requires the design, simulation and testing of the antenna array with

the follow characteristic.

SPECIFICATONS

s

Operation frequency Between 800 MHz and 2000 MHz Beam position 3 Beam Width ( -3dB ) > 120° Azimuthal plane Gain 6 dBi (directional) Polarization Vertical External connector SMA connector 50 Ω

Table 1. Specifications of the Antenna prototype.

The first design is shown in the figure 2. The array has 13 elements, which consists of a central

reflector element surrounded by 6 arms of 2 elements, 3 arms are configured like reflectors and the other

3 arms are configured like Yagi-Uda antenna with the active elements (S1, S2 and S3) as driver and

follow by one director (D), each active arm is inserted between two reflector arm.

Figure 2. 13 elements array antenna, S1, S2 and S3 are the active elements where is meassure the RF level and

switched the RF voltage.

This array creates a multi-beam antenna with 3 possible beam positions1, 2 and 3 as shown by

the figure 3, providing 360° azimuthal coverage. The structure has been simulated in a previews work [1]

and the optimum length of the elements was found to be: for central reflector R, 0.8λ long with 0.025λ



6

radius, the other elements were 0.495λ long with a radius of 0.0025λ, and the radial inter-element was

fixed at 0.25λ.

Figure 3. Estimated H plane radiation pattern of the multiple beam antenna. For the three switch positions.

The design and simulations of the antenna models will be made with the software NEC [2] optimizing its performance including extra elements like directors and different kind of reflectors.

2.2 RF system.

The RF system will be continuously measuring the signals strength of the GSM band, coming

from each zone of the antenna. The measure will be make by RF detector devices. Also the system must

include a directional coupler for each detector (see Figure 4). The coupler must communicate the RF

switch and the antenna in both directions, the antenna and the RF detector only in one direction, and do

not communicate the RF detector and the RF switch.

Figure 4. Diagram of the coupler use in the RF system.



7

2.3 Control system.

A microcontroller will be used to acquire the output values of the RF detectors, determine the

strongest signal, and activate the switches. The microcontroller must have the following features:

• 3 Analog to digital converter (ADC- 8bits),

• 3 digital output ports to control the switch setting.

Figure 5 shows the schematic of the decision system of the strongest signal and the switching

method. The microcontroller measures periodically the output of the RF detectors (V1,V2 and V3),

afterwards compares the three values and identifies the maximum power, then a dc electronic signal

control the switch [3]. When the switch is closed, the monopole is connected with the RF voltage, and

when the switch is opened the monopole is connected to a 50 Ω charge.

Figure 5. Schematic of the control system (the antennas position are not like the figure. Real position, see figure 2) .

The switching can be achieved electronically using active semiconductor devices, p-i-n diodes or

field effect transistor switches, like the Infineon BAR series or by radio frequency

microelectromechanical systems (RF MEMS) switches [5].



8

2.4 Benefit and Cost

2.4.1 Benefits

The electronically switched multiple-beam antenna has a better performance compare with the

other steering beam antennas, because of their fast response. Also the ESMB antenna have a better power

efficiency compared with the actual antennas used in marine applications, generally omni-directional

antennas. This aspect reduces the cost of the communication system (lower amplifier costs) and decrease

the power supply to the antenna, therefore the electromagnetic pollution is reduced, improving the signal

noise ratio.

The smart antenna system could be sold, with the purpose of reduce cost in amplifiers and

increase the signal quality of the link with the radio-based system through more focused transmission of

radio signals.

2.4.2 Costs The figure 6 shows the list of the cost that will be incurred. This list includes the labour cost of

37.5 hours per weeks of student’s work and 1 hr per week of the academic supervisor’s work. The

prices of the elements are only a first approximation, due is still not defined the correct choice of the

electronic devices.

ITEM #

UNIT COST

A$

TOTAL COST

PER ITEM A$

1 Antenna system

1.1 Prototype Antenna 1 200 200

2 RF system

2.1 RF MENS 3 10 30

2.2 RF Detectors 3 10 30

2.3 Couples 3 36 108

3 Control system

3.1 Kit microcontroller 1 50 50

3.2 Extra elements 10

3.3 Power supply 5V 1 40 40

4 Integration

4.1 PCB for the final assemble 200

5 Final Report

5.1 Reports and documentation 50

TOTAL 1 718

6 Labour cost

6.1 Student 563 20 11,250

6.2 Academic Staff 15 200 3,000

TOTAL 2 14,968 Table 2. Estimation costs of the project.



9

3 PROGRAM SCHEDULLE

3.1 Scoping diagram.

The following figure 6 shows the list of tasks that are necessaries for the success of this project.

Figure 6. Diagram of project’s tasks.

3.2 Resources estimate

This project requires access to some tools for antenna design and testing. These are:

a. Computer and Internet access: needed for the research activities and simulation.

b. Electromagnetic simulation software: one of the software: NEC [2] or FEMLAB [5] will be

used during the first part of the project designing and simulating the antenna array, the

radiation diagram, the gain, reflection coefficient, etc.

c. Mathematical software: Matlab [6] will be used to plot the real diagram radiation pattern.

d. Anechoic Chamber: in this chamber it will be performed the measurement of the radiation

pattern.

e. Network analyzer: it is necessary to measure the reflection coefficient and the real Bandwidth of the antenna.



10

f. Protoboard: necessary for assemble of the electronic devices.

g. Digital Oscilloscope: it will measure the output of the RF system.

h. Microcontroller developer kit: need it to program the microcontroller and make some test.

i. PCB design software: it will be used to design the path of the final prototype. 3.3 Gantt Chart

This project has some important activities during the semester, In the figure 6, are shown the most

important tasks, wich are the same that are shown in the figure 7.

Figure 7. Chart Gantt of the project.



11

3.4 Project outcomes.

The following table 3 shows the relevant deliverables to the Industrial partner and the IAP office.

DATE DELIVERABLES RECIPIENT 12 March Planning Report 23 March Milestone 1 Project confirmation 29 March Milestone 2 Antenna system 18 April Milestone 3 RF detector an Switching system 10 May Milestone 4 Control system 28 May Milestone 5 Complete system 2 April 8 June

Seminar presentation Project thesis and poster

Professor Jun Wei Lu &

Griffith University

29 March Antenna Prototype 18 April RF circuit design and switching system design 10 May Control system design 1 June Full system test

Professor Jun Wei Lu

Table 3. Documents and elements, witch must be delivered.

4 RISKS AND SOLUTIONS

This project contains some risk elements that must be considered, the following list describe them

and identify the strategy to manage those risks.

a. Possible late arrival of necessary components.

Solution: purchase it with anticipations, or have another dealer.

b. Possible damage of the microcontroller.

Solution: this should not happened if it is made a rigorous design of the electronic system, if

some thing wrong happen, the solution is to buy another one and find what was the mistake.

c. Deliver of the antenna prototype with defective.

Solution: send it to fix, and while start the next task on the Gantt chart.

d. Risk if the antenna fails.

Solution: Before construct the antenna prototype, it will be simulated by NEC [2], this

simulation includes radiation pattern and the reflection coefficient S11. The project supervisor

will verify all these results. Anyway, if antenna fails, it will be proceeded to analyze the model,

find the problem, re simulated, contrast the results and send it to manufacture. The ultimate

alternative will be buy 3 directional antennas, and mounted in a base reaching the required

radiation patter.



12

5 QUALITY SCHEDULE

The table 4 shows the Verification and Validation Plan. The tests will be verified by the project

supervisor, Professor Junwei Lu.

AREA TEST NOTES

Bandwidth measure Using the VNA, it will be measured the reflection coefficient S11 to obtain the bandwidth of the antenna.

Gain measure For this measure it will be used the three antennas technique.

Antenna Test.

Radiation pattern

Anechoic chamber will be used to obtain the data for create the real radiation pattern with matlab [6]

RF detector Test In the RF laboratory, with the oscilloscope will be measured the RF detector’s output under a RF tone transmitted to the antenna. RF system

Test. Impedance Test

The impedance in the RF system will be measure in the cases that the switch will change the position.

Test the ADC module With a potentiometer changing the voltage from 0 to 5V will be test the ADC module.

Test the comparator module

A LED will be connected to each beam control output to test the comparator and know which antenna is active.

Control

systemTest.

Switching latency test The time of the activation of the switch will be

measured. Laboratory test Indoor test of the full system.

Full system test Field test

Outdoor test of the full system measuring the SNR in a real link.

Table 4. Test and verification plan for the project.

6 WIDER PROFESSIONAL ISSUES.

The student will manage this project. He is the responsible for the success of the tasks that are been included in the project schedule. All the activities must be synchronized with the Gantt chart shown in this report. The costs of the devices must be carefully considering at the moment to purchase the elements, in other way; the project will not be profitable. To avoid problems with the schedule, the activities that require the presence of the industrial supervisor must be informed to him with 1 week of anticipation. This project gives important advances to the marine communication systems, bue the energy supplied to the antenna will be smaller than the actual system, ESMB antenna uses the third part of the power required by the omni-directional antennas system used in the ships. This involves the reduction of the cost of the amplifiers, an essential part of the wireless communication system. With this advance will be cheaper obtain a communication system for marine applications.



13

7 REFERENCES

[1] S. Preston, J. Lu, and D. Thiel, “Systematic approach to the design of directional antennas using

swithced parasitic and swithced active element”, in Proc. APMC, Dec. 1998, pp 531-534.

[2] NEC WIN Professional TM, “ Antenna analisys software version 1.1”. Nittany Scientific Inc.

California, 1997.

[3] D. Thiel, S. Smith, “Switched parasitic antennas for cellular communications”. 2002 Artech House

Inc. ISBN 1-58053-154-7, pag 52.

[4] J. Wei Lu, D. Thiel, “FDTD analisys of Dielectric-Embedded Electronically Switched Multiple-

Beam (DE-ESMB) Antenna Array” pag. 1.

[5] Femlab V.3.2, Comsol.

[6] Matlab V. r2006b, Mathworks.

Appendix M

Milestone Reports

117