SUCCESSFUL PROGRAM SUCCESSFUL PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIESDEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

Solid research base is lackingSolid research base is lacking Hundreds of literature prescribe how to Hundreds of literature prescribe how to

develop educational programs: useful for develop educational programs: useful for specific or for all professionsspecific or for all professions

Practitioners skeptical about the prescriptive Practitioners skeptical about the prescriptive frameworksframeworks

Practice involves personality conflicts, Practice involves personality conflicts, political factors, and resources constraintspolitical factors, and resources constraints

Limited research shows no continuing Limited research shows no continuing educators use textbook planning frameworks, educators use textbook planning frameworks, even for programs that are ‘successful’even for programs that are ‘successful’

Doesn’t mean practitioners do not think in Doesn’t mean practitioners do not think in systematic wayssystematic ways

Textbook planning frameworks do not Textbook planning frameworks do not adequately prescribe and describe those adequately prescribe and describe those systematic processessystematic processes

Practitioners have personal values, believes Practitioners have personal values, believes and institutional context that influence and institutional context that influence program development program development

Central task for effective Central task for effective practicepractice: :

1.1. Make own framework explicitMake own framework explicit

2.2. Analyze its assumptions and Analyze its assumptions and principlesprinciples

3.3. Alter it when necessaryAlter it when necessary

Which Program Development Which Program Development Framework Should Practitioners Framework Should Practitioners

Use?Use? Tyler (1949) suggests 4 questions as guide Tyler (1949) suggests 4 questions as guide

for curriculum developmentfor curriculum development

1.1. What educational experiences should the What educational experiences should the school seek to attain?school seek to attain?

2.2. What educational experiences can be What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these provided that are likely to attain these purposes?purposes?

3.3. How can these educational purposes be How can these educational purposes be effectively organizedeffectively organized

4.4. How can we determine whether these How can we determine whether these purposes are being attainedpurposes are being attained

Apps (1985) translated the questions into Apps (1985) translated the questions into five tasks:five tasks:

1.1. Identifying learners’ needsIdentifying learners’ needs2.2. Defining objectivesDefining objectives3.3. Identifying learning experiences that meet Identifying learning experiences that meet

these objectivesthese objectives

4.4. Organizing learning experiences into an Organizing learning experiences into an educational planeducational plan

5.5. Evaluating the outcomes of the educational Evaluating the outcomes of the educational effort in accordance with the objectiveseffort in accordance with the objectives

Pennington and Green (1976) interviewed 52 Pennington and Green (1976) interviewed 52 CPE program planners in university setting: CPE program planners in university setting: how planning was done?how planning was done?

Findings:Findings:Four major discrepancies between literature Four major discrepancies between literature and practiceand practice

1.1. Little comprehensive needs assessment – Little comprehensive needs assessment – lack of time, expertise, or recourseslack of time, expertise, or recourses

2.2. Available resources were not used to Available resources were not used to determine program’s objectivesdetermine program’s objectives

3.3. The design of instruction was not based on The design of instruction was not based on learner characteristics, desired outcomes, learner characteristics, desired outcomes, time, money, or other resourcestime, money, or other resources

4.4. Comprehensive evaluation was not done Comprehensive evaluation was not done

Factors influencing the practices:Factors influencing the practices: Personal valuesPersonal values Environmental constraintsEnvironmental constraints Available resource alternativesAvailable resource alternatives Other factorsOther factors

Planners respond to the contextPlanners respond to the context Planning framework in the literature presented Planning framework in the literature presented

in context-free mannerin context-free manner Textbook framework can be useful as long as Textbook framework can be useful as long as

practitioners aware of their limitationspractitioners aware of their limitations

An Overview of Program An Overview of Program Development FrameworksDevelopment Frameworks

Frameworks from Individual ProfessionsFrameworks from Individual Professions Sork (1983) found 22 literature on CPE program Sork (1983) found 22 literature on CPE program

planning planning Equal emphasis give to both the activity levels and Equal emphasis give to both the activity levels and

organizational levels of programmingorganizational levels of programming Most planning frameworks were designed for members Most planning frameworks were designed for members

of a single organizationof a single organization The level of sophistication needed to use the The level of sophistication needed to use the

frameworks is relatively lowframeworks is relatively low

Most publications emphasize the ‘how’ Most publications emphasize the ‘how’ rather than the ‘why’rather than the ‘why’

Planning steps similar with Tyler’s Planning steps similar with Tyler’s questionsquestions

Highly prescriptive in nature little Highly prescriptive in nature little attention to contextattention to context

Difference emphasis given to the linkage Difference emphasis given to the linkage between the educational program and the between the educational program and the expected changes in professional practice; expected changes in professional practice; practice emphasis more than the practice emphasis more than the frameworkframework

Cross-Professional FrameworksCross-Professional Frameworks

Suggested by Pennington and Green (1976) Suggested by Pennington and Green (1976) from study of six different professionsfrom study of six different professions

Business administration, educational Business administration, educational administration, law, teaching, social work, and administration, law, teaching, social work, and medicinemedicine

Descriptive rather than prescriptive frameworkDescriptive rather than prescriptive framework General model comprises a series of tasks and General model comprises a series of tasks and

decisionsdecisions

11stst Cluster – Originating the idea: Cluster – Originating the idea: Formal need assessmentsFormal need assessments Requests from a clientRequests from a client Availability of project moniesAvailability of project monies Legislative mandatesLegislative mandates Suggestions from campus facultySuggestions from campus faculty

22ndnd Cluster – Developing the idea: Cluster – Developing the idea: Informal test of the idea with practitionersInformal test of the idea with practitioners A review of literatureA review of literature A market analysisA market analysis

33rdrd Cluster – Making a commitment: Cluster – Making a commitment: Selecting instructorsSelecting instructors Using existing course or develop a new oneUsing existing course or develop a new one

44thth Cluster – Developing the program: Cluster – Developing the program: Objectives were determinedObjectives were determined Subject matter was developedSubject matter was developed Materials were accumulatedMaterials were accumulated

55thth Cluster – Teaching the course: Cluster – Teaching the course: As planned and some flexibilityAs planned and some flexibility

66thth Cluster – Evaluating the impact: Cluster – Evaluating the impact: Determination of what to evaluateDetermination of what to evaluate Developing instrumentsDeveloping instruments Administration of the evaluationAdministration of the evaluation

According to Pennington & Green program According to Pennington & Green program development is a form of administrative development is a form of administrative decision-makingdecision-making

The decisions were based on contextual factors The decisions were based on contextual factors such as climate, internal and external such as climate, internal and external constraints and resourcesconstraints and resources

Houle’s Triple-Mode ModelHoule’s Triple-Mode Model

Focus on strengthen professional performanceFocus on strengthen professional performance Planning itself should be part of the Planning itself should be part of the

educational activityeducational activity Suggests a comprehensive educational process Suggests a comprehensive educational process

consists of 3 modes of participation: consists of 3 modes of participation: instruction, inquiry, and reinforcementinstruction, inquiry, and reinforcement

Originated from several models used by Originated from several models used by medical professionmedical profession

Steps in Houle’s ModelSteps in Houle’s Model

1.1. Developing a list of standards of good practiceDeveloping a list of standards of good practice

2.2. Setting the ideals of what these standards can Setting the ideals of what these standards can accomplishaccomplish

3.3. Establishing a floor for what these standards can Establishing a floor for what these standards can accomplishaccomplish

4.4. All staff are informed about the steps already taken All staff are informed about the steps already taken and approve of what has been doneand approve of what has been done

5.5. Data are collected on current staff performanceData are collected on current staff performance

6.6. These measurements of performance are These measurements of performance are compared with both the ideal and minimally compared with both the ideal and minimally acceptable standards to determine the acceptable standards to determine the problemsproblems

7.7. Determine the causes of the differences Determine the causes of the differences between what is and what ought to bebetween what is and what ought to be

8.8. Educational programs develop to correct the Educational programs develop to correct the problemsproblems

9.9. Evaluate the changesEvaluate the changes

10.10. Further programs are considered if neededFurther programs are considered if needed

Houle’s model similar to Tyler’s modelHoule’s model similar to Tyler’s model First 6 steps are elaborated way of identifying First 6 steps are elaborated way of identifying

learner’s needslearner’s needs Setting objectives and identifying and Setting objectives and identifying and

organizing learning experiences are done in organizing learning experiences are done in steps 7 and 8steps 7 and 8

Evaluating the outcomes occurs in steps 9 and Evaluating the outcomes occurs in steps 9 and 1010

Practice-Audit ModelPractice-Audit Model

Developed by Queeney and Smutz Developed by Queeney and Smutz (Pennsylvania State University)(Pennsylvania State University)

Based on pharmacy professionBased on pharmacy profession Similar to Houle’s modelSimilar to Houle’s model Both are practice oriented and similar process Both are practice oriented and similar process

are used in carrying out the frameworksare used in carrying out the frameworks Both are prescriptive frameworksBoth are prescriptive frameworks

Unique characteristic of this model – its Unique characteristic of this model – its implementation involved a collaboration between a implementation involved a collaboration between a higher education institution and professional higher education institution and professional associationsassociations

Consists of 7-phase process:Consists of 7-phase process:1.1. A committee of 6 – 10 members was developed from A committee of 6 – 10 members was developed from

relevant academic department, state and national relevant academic department, state and national associations, and national regulatory agencyassociations, and national regulatory agency

2.2. Developing practice descriptions and then validated by Developing practice descriptions and then validated by asking practitioners the importance of each taskasking practitioners the importance of each task

3.3. Performance assessment materials were Performance assessment materials were developed and acceptable and unacceptable developed and acceptable and unacceptable levels of performance were determinedlevels of performance were determined

4.4. Conducting the practice audit session to gather Conducting the practice audit session to gather data on the practice descriptionsdata on the practice descriptions

5.5. The participants’ performance was compared to The participants’ performance was compared to the standards that had been developed in phase 3 the standards that had been developed in phase 3 – the deficiencies formed the basis for – the deficiencies formed the basis for educational programeducational program

6.6. CPE programs were developed CPE programs were developed

7.7. Evaluating the changes in practice after 6 monthsEvaluating the changes in practice after 6 months

Program Development as Program Development as Professional WorkProfessional Work

Framework or model must be adapted to the Framework or model must be adapted to the contextcontext

It is a practice undertaken by CPE educatorsIt is a practice undertaken by CPE educators As a form of professional practice it can be As a form of professional practice it can be

analyzed within the functionalist and critical analyzed within the functionalist and critical frameworksframeworks

Functionalist – assumes practice problems are Functionalist – assumes practice problems are well formed and that these problems are solved well formed and that these problems are solved by the application of scientific knowledgeby the application of scientific knowledge

The goal is to help professionals gain new The goal is to help professionals gain new knowledge, attitudes, or skillsknowledge, attitudes, or skills

Done by framework where needs are assessed, Done by framework where needs are assessed, objectives identified, instruction organized, objectives identified, instruction organized, and outcomes evaluatedand outcomes evaluated

Planning frameworks as forms of scientific Planning frameworks as forms of scientific knowledge if applied will improve practiceknowledge if applied will improve practice

Reality is different so an alternative was Reality is different so an alternative was proposed proposed

Critical viewpoint offers a more useful way to Critical viewpoint offers a more useful way to understand program developmentunderstand program development

CPE educators regularly confronted with CPE educators regularly confronted with situations that are characterized by uniqueness, situations that are characterized by uniqueness, uncertainty, or value conflictuncertainty, or value conflict

They must construct the problem from the They must construct the problem from the situation using the skills of problem-settingsituation using the skills of problem-setting

The knowledge used comes from repertoire of The knowledge used comes from repertoire of examples, images, understandings, and actionsexamples, images, understandings, and actions

Professionals’ espoused theories of practice Professionals’ espoused theories of practice and theories-in-use (Argyris and Schon, 1974)and theories-in-use (Argyris and Schon, 1974)

Espoused theory – theory of action (what is Espoused theory – theory of action (what is planned in given situation)planned in given situation)

Theory-in-use – theory governs educators’ Theory-in-use – theory governs educators’ actions; may or may not similar to their actions; may or may not similar to their espoused theoryespoused theory

Theory-in-use must be constructed from Theory-in-use must be constructed from observing actual behaviorobserving actual behavior

All program development frameworks are All program development frameworks are someone’s espoused theoriessomeone’s espoused theories

Argyris and Schon argue that professionals Argyris and Schon argue that professionals must develop their own continuing theory of must develop their own continuing theory of practice under real-time conditionspractice under real-time conditions

CPE educators should make their espoused CPE educators should make their espoused theories congruent with their theories-in-use theories congruent with their theories-in-use which is context-specific which include:which is context-specific which include: personal beliefs and values about learningpersonal beliefs and values about learning Proper place of the professions in societyProper place of the professions in society Whether they are technically trainedWhether they are technically trained

Some theories-in-use are more successful than Some theories-in-use are more successful than othersothers

CPE would become more effective if CPE would become more effective if educators see themselves as practical theorists:educators see themselves as practical theorists: Analyzing their own practiceAnalyzing their own practice Making explicit their theories-in-useMaking explicit their theories-in-use Present actual planning frameworks Present actual planning frameworks