sufism and sufi orders: god's spiritual paths adaptation and renewal in teh context of modernization

8/13/2019 Sufism and Sufi orders: God's spiritual paths Adaptation and Renewal in teh context of modernization

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Susm and Su Orders: Gods Spiritual Paths

Adaptation and Renewal

in the Context of Modernization


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Hassan Abu HaniehDecember 2011

Susm and Su Orders: Gods Spiritual Paths

Adaptation and Renewal

in the Context of Modernization


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Published in 2011 by Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung

Amman Ofce

P.O. Box 926238, Amman

11110 - Jordan

www.fes-jordan.org, [email protected]

Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted

or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means without

permission in writing from the publishers.

Not for sale.

Printing: Economic Printing Press, Amman, Jordan

Translation and Editing:Mona Abu Rayyan

Design and layout:Maya Chami, Beirut, Lebanon

ISBN:978-9957-484-15-6


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Contents

Introduction......................................................... 9

Springs of Origin,

Emergence and Foundation............................. 17

Etymology and Origins of the Name,

Terms and Definitions....................................... 25

Causes, Motivations and Inspirations ............. 33

Islamic Sufisms Historical Formation ............ 41

The Sufi Approach: Wisal and Wusul .............. 53

Mahabba and Fana ......................................... 65

Ways of the Path and the Order ....................... 81

Proliferation of the Paths of God ..................... 91

Sufi Orders in Jordan ...................................... 113

First: The Shadhili Order ................................... 123

I. The Shadhili-Darqawi-Hashimi Order ............. 126

II. The Shadhili-Darqawi-Hashimi-

Alawi-Filali Order .............................................. 135

III. Shadhili-Yashruti Order ................................ 138

IV. The Shadhili-Ghudhu-Qadiri Order ............. 142

Second: The Rifai Order ................................... 146

Third: The Rawasi-Rifai Order .......................... 150


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Fourth: The Qadiri Order ................................... 153

Fifth: The Kasnazani-Qadiri Order ..................... 157

Sixth: The Khalwati Order ................................. 159

I. The Khalwati-Jamia-Rahmani Order ............. 162

II. The Khalwati-Jamia-Qasimi Order ............... 164

Seventh: The Naqshbandi Order ....................... 166

I. The Naqshbandi-Haqqani Order .................... 169

II. The Naqshbandi-Kilani Order ........................ 172

Eighth: The Tijani Order ..................................... 175

Politicization and Accessibility:

Spiritual and Temporal .................................... 179

Conclusion ...................................................... 207

Endnotes ......................................................... 215


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Introduction

Jordans evolution, cultural narrative and religious historyhave been an inseparable part of the historical, intellectual andideological development of both the Arab and the Islamic worlds.

As a country, Jordan has been burdened by the same set ofcircumstances and conditions that affected other Arab and Islamiccountries; and, historically, it was subjected to the same set ofcircumstances and conditions these other countries were duringthe formation of its national identity.

Susm is considered to be one of the components thatconstitute the Jordanian identity, as it is one of the major spiritual

manifestations of Islam. This is especially the case as Susmrepresents a current that intersects with the tenets and thefundamentals embraced by all religions. Certainly, it is a practicethat has imprinted itself on the folds of human experience.

During the earlier period of Islams inception, Susm emergedas a spiritual revolution which aimed at reforming the nafs1 (the

appetitive soul, corporeal self),disciplining it and purifying it2of its

vices and imbuing it with virtues in order to attain completeiman(faith) and the rank of ihsan3,and working towards the spiritualrequirements of the Hereafter.It was a religious movement whoselegitimacy was grounded in its religiosity and in its derivation fromthe fundamental and founding Islamic references, the Holy Quranand the Prophets Sunna4,which call forzuhd5(asceticism) in thecorporeal world, piety in ones devotion to God and salvation inHis worship.


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The circumstances surrounding the birth of Susm were notmerely religious but rather included certain political, social andcultural factors. Historically, Susm would evolve within an

environment rife with the chaos, discord, strife and internal warssuffered by dar al-Islam6in its earlier periods. The prevailing stateof affairs led to spiritual crises, social injustices and obscenedisparities in wealth between classes which, in turn, inspiredindividuals to seek out the development and the nurturing of aspirit of piety and asceticism.

Thus, in its infancy, or at the turn of the 7thcentury AD, IslamicSusm would emerge as a phenomenon characterized by anindividual, unique and elitist nature. It would later evolve into a morepopular, social manifestation in the 11thcentury AD with Su turuq

(orders) taking root amongst the masses during the 17thcenturyAD, or during the reign of the Ottoman state, which internalizedand adopted Susm ideologically. Indeed, it would never havebeen possible for Susm to ourish the way it did without thesupport and patronage of the governing authorities, and the reignand stability of the ruling elite could not have been maintained

and preserved without the support of Susm, with a formula ofloyalty/patronage generally governing the relationship betweenthe two sides. However, during different periods in history, thisformula was not always sustainable and the political conduct ofSu orders would uctuate between postures of opposition andof loyalty. Nevertheless, and despite these political uctuations,

Susm would never become embroiled in conict or take on atradition of confrontation with the ruling authorities.

As was the case with all the other areas in the Arab and Islamicworlds, Jordan would also experience the widespread proliferationof Su orders and Suzawaya7. Indeed, the uidity and freedomof movement during the reign of the Ottoman state allowed fordifferent Su groups and practicing Su families to move from areato area, with many of these from Iraq, Syria, Palestine and Anatoliasettling in Jordan, including the Rifai, Zughbi, Amri, Rababaa,

Mustarihi, Mulqawi, Samadi, Kilani and Jaairah groups andfamilies, amongst others.


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With the advent of the 19th century AD, a certain religiosityand religious patterns took root amongst the popular masses inJordan, which would evolve in the context of the transformations

which were affecting the region and the religion of Islam. Thesetransformations were partially brought forth by the many literal,interpretive, traditional and normative readings that prevailedwith regard to religion, at that time, and were exacerbated by thedisintegration of the Ottoman state and its subsequent collapse.This state of affairs was followed by the rise of the colonialist era,which further contributed to the weakening of traditional structuresin Arab and Islamic societies. Finally, with the emergence of themodern nation-state, traditional structures would continue tosuffer a lengthy and extensive dismantling process under theimpact of modernization policies.

When the Emirate of Jordan was established in 1921 by PrinceAbdullah Bin Hussein (later King Abdullah I), the state continuedthe process of neutralizing traditional and religious structuresand institutions, despite the fact that Prince Abdullah belongedto the (Hashemite) lineage of the Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be

Upon Him [PBUH]). Indeed, the prince chose to adopt a liberal,nationalist ideology for the new emirate based on modern andsecular principles. Subsequently, the state would focus its effortson acquiring exclusive jurisdiction over religion, and neutralizedtraditional religious institutions by establishing the Ministry of

Awqaf (Religious Endowments) and Religious Affairs, a formal,

state-run fatwa8institution (Dar al-Ifta9) and the Department of theSupreme (Islamic) Justice.And, despite the fact that Islam was

designated as the ofcial religion of the state, it was considered tobe only one facet of the collective Jordanian identity and not thecentral axis of either the national identity or the state. Finally, inline with this strategy, the majority of ofcial religious posts wereheld by persons who displayed moderate Su tendencies of aparticularly centrist socio-religious nature.


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During the period in which the emirate was established, religiousIslamic movements in Jordan were not organized. Up until the eraof independence, Su orders and popular forms of Su religiosity

dominated the religious scene, with other Islamic movements andgroups beginning to emerge only later as branches of other groupsalready established outside the boundaries of the HashemiteKingdom. In 1946, Jordan would witness the rst formationof an organized Islamic movement with the declaration of theestablishment of the Organization of the Muslim Brotherhood. Theestablishment of the Muslim Brotherhood was followed in 1952 bythe establishment of Hizb ut-Tahrir(the Islamic Party of Liberation)10followed, in 1964, by Jamaaat al-Dawa11wal Tabligh12, a groupthat historically belongs to a school of Susm thatprevailed inand hailed from the Indian Subcontinent. In the beginning of the

1980s, Jordan would also witness the birth of Traditional Salasmand later, in the early 1990s, the emergence of Jihadi-Salasm13.

Meanwhile, Su orders in Jordan were to face profoundpressures, challenges and difculties in maintaining their identityand presence in Jordan due to modernizations policies, on the one

hand, and competition posed by the rise and spread of Islamistdawa, political and Jihadi movements, on the other. Susmwas subjected to a widespread smear campaign and heinousaccusations that attributed the vices of ignorance, superstition,heresy, stagnation and backwardness to that doctrine. In additionto the latter, Sus were also accused of toting the banner of loyalty

to the colonialists or imperialists.

Nonetheless and in general, Susm has proven that it is capableof adapting, resisting and renewing itself. It has proven its abilityto survive and endure. And, it has deed modernist expectationsthat Susm would nd its demise in the modern world, and thatit would become extinct as a manifestation of the traditional,magical, mystical and fantastical world. Instead, the vast majorityof rational milieus, communities and societies in a world infused bymodernity and secularism have witnessed a return to the sacred

religious, individually and collectively, as a counter reaction to


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the tyranny of the technology culture and all that this civilizationhas spawned in terms of materialistic values and consumptionpatterns, as well as the loss of symbolic systems associated

with the ability to provide meaning to human existence. Indeed,certain post-modernist currents have emerged that embrace theimagination and meaning, and have proven that Susm was, andstill is, capable of providing answers to the relativity of modernvalues, objectication, and the manner in which the modern worldhas enslaved man in the wake of globalization.

There are no exceptions in the Arab, Islamic and Jordanianrealities when it comes to the rise of religious movements.Political Islamist movements began to emerge with strengthduring the decade of the 1980s, forming a threat to governing

political regimes across the Arab and Islamic worlds. Indeed, itwas within this general context that the Jordanian state beganto support and to encourage popular Su religiosity in a politicaland an ideological bid to confront and curb the rise of the morefundamentalist movements, with the Organization of the MuslimBrotherhood and the Jihadi Salast movements at the fore. This

support was evidenced in a proposition to establish a highercouncil for Susm in Jordan, which was meant to include all theSu orders under one umbrella. However, this initiative would notsucceed for numerous reasons, the most important of which werethe ongoing conicts between the sheikhs14of the different Suorders and the differences of opinion on what the nature of the

council would be, including its role, its function, its leadership andits relationship with the state.

Following the attacks of September 11, 2001 and within theframework of its war on terrorism, the United States of Americawould focus efforts on encouraging a return to and an adoption ofIslamic Su tendencies. Indeed, the events of September 11 hadexposed the complicity of the violent Jihadi-Salast ideology inthe attacks. Subsequently, the United States would adopt a policyof supporting and encouraging the building of moderate Islamic

networks in an attempt to universalize the model of tolerant Islamic


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Susm in the confrontation against extremism and the violenceassociated with extremist ideologies. Unfortunately, these policieswere relatively damaging to Susm and Su tendencies, which

lost a part of their appeal. Meanwhile, in Jordan, Su orders wouldcondemn fanaticism, violence and extremism and would ally withthe state when it came to national issues and national policy, ingeneral.

Perhaps the most important challenge that the Su orders inJordan have faced and will face is represented in their ability, orinability, to synchronize between their tradition and the realitiesof the modern world. Some of these orders insist on adhering tothe legacy of their ritualistic and ceremonial traditions, whereasothers have taken it upon themselves to adopt a more innovative

and open approach to modernity, including establishing scientic,academic and information-based institutions in a manner similarto the Turkish Su model and approach. However, to date, noneof the Su orders in Jordan has developed a strategy for engagingor participating in political life, or for establishing political partiesspecic to their orders, as their counterparts have done in

numerous other Arab and Islamic countries.

In this study, we shall introduce and identify the Su orders andzawayasprevalent in Jordan, such as the Qadiri, Rifai, Shadhili,Khalwati, Naqshbandi and Tijani Orders, as well as their offshoots.We shall examine the historical evolution, the expansion and the

sheikhs of these orders. And, we will identify and dene theirdoctrines and origins, as well as the extent to which they have

been able to adapt, resist and renew themselves within the contextof the modernization process that have affected both state andsociety.

At this point, I would like to thank the sheikhs of the Su orderswho were so gracious with the time they allotted to this project andto myself, and who cooperated so generously during my researchinto their archives and their activities. I would also like to extend

my gratitude to a dear friend and researcher, Wael al-Batiri, who


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contributed great efforts to the completion of this study, as well asto my dear colleague, Dr. Khaled al-Hayek. Finally, I would like toextend my thanks to the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung and its ofce in

Amman, which has persisted in its efforts to ensure that this workand other studies in this series on Islamic movements in Jordanwould be translated and published.


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Springs of Origin, Emergence and

Foundation


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Numerous past and present accounts, ambiguities and doubtshave been raised about the springs of origin of Islamic Susm,about how it emerged, how it was established and what were theresources and roots of its birth and of its historical and religious

evolution. If we acknowledge that Islamic Susm is based on theprinciple ofzuhd(asceticism)15as the entry point to the frameworkwithin which Susm functions, we can clearly discern the role ofthe Islamic references of the Holy Quran and of the ProphetsSunna in the emergence and evolution of Islamic Susm. Thisacknowledgement, however, does not negate the rule of cause

and effect in the path that Susm has taken in its evolution and initsijtihad16.

The Holy Quran is replete with verses exhorting asceticism in thiscorporeal world, praising the Hereafter and urging a life persistentin its devotion and piety, as it impresses upon the need to shun

and abandon hypocrisy, debauchery and immorality. Indeed, al-Tusi17afrms the latter when he urges Susm and Sus to conne

themselves to following the Book of God Almighty (the HolyQuran), to emulating the Prophet (PBUH and His Family) and themoral tradition of thesahaba18and thetabiin19,and to observingthe proper conduct betting a righteous servant of God.20

Ibn Khaldun21(d. 808 AH/1406 AD) stresses upon the close linkbetween Susm and its Islamic references, saying, Susm is oneof the latter-day sciences of the Law in the Islamic Community

(milla). The foundation of Susm, however, is (more ancient, as


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evolution of historical Islam. This fact is recognized and endorsedby Dr Abu al-Wafa al-Taftazani (professor, Cairo University) whotakes an objective stand on the issue of the authenticity of Susms

Islamic character and the external inuences that affected Susmwhen he says, It is scientically fair to claim that Su doctrines andscholarship in practical sciences and mathematics are referencedin Islam. Of course, with the passage of time and by virtue of theconvergence of nations and contact between civilizations, someforms of Christian and non-Christian inuences spilled over toit. However, certain orientalists have inaccurately come to theconclusion that the rst elements adopted by Sus came fromChristianity29.

Inuenced by the prevailing notion of the centrality of Europe, the

rst generation of orientalists who emerged in the 18th and 20thcenturies went as far as to claim that Islamic Susm originatedfrom foreign (non-Islamic) sources. Some of these orientalists such as Dulac, Dozy, Palmer, Horton, Hartmann and Zanier,amongst others attributed the origins of Susm to Aryan-Hindureligions or Hindu-Persian origins. The latter inferences were made

by these orientalists in light of certain similarities found betweenthe Hindu concept of oneness and unicity, or the oneness ofcreation and the one ultimate reality, which is embodied by theDivine One and the principle of the one supreme Absolute (calledBrahman by the Hindus) and the ideas held by certain Sus whowere adherents of thewihdaor monist school. Others, such as

OLeary, Nicholson and Brown, went as far as to claim that IslamicSusm was derived of Greek origins, particularly the philosophy

of Neo-platonism, in light of the great similarities found betweenthe Neo-platonist philosophy and the ideas held by certain Suswho advocated the notions of the One and the Word (Logos30),and believed that fayd(self-revelation; or emanation), the originsof the world and the ranks of the universe are all derived of theOne. Goldziher, von Kremer, Dozy and Asn Palacios, OLeary,Nicholson, Tor Andre and others lent weight to the notion thatSusm had Christian roots, or origins in other religious cultures

such as Judaism, amongst others, in light of the parallels found


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between the idea of Divine Love that emerged amongst earlyMuslim Sus and similar Christian notions, and in light of Sudictums that called for a life of asceticism, austerity and pious

devotion, similar to the dictums and doctrines followed byChristian monks31.

What is certain is that Islamic Susm represents a spiritualrevolution; and, those who study Islamic Susm stress that it isthe spiritual dimension of the religion of Islam. Thus, MuhammadMustafa Hilmi entitled his book on Susm, al-hayatu al-ruhiyah

al-islam(Spiritual Life in Islam)32, and Abu Ala A entitled hisbook, al-tassawuf: al-thawra al-ruhiyah al-islam (lit., Susm:The Spiritual Revolution in Islam)33, and renowned Germanscholar, Annemarie Schimmel, entitled her book on Susm,

Mystical Dimensions of Islam34.

It can be argued that Islamic Susm represents an importanthistorical phenomenon manifested throughout the course ofIslamic history, which embodied a spiritual movement that wouldcontinue and persist over centuries. In fact, this spiritual movement

began in the 1st century AH with its rst groups of worshippersand ascetics (zuhudorzuhad) including gures such as al-Hassanal-Basri35(Hassan of Basra) (d.110 AH/728 AD), amongst others.It would develop and evolve in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AH, asgnosis and experience in the doctrine of Divine Love becamemore profound with the likes of Rabia al `Adawiyya al-Basriyya36

(d.185 AH/801 AD), and with the evolution of the notion of fana(the mystics self-annihilation in God) and baqa (the mystics

subsistence/survival in God following fana)37with the likes of al-Junayd (d. 298 AH/910 AD). It would reach its denitive point withthe tragedy of (al-Husayn Ibn Mansur) al-Hallaj38(d. 309 AH/922

AD) a tragedy which represented the ultimate manifestation ofthe tensions and the culmination of the confrontation betweenthe Su movement of the fuqara(the poor) and the world of the

mutakalmeen(lit. the orators and referred to, in English, as thetheologists) in Islamic history.


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After the latter period, Susm would progress forward on twopaths: The rst was known as Sunni Susm in the 4th and 5thcenturies AH and beyond, where the leading scholars of this

movement, such as Abi Hamed Muhammad al-Ghazali

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(d.505AH/1111 AD) and others, sought to nd a convincing formulafor reconciling the knowledge of the inner self and the spirit ofSusm with Islamic law in its manifest form. This particular currentproduced great and renowned Su works such as al-risaalatul al-qushayri ilim al-tassawuf (The Qushayri Epistle on Sufism,sometimes also known as The Qushayri Treatise or The

Qushayri Risala) by Imam40 Abu l Qasim Abd al-Karim BinHawazin al-Qushayri41 (d. 465 AH/1072 AD) and ihya ulum ad-din(The Revival of Religious Sciences) by al-Ghazali, which

is considered the pinnacle work of Sunni Sufism. The second

path was philosophical and delved deeply into areas which

were more theoretical, as represented by its leading scholars

of the school of wihdat al-wujud (withwihdat al-wujud meaning

the transcendent Unity of Existence [of God]; or Oneness of

Being) in the 6th and 7th centuries AH and beyond, such asMuhyi al-Din Ibn Arabi42 (d.638 AH/1240 AD), amongst others.

Ibn Arabi and other scholars of this second path sought to nd aformula which would reconcile Susm with what is called the innerand esoteric meaning and spirit of Islamic sharia (or law) in itsprofound sense, and in its higher meaning. Indeed, the scholars ofthis school produced great and profound Su works replete withunique and exceptional philosophical theories. Finally, from the

6thcentury AH, or 12thcentury AD, onwards, the Su movementwould evolve and expand into what are today recognized in the

representation of Su turuq or orders, which continue to flourishand spread throughout the Arab and Islamic worlds until this

very day43.


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Etymology and Origins of the Name,

Terms and Denitions


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A considerable debate exists around the lexical roots andetymology of the word tasawwuf (Susm) and its manyderivatives in Arabic, such as su(Su); mutasawwuf(the onewho professes and practices Susm); suyya(plural form, Sus);

as well as the collective form of Sus or, mutasawwufa; the verbtasawwaf(a) (to become or be Su), and the innitive form, orverbal noun, tasawwuf(the act of being Su). Indeed, opinionshave differed and diverged, however both ancient and modernscholars have arrived at a consensus that the word, or term, su,is the lexical derivative of the root of the Arabic word wool (or,

s--f). For, it is the only derivative that is linguistically possiblefor the word suf or the relational adjective in Arabic, s--f-ee, meaning the woolen or the one wearing wool, or the verbtasawwaf(a)(wore wool) and the word tassawuf(innitive form,or verbal noun; i.e. the act of wearing wool, or to be woolen).

Furthermore, there are numerous accounts in this regard whichprove that, since the beginning of the 2nd century AH, wool, or

wearing wool, became the characteristic mark of the rst asceticsand adherents, used to distinguish them and set them apart fromthe life of luxury and extravagance which had become endemicamongst the princes and the rich. Added to the latter are manySu narratives which ascribe the wearing of wool to the protsand the pious.


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Other Su scholars offer a different etymology for the termsuyya, contending that the root of the word su is a derivativeof the Arabic root word, safa (noun: purity), or its verbal form,

yasfou(to purify, purge), or the adjective of the root word safa,which is safa-an (marked by purity, pure or marked by clarity,clear). These scholars argue that it is from these derivatives thatthe phrase su qalbahou or his heart was purged (of all sinsand vices) is attributed. For, the Su is the one who has beencleansed by God, and whose heart and inner self has been puriedor purged by God; thus, he/she is a Su or, one who has beenpurged, puried.

Others claim that the word is a derivative of the phrase ahl al-suffa, which is attributed to a group of people or ahl, made up

of poor immigrants and souls, for whom a suffa (shaded place/corner) was built next to the Prophet Muhammads mosque inal-Medina; thus, showing the Prophets praise, special heed andlove for them. Thus, ahl al-tasawwuf(the people ofSusm) areascribed as belonging to, or are seen as an extension of this rstgroup of poor people and ascetics that the Prophet asked to be

cared for and commanded that their affairs be tended to.

Finally, there are those who claim that the term su is aderivative of the word saf(meaning row or rank), signifying thatthey (the Sus) were of the rst rank before God. Others claimthat it is a derivative of the Greek word sofos, meaning the

wise (or hakim in Arabic) or of wisdom (hikma), as Sus viewthemselves as representing ahl-al hikma wal khibra or the

wise and knowledgeable people as they sought and possessedknowledge of the Truth. However, the argument contending forthe latter derivative is quite weak as the Greek word sofos isarabized and spelled, for the most part, by Muslim philosophersas suphos/sufus and not suphie/su.44

As for the denition of Susm, there are many ancient and moderndenitions, which would be difcult to enumerate in the scope of

this study. However, most are similar in substance. According to


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Abu al-Wafa al-Ghanimi al-Taftazani, Susm is a life philosophythat aims at advancing the human self (nafs) morally. It is achievedby means of specic practical, spiritual exercises which, at times,

will lead to the feeling of fana, or self-annihilation, harmony andunication with the Higher Truth (God); and, knowledge of thisHigher Truth (God) is attained through sensory experience and notthe intellect, or the rational mind. Its fruit is spiritual happiness andit is difcult to express its truths with words of ordinary languagebecause it is of an existential, subjective nature45.

The latter denition covers the most important elements of IslamicSusm, such as moral advancement, fanaor self-annihilation ordissolution with the Supreme or Higher Truth, marifaor gnosisemanating from direct, instantaneous sensory experience, andthe feeling of tranquility, well-being and spiritual happiness, aswell as the symbolisms manifested by Su expression, revealingits essential nature. Also, according to al-Taftazani, The analyticalview of Susm reveals to us that despite their differences, Susenvision seeking a way, a path of conduct towards God, whichbegins with engaging the self, morally. Seekers of this journey,

or this way, progress through several stages dened by them asmaqamat (spiritual station on the Su path) and ahwal (spiritualstates which the mystic experiences on his way to God) and oneconcludes onesmaqamatandahwalwithmarifaor gnosis in theDivine, or of God; and, this is the end of the path, the journey. Susmean bymaqam, the station in the journey of ascension in whichthe believer, the adherent and servant of God stands before Godand places himself in the hands of God and, in which the adherent

and servant of God performs acts of worship, toils strenuouslyand maintains his spiritual exercises and practices. Examples of

maqamat for the Sus include repentance, asceticism, piety indevotion, poverty, patience, contentment and trust in God, andso forth. As for ahwal, these represent the states of infusion ofthe heart or, when the heart is overcome by purity, by praise andextolment of God. Of the examples ofahwalfor the Sus includethe state ofmuraqaba46, of being close to God, of love, of fear, of

pleading, of desire, of intimacy, of tranquility and of well-being, ofseeing, of certitude and of conviction, and so forth47.


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Other forms of comparable denitions for Susm are expressedin various Su works and treatises, all of which clearly expoundupon a similar conceptual understanding of Susm, the essence

of Susm and its signication for its adherents. Abu al-Qasim al-Nasr-Abadi (d. 367 AH/977 AD) says, Susm is an illuminationof truth leading to the Truth; and, a fraction of it points to theTruth [to Him]. Susm is your fana(self-annihilation; dissolution)from the two worlds, with only the Creator of both remaining andpermanent48.

Sheikh al-Islam49Zacharia al-Ansari50(d. 926 AH/1520 AD) saysthe following when he denes Susm, It is a science dened bythe spiritual states orahwalleading to the purication of appetitivesouls, corporeal selves; of moral and ethical cleansing; and, of

constructing the external and the internal in the quest to achieveeternal happiness. Its subject is the aforementioned purication,cleansing and construction. Its aim is achieving eternal happiness.

And, its essence is in the intentions and esoteric meanings referredto by its books. This knowledge is a science inherited from theresult of toil and labor, referred to by the truism: The one who toils

and labors at that which he knows will inherit from God knowledgeof that which he knows not51.

Imam al-Sharani52(d. 973 AD/1565 AD) says, Know my brother,that God blessed you, and that the science of Susm is a sciencethat penetrated the hearts of the elders who were enlightened by

their labors in the Good Book and in the Sunna. And, those wholabor in these works are penetrated by sciences, literature, secrets

and truths of which tongues cannot speak53.The question of the origins, roots and references of Islamic Susm

has been a controversial subject that has occupied both ancient andmodern Islamic jurists (fuqaha) and scholars. In the eld of Islamicstudies and scholarship, one will nd those who support and defendSusm, considering it one of the manifestations of the spiritualexpressions of Islam. Alternatively, there are those who oppose

Susm, with some of this adversary to Susm reaching the point oftakr54, and of disavowing or apostasizing it and its adherents.


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Its proponents attest to the authenticity of its Islamic origins andafrm its references are in the Quran and the Prophets Sunna.The earlier advocates of Susm include the great Imam Abu Hamid

al-Ghazali (d. 505 AH/1111 AD), along with other scholars andauthors of great Su works such as Abu Nasr al-Sarraj al-Tusi (d.378 AH/988 AD) and Abu l Qasim Abd al-Karim al-Qushayri (d.465 AH/1072 AD), amongst others. Of the later Islamic scholarsand ardent proponents of Susm include Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d.911 AH/1505 AD) and Zacharia al-Ansari (d. 926 AH/1520 AD),the likes of whom are many. Modern scholars and proponentsof Susm abound, such as Mustafa Abd al-Razzaq (d. 1947),

Abu Ala A (d. 1964), Muhammad Mustafa Hilmi (d. 1969),Abu al-Wafa al-Taftazani (d. 1995) and Abd al-Rahman Badawi(d. 2002). All these scholars and advocates consider Susm as

being an authentic form and manifestation of Islam, which wasnevertheless affected by certain inuences from different milieus as were all the other forms of Islamic sciences and scholarship55.

On the other hand, the most prominent scholars to oppose andremained adverse to Susm include Jamal al-Din Abul Farraj Bin al-

Jawzi (d. 597 AH /1200 AD) and Muhammad Bin Abd al-Wahhab(d. 1206 AH/1792 AD)56. Meanwhile, certain critics of Susm, suchas Taqiddin Ahmad Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728 AH/1328 AD), took amore balanced stance in their criticism and made distinctionsbetween the different forms of Susm. For example, Ibn Taymiyya,after afrming the genuine Islamic roots of the ascetic worship and

moral discipline of Susm, says, Suyyat al-haqaiq: the Sus ofRealities, and these are the ones we mentioned above;suyyat al-

arzaq: the funded Sus who live on the religious endowments ofSu guest-houses and schools; it is not necessary for them to beamong the people of true realities, as this is a very rare thing; and,

suyyat al-rasm: the Sus by appearance only, who are interestedin bearing the name and the dress etc.57


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Causes, Motivations and Inspirations


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Religion was a decisive factor in the birth of Islamic Susm,which itself is rooted in the fundamental Islamic references of theQuran and the Sunna. The rst seeds of Susm emerged amongstthesahaba(the Companions of the Prophet) and manifested itself

in the form of a current that practiced strict zuhd or asceticism,austerity, worship and piety. The causes and inspirations for itsmore widespread emergence were then reinforced and bolsteredby a series of political, social and cultural factors.

The conditions and circumstances under which early Islam

existed were marked by political chaos, power struggles, internalstrife and inner wars. The combination of these factors createda general state of spiritual anxiety, an increasing sense of socialinjustice and a growing gap of inequity between the extremely richand the destitute, all of which nurtured the rise of an ascetic currentin society. According to Nicholson, numerous factors led to the

rise of Susm, for the suffering of Muslims under the tyranny andthe oppression of their rulers motivated and inspired a movement

towards asceticism as a form of protest and as an instrument ina spiritual revolution against the prevailing authorities58. With this,and from its earliest stages, the course of the evolution of Susmtook on the form and character of a spiritual movement based onascetic worship, piety and moral discipline.

This movement would gain strength and momentum due to theprevailing socio-political conditions that marked early Islam. At

rst, it was seen as an individual choice in seeking self-reform as


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a rst step to paving the way for reforming a society burdenedby the aggressive and arbitrary rule of its governing authorities. Itwas also seen as an expression of the need to return to the original

form of Islam in its fundamental virtues and righteous values.

The asceticism that represented the fundamental prelude to therise of Susm was characterized by isolation and seclusion, adisconnection from people and from reliance on the corporeal andthe worldly, with a focus on attending to God and the requirementsof the Hereafter. With this, a class of ascetics would crystallize andspread throughout Islamic society. This class would later evolveinto an organized movement in Basra, Kufa, Damascus (knownalso as al-Sham) and Nishapur, with the most renowned of itsrst generation including the likes of Dawud al-TaI (d.165 AD/781

AD), Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 161 AH/777 AD), al-Hassan al-Basri(d.111 AH/720 AD), Abd al-Wahad Bin Zayd (d. 177 AH/793 AD)and Rabia al `Adawiyya (d. 185 AH/801 AD), amongst others59.From its earliest days, this movement would take a strong standagainst the prevailing politics and the corruption of a societyoppressed. At rst, its call for reform was based on withdrawing

and isolating oneself from society and from people in the hopeof bringing purity and serenity back to the anxious self and toanxious souls.

According to Abu Talib al-Makki (d. 388 AH/996 AD), The rststage ofzuhd(asceticism) is for anguish of the Hereafter to enter

the heart... But, anguish of the Hereafter cannot enter the heartuntil the concerns and burdens of the corporeal world are expelled

from it60. Indeed, the tradition of zuhd (asceticism) and khalwa(seclusion) of the early ascetics went to the extent of concealingoneself from the unbelievers (kuffar) and, in some instances, toliving in caves and in cemeteries, as was the case with certainSus such as Ibrahim Bin Adham (d. 161 AH/788 AD)61.

This path of zuhd (asceticism) amongst Sus would take ona more holistic and mature form as it evolved into a paradigm

of spiritual exercises and practices seen as the requirements to


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seeking and attaining the ultimate goal ofmarifa62,or gnosis (in theDivine). When Abu Yazid al-Bustami was asked, By what meansdid you attain marifa? He replied, Through a hungry stomach

and a bare body

63

. And, Leader of the Sect [Sayyed al-Taifa] orDiadem of Knowers, as al-Junayd al-Baghdadi (d. 293 AH/910 AD)was otherwise known, was quoted as saying, We did not learn(lit. take) Susm by discourse, rather by hunger, abandoning the

world, and severing [ones attachments to] familiar and pleasantthings; since Susm consists of purity of [ones] relationship withGod. Its foundation is in turning away from the world, as Harith[al-Muhasibi] said, My self (nafs) has turned away from the world;so I have spent my nights in wakefulness and my days in thirst64

If asceticism was one of the most important elements in theinitiation of early Susm, further components were later added toits conceptual paradigm until it became a school founded uponseveral cornerstones. According to Nicholson, The earliest Suswere, in fact, [humble] ascetics and quietists rather than mystics[Sus]65. And, Dr. Abd al-Halim Mahmud says, Asceticism in

the world is one thing, and Susm is another. A Su does not

necessarily have to be an ascetic, and Susm is not necessarilyasceticism66. Dr. Souad al-Hakim afrms the latter when shesays, The beginning was not as some scholars believe inasceticism. Asceticism is the outcome of a psychological lifeand thus, is manifested in states of existence, which are thebest expression of the worshippers sense and realization of theDivine Presence67. Ibn al-Jawzi also cautions of making theselinks, saying, The Sus are generally of the ascetics; but, we have

already mentioned the devils deception of the ascetics. The Susdiverged from the ascetics by having specic qualities and states

and they became characterized by certain traits. Hence, we werecompelled to single them out in reference68.

Akhlaq(a persons character traits, especially his or her mannersand morals)69also represents one of the more important concernsand components of Susm, as it also carries great weight and

importance in the Islamic references of the Quran and the Sunna.


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Indeed, the Quranic verse, and, indeed, you are of a great moralcharacter70, is clear in its guidance; and, it is a verse attributeddecisively to the kind of character, comportment and conduct

evidenced in the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). It is also recorded

71

in the Sunna that the Prophet (PBUH) said, Indeed I was onlysent to complete the most noble character traits72

For the Sus, the righteousness and excellence of onesakhlaqor character traits, manners and morals cannot be achievedwithout abandoning immoral behavior, vices and deplorable traits,and without adhering to good virtues and the most excellent of

adab (or, propriety and good manners). For, adab, or proprietyand good manners, are the cornerstone of everything, as Hafsal-Nisaburi (d. 270 AH) says, Susm is all good manners andpropriety. And, every time has its good manners and propriety,and every place its good manners and propriety. Those whoadhere to the good manners and propriety of the times shallattain the highest place amongst men, and those who lose sightof their good manners and propriety shall nd themselves farfrom what they think is near, and turned away from the places

in which they wish to be admitted73. According to MuhammadIbn Ali al-Qassab (d. 275 AH), who was also al-Junayds masterand teacher, Susm consists of noble conduct that is mademanifest at a noble moment on the part of a noble person amonga noble folk74. Abu Muhammad al-Jariri (d. 311 AH) afrms this,saying that, Susm is departure from base character and arrivalat lofty character75. And, al-Hujwiri76attributes a saying to ImamMuhammad al-Baqir (d. 113 or 117 AH), which states, Susm

is but good morals; whoever surpasses you in good moralssurpasses you in purity77. Abu l-Husayn al-Nuri78(d. 295 AH/907

AD) transcends the cognitive dimension of Susm and attributesits derivation to a moral dimension when he says, Susm is neitherformalized practices nor acquired sciences, rather it is ethical andmoral conduct79. And, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (d. 751 AH/1650

AD) reafrms thatakhlaq, or character traits, manners and morals,represents the essence of Susm, saying The words of all the

speakers in this world have united: Susm is kholq (noble andmoral comportment and character)80.


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This view would become more universal after the 3rdcentury AH,as the nafsor the appetitive soul and the corporeal self, at thattime, was perceived as being a source of evil, of abhorrent deeds

and of base attributes, such as arrogance, envy, avarice, anger,rancor and greed, amongst others attributes which must betamed, purged and fought by forsaking sin and immersing oneselfin all that is the antithesis of sin in ones deeds and attributes81.

According to al-Ghazali, the path towards God is the scienceof learning how to purify the heart of all malice and impurities byabstaining from desires and by emulating the Prophets, may Godspeace and blessings be upon them, in all their circumstances; for,by as much as the heart is cleansed and blessed by a portion ofthe Truth, the truths of existence will sparkle within it82.

During this period, and based on the latter view and perceptions,numerous Su works and texts would emerge which dealt with thepestilences that inict thenafs, or appetitive soul, corporeal self,and which focused on the notion of akhlaq, excellence of ethicsand noble comportment and character. These great texts includeal-riaaya lihuquq allah (lit., Safeguarding the Rights of God), by

al-Muhasibi; fawt al-qulub (lit., The Entering of Hearts) by al-Makki; ihya ulum ad-din(The Revival of Religious Sciences) byal-Ghazali; and al-futuhat al-makkiya (The Meccan Revelations)by Ibn Arabi. On a more pragmatic level, Sus obliged aspirantsand disciples to seek and follow the path of an accomplished,knowledgeable sheikh or Su master or arif, who could provide

the proper religious and moral guidance that the disciple oraspirant required to advance through the progression of stages of

theahwalorspiritual states, and themaqamat orspiritual stations,beginning with repentance (tauba) and ultimately reaching thestage of witnessing (the Divine) ormushahada83.84


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Islamic Susms Historical Formation


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Islamic Susm would branch into a series of different paths thatwould evolve over the course of its historical development. The rstform of Susm, marked by an individual practice of piety, asceticworship and moral discipline, was born with early Islam and was

able to preserve its roots; however, this individualistic form waseventually exposed to new theoretical and practical dimensionsand developed into new schools, theories and doctrines. Bythe end of the 2ndcentury AH, Susm would witness an intrinsictransformation from asceticism (zuhd) to a form of religiositybased on the concepts of (Divine) love (hubb), self-annihilation

(fana) and gnosis (marifa) with the contributions of Abu Yazid al-Bustami (d. 201 AH/874 AD) and his doctrine of fanaand of al-Junayd (d. 245 AH/910 AD) and his theory on tawhid85, in additionto Dhul-Nun al-Misri (d. 245 AH/859 AD) and his paradigm on

marifaand al-Hallaj (d. 309 AH/922 AD) and his experience withhulul (incarnationism)86.

Furthermore, the transformations affecting Islamic Susm were

occuring in the same context as the historical, social, political andcultural transformations that were taking place amongst the Islamicnation, in general, and in Islam, itself. Different schools of thoughtand of jurisprudence were emerging, and diverse philosophicaland theological doctrines were crystallizing by virtue of thecommunication and exchange that was taking place with manydifferent cultural environments and civilizations, at that time. Theimpact of different inter-cultural exchanges was deepened by the

introduction of different translations of rational philosophies, all


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of which produced rivalries, antagonisms, debates and conictswhich stripped the religion of its initial simplicity, and which

resulted in the emergence of signicantly disparate theories on

the Divine and on divinity.

Within this historical context, Susm would introduce its ownijtihad87and its own, independent views and perceptions on allthe issues which were being raised during that period. And, therivalry and antagonism between Sus and Muslim jurists (fuqaha)intensied due to the inferential and literal approach Muslim juristsadopted in understanding and applying Islamic law, and in dealingwith its requirements an approach which the Sus consideredas not going beyond the scope of the obvious. Instead, the Suswould take a path and an approach that was based on seeking an

inner, esoteric meaning and spirit, while preserving that which wasapparent and obvious in the law.

Consequently, from the 3rdcentury AH onwards, the paths andapproaches sought by the Sus would bring the curse and wrathof Muslim jurists (fuqaha) and theologists (mutakalimeen) upon its

followers. Indeed, the circles of hostility and antagonism againstthe Sus would continue to grow in Egypt, Syria and Iraq, andwould reach the point of accusing Sus of takr88, leading to thepersecution and even execution of Sus, such as in the case ofal-Hallaj89. The jurist (faqih) Ahmad Bin Hanbal (d. 241 AH/855 AD)would become one of the most renowned opponents of Susm.

In return, he would suffer trials and tribulations at the hands of theMutazila90during the Caliphates of al-Mamoun, al-Mutasem and

al-Wathiq. Meanwhile, the persecution of the Susts at the handsof Hanbals followers (hanabila) would culminate in an incidentknown as the trial of ghulam al-khalil in which almost 70 Sus,amongst them Sheikh of the Sect, al-Junayd, were sentenced todeath but later released91.

Sus also went to the extent of discrediting certain schools ofjurisprudence and of the Hadith criticism represented in the

words of Abu Yazid al-Bustami when he said, Poor souls, their


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knowledge was passed on from the dead to the dead; we took ourknowledge from the (one) life that will never die. And, Dhul-Nun

al-Misri used to say, In knowledge of that which is apparent, He

spoke to us and informed us and forbade us and commandedus. Inner knowledge is a gift bestowed by God and is a covenantbestowed by Him, alone; a covenant by which He judges overthem on that which exists between Him and them, which cannotbe known by a king close to them nor prophet sent. Finally, theSus became renowned for their saying, My heart spoke to meof my Lord92.

The debate over the dualism of the sharia (Islamic law)versus the (inner) Truth would form the basis of the ongoingdisagreement between the Sus and the Muslim jurists (fuqaha).

According to the Sus, the jurists (fuqaha) were directing theirattention to the surface, or apparent meaning of the law, withoutexploring the depths of its inner meaning; because, for the Sus,theshariawas divided into two disciplines: First: the science ofthe dhaher (or, the obvious; the exterior [in meaning and form])of thesharia, which studies acts and rites related to the external

forms of worship, such as prayer, fasting and thehajj(pilgrimage),as well as social contracts and transactions, such as marriage,divorce, sales, and so forth. This science, for the Sus, is calledthe science of qh(or jurisprudence), which is represented by the

jurists (fuqaha) and ahl al-tya(religious authorities who issuefatwas93). Meanwhile, the second discipline was that of the inner(orbatin) science, and esoteric knowledge of the religion, relatedto acts committed by hearts; or, the science of the Sus. For

Sus, in this second discipline, Susm is the science of truthsand its people (ahl) are the masters of truths and of understanding(hm). The latter, the jurists, areahl al-dhaher(the people of theexternal, the apparent) and scholars of appearances or that whichis on the surface.

This Su perspective on the two different approaches to thereligion was afrmed by Ruwaym al-Baghdadi (d. 303 AH/915

AD) who said, All created existence (khalq) remain seated before


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appearances, and this Sect. The Sus are seated before the(Divine) Truths and Realities. And, all of mankind hold themselvesaccountable to the appearances of the law, while the Sus hold

themselves accountable to the truth of piety and to everlastingtruthfulness94. For, Susm stresses upon the necessity ofadhering to theshariaand to abide by the religion; however, Susdo not understand of religion, the literal form, nor of theshariaits

mere ceremonial form; rather, they always seek an approach tounderstanding the religion and its laws in a manner that differs,slightly or greatly, from the approach of the jurists (fuqaha); and,in this, their revolt against them [the jurists] emerged95.

The care and attention that the Sus bestowed upon the scienceof the batin or inner, esoteric meaning of the religions laws,and the truth behind these laws, would expand its horizons tosuch an extent that this focus would manifest itself through manydifferent paths in the quest to seek signicance and meaning insymbolic representations and interpretations, which reached thepoint of gnosticism. Furthermore, Susms transfer and exchange

with other cultural environments, saturated in Neo-platonic

philosophical theories, led to combinations with spiritual elementsof the East in doctrines that would inuence and inspire the manysegments of Susms followers. And, indeed, all these endeavorswould only intensify the enmity growing between the Sus and the

jurists (fuqaha) and the theologists (mutakalimeen) an enmitythat evolved into profound conicts over the approaches andparadigms of study, methods of research and interpretation, andover the very essence of estoric knowledge or gnosis.

The juridical and theological approach to the religion of Islamtook on a methodology of rational inference and logical criteria,

quantication and proof, whereas the Sus internalized theapproach of exploration and discovery, using sensory experienceand inspiration. This Su approach was grounded in conceptsrelated to attaining knowledge in the science of the reality ofcertainty or haqq al-yaqin, which is the knowledge of religion

that God will convey to the heart of the believer who attains the


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stage ofmukashafa96.97Indeed, for the Su, there is no science,except for that which is bykashf (revelation; illumination; unveiling)andshuhud98and not that which is by thought and supposition,

because thoughts are the wrong place

99

. Al-Kalabadhi

100

expounds further on this methodology, saying, Know thatevidence of God is God alone. A Man once said to al-Nuri, whatevidence is there of God? and al-Nuri said, God Almighty. He

asked, then what of the mind (of intellect)? and he replied, Themind (intellect) is powerless; and the powerless can only provideevidence of powerlessness, like it101.

With this, a Susm emerged that was associated with aphilosophical outlook and a vision formulated with a specicapproach to esoteric knowledge and gnosis (marifa) and existence(wujud). The latter is clearly manifest in the denitions of Susmpresented by Sus, where, for example, according to Maruf al-Karkhi102(d. 200 AH/815 AD), Susm is to embrace Truths103; and,where according to al-Junayd al-Baghdadi, Susm means thatthe Truth (God) causes you to die to (lit., from) your self and gives

you life in It.104; and, where according to Abu Bakr al-Kattani105

(d. 322 AH/934 AD), Susm issafa(purity) andmushahada106107.

During this period, the larger of the Su schools began to form.The Baghdadi School would emerge as an heir to the Kufa andBasra Schools, with the most renowned ulama108of the Baghdadschool including the students of Maruf al-Karkhi (d. 200 AH/815

AD), such as Sari al-Saqati (d. 254 AH/868 AD), Hareth al-Muhasibi(d. 249 AH/857 AD), Abu al-Qasim al-Junayd (d. 298 AH/910 AD),

Abu al-Said al-Jarraz (d. 297 AH/909 AD) and Abu l-Husayn al-Nuri (d. 295 AH/907) AD), amongst others, and later included Ibn

Ata (d. 311 AH/923 AD), al-Hallaj (d. 309 AH/922 AD) and al-Shibli(d. 334 AH/946 AD).

The Khurasani School emerged during the same period asthe Baghdadi School, with its most renowned ulamabeing thestudents of Ibrahim al-Adham (d. 161 AH/778 AD) and Shaqiq al-

Balkhi (d. 194 AH/810 AD), such as Bishr al-Ha (al-ha, meaning


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the barefoot; i.e. otherwise known as Bishr the Barefoot) (d. 227AH/842 AD), Hatim al-Asamm (al-asamm, meaning the deaf;i.e. otherwise known as Hatem the Deaf) (d. 237 AH/851 AD),

Ibn Karram (d. 255 AH/869 AD), Yahya Ibn Muadh al-Razi (d. 258AH/872 AD), al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi (d. 285 AH/898 AD) and AbuHamdun al-Qassar (d. 271 AH/884 AD).

The Damascene-Eyptian School would also emerge and producerenowned ulamaincluding Dhul-Nun al-Misri (d. 245 AH/859 AD),al-Darani (d. 215 AH/830 AD) and Abul Hassan Ahmad Bin Abial-Huwari (d. 230 AH/845 AD).

Also, in the 3rd century AH (9th century AD), a group of Susknown by the name of the Mulamati would emerge in Nishapur.These Sus followed a creed based on two concepts: magnanimity(fatuwa) and censure (mulamata). The concept of mulamata intheir tradition signies self-restraint and control, self-criticism andreprimand, and self-culpability in any negligence in obedience andsubmission.Fatuwasignies attaining virtues such as magnanimity,

courage, chivalry, municence and generosity. These concepts

would later evolve into signifying altruism (ithar) and sacrice(tadhiya), and to never cause harm, to never complain, to givegenerously, to abandon glory and prestige and to ght the selfor the ego. Of the most renowned ulamaamongst the Mulamatiinclude Abu Hamdun al-Qassar (d. 271 AH/884 AD) and Abu Hafsal-Haddad (d. 260 AH/874 AD).

What most distinguished the discourse of the Mulamati from the

discourse of other Sus was the attention they dedicated to thenegative aspect of Su concepts and signications. Indeed, theMulamati do not speak of acts, nor praise these acts but rather,

condemn acts and lay blame upon themselves and these acts, onthe basis that there cannot be but some form of inherent neglectin them. The Mulamati do not speak of faithfulness and devotionas much as they speak of hypocrisy. They prefer to speak of theshortcomings of acts and their disadvantages, rather than of the

virtues of acts and their advantages. Indeed, the majority of this


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With the dawn of the 6thcentury AH, Susm would enter into amore obscure philosophical phase, marked by an intensied use

of signs and symbols related to gnostic sensory experience. This

phase culminated in the emergence of Pantheist Sus and theSus of wihat al-wujud (or, the transcendent Unity of Existence[of God]; or Oneness of Being), who worked on the doctrine ofunity with God, based on the illuminated heart and the sensoryexperiences of the seeker of the Truth and other notions similarto the concepts that prevailed amongst the earliest generation ofSu elders and transformed this doctrine into a comprehensivetheory on existence. Of the more renowned ulamaof this formof Susm was Yahya Bin Habash al-Suhrawardi al-Maktoul(d. 587 AH/1191 AD), who hailed from Iran and who worked tofurther develop the ideas of al-Hallaj and Muhyi al-Din Ibn Arabi

(d. 638 AH/1240 AD). Ibn Arabi was of the Andalusian Sus andis considered of the most important scholars in the doctrine or

madhabof wihdat al-wujud (the transcendent Unity of Existence[of God]; or Oneness of Being).

The pillars of the doctrine of wihdat al-wujudinclude the belief

that existence is God, and that the diversity and abundance ofthings in existence do not mean plurality of existence, but ratherare manifestations and emanations through which the unity ofexistence is evidenced and proven. This particular doctrine or

madhabwould become widespread throughout the Islamic world,emerging rst in the Arab Maghreb then spreading to the Levant

and Persian East, all the way to the Indian Subcontinent, with itspresence and inuence still being felt today112. In addition to the

ideas presented by Ibn Arabi, a contemporary of his, Abd al-Haqq Ibn Sabin (d. 667 AH/1268 AD), would push the doctrineormadhab ofwihdat al-wujudto its extreme limits, adopting thedictum ofal-wihdah al-mutliqaor Absolute Oneness (AbsoluteUnity of Existence or Oneness of Being)113.

Over time and after the contributions of Ibn Arabi and others,the doctrine or madhab of wihdat al-wujudwould take on three

major directions: The rst direction leaned towards presenting


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a more systematic approach to the provisions and tenets ofthe doctrine, as well as theoretical clarity. And, it did not take a

critical stand in terms of the doctrines fundamental foundations

and basic pillars. This particular school of wihdat al-wujudwasrepresented by scholars such as al-Qanuni (d. 673 AH/1275 AD)and al-Jili (d. 823 AH/1428 AD), who wrote the book al-insan

al-kamel (The Perfect Being). The second direction was of aninterpretative, defensive tendency which combined interpretationsof meanings put forth by Ibn Arabi and clarication of objectivesof the doctrine. It also defended the approach and doctrine beforeits opponents and adversaries. This school was represented byal-Jami (d. 898 AH/1492 AD), al-Kashani (d. 730 AH/1329 AD), al-Amili (d. 1031 AH/1621 AD), al-Nabulsi (d. 1134 AH/1731 AD) andIbn Ajiba (d. 1224 AH/1809 AD). The third direction had an artistic

intent which tended towards poetic expression, using the means ofimagination and perception. The most renowned representativesof this school of wihdat al-wujudwere Jalaluddin al-Rumi (d. 672

AH/1273 AD), who authored al-mathnawi (otherwise known byits Farsi name, al-Masnavi)114.

Finally, a general review of the course of Islamic Susms historicalevolution exposes certain milestones and times in which Susmwould undergo profound transformations, which affected its verycore and foundations. This examination reveals that, by the early7thcentury AD, Susm would emerge as a unique phenomenonmarked by an individualistic, elitist character. However, by the 11thcentury AD, this phenomenon would begin to manifest itself inthe form of a more popular, mass social expression, which would

culminate in the system of popular Su turuq (orders), whichwould spread and take root by the 17thcentury, or during the reignof the Ottoman state, which introduced and internalized Susmideologically. These transformations are covered in more depthwhen these Su orders are examined later in the study.


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The Su Approach: Wisal115and Wusul116


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The Su approach tomarifaor gnosis (in the Divine) is unlike thatof any other philosophical and theological approach or paradigm.Indeed, according to Nicholson, Susm is neither philosophy northeology117. Instead, it is derived from a combination of several

different approaches and paradigms that are rooted in conceptssuch as tajruba(experience),dhawq(the senses; or, sensory and notrational or intellectual experience), kashf(revelation; illumination;unveiling [of the Truth]) and mushahada (the vision of the Truth[God/the Divine] obtained by the illuminated heart of the seekerof the Truth). It is thus that Ibn Khaldun arrives at the conclusion

that, All of Susm relates back to struggling and seeking the waywhich leads to attaining its aim ofkashfandmushahada118.

Indeed, for Sus, gnosis is divided into three degrees, whichare also referred to directly in the Holy Quran: the knowledge ofcertainty or ilm al-yaqin, the eye of certainty or ayn al-yaqin

and the reality of certainty or haqq al-yaqin119. Knowledge ofcertainty or ilm al-yaqin is the lowest rank in the degrees of

gnosis, as it is knowledge gained by reection, deductive intellectand reasoning. The highest rank is the reality of certainty orhaqq

al-yaqin, which al-Junayd describes as follows, It is to see theunseen as clearly as the eye sees the visible120. In the threedegrees, the eye of certainty is also a lower degree of knowledgefor the Sus, as Knowledge of certainty is a state of separation(tafriqa); and separation is seeing something other than God mayHe be great and exalted. And, the eye of certainty is the state of

unication (jam), and unication is seeing everything through [the


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eyes of] God. And, reality of certainty is the state of unication ofunication (jam al jam); and, unication of unication is total self-

annihilation [in God] and the loss of perception of anything other

than God may He be great and exalted, in the language oftawhid(certainty in the oneness of God)121.122The degrees of gnosis forthe Su work from the base and the essence of the principles ofinference, deduction or intellectual reasoning or, that gnosis oresoteric knowledge is derived from deducing or inferring evidenceof the Creators existence by all that is the universe, by the meansof direct union (and reunion) with the absolute existential Truth(Reality; God). For, according to the Sus, esoteric knowledgeand gnosis extends beyond both the rational knowledge andthe conveyance of rational knowledge found in people, who areeither persons of conveyance or inuence, or persons of reason,

intellect and thought... But, the Sus ascend beyond all these;for what is unseen to people is clear to them... And, they are ahlal-wisal (the people of union and reunion) while others are ahl al-istidlal (the people of inference; deduction; reason)123.

For the Su, wisal or union (and reunion [with the Divine])

depends on sensory experience or what the Sus term dhawq.The approach to wusul (ascension; attainment) is a spiritualexperience lived by the wayseeker, who passes through thespiritual stations (maqamat)of spiritual states (ahwal) in a spiritual

journey, which yields revelations and illuminations (mukashafat)and divine emanations (youdiyat). According to al-Ghazali,

The greatest [trait] amongst their best is that which cannot beattained by learning, but rather by the senses and by the spiritual

state, and by transforming [lit., exchanging] characteristics... For,I learned with certainty that they are masters of spiritual states(ahwal)and not masters of words (aqwal). And, that which cannotbe attained by learning has been attained; and, nothing remainsbut that which cannot be attained by listening and learning but bythe senses and by seeking the way (sulouk)124.


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The Sus have many names to denote the Su path or waytomarifaor gnosis; it is a journey, a purpose, a path, a conduct,

a behavior. Perhaps, the most common term to describe the Su

way or path is the spiritual ascension or al-miraj al-rawhi,which is an allegorical term that alludes to the corporeal PropheticAscension (ormiraj)125. This way, journey or spiritual ascension isone manifestation found in the Susm of all sects and religions;it is acknowledged by all as the path of purication (tariq al-tatahur). According to Nicholson, Mystics (Sus) of every raceand creed have described the progress of the spiritual life as a

journey or a pilgrimage126.

The milestones along the Su path or journey of spiritualpurication are called the spiritual stations (maqamat) and the

spiritual states (ahwal), both of which represent a successionof behavioral, psychological and emotional milestones that thewayseeker must pass through during his journey of ascension.

A spiritual station, such as repentance (tauba), patience (sabr),trust in God (tawakul) and devotion (ikhlas), is what one acquiresthrough ones behavior, manners and conduct, and it is acquired

by ones endurance of the hardships decreed for one by God,which cause ones suffering127. A spiritual station is the resultand yield of a spiritual struggle; and, a spiritual station cannot benamed until the wayseeker is steadfast and stable within it; and,the wayseeker cannot move from one spiritual station to anotheruntil he has met all its provisions, conditions and rules. In this path

of spiritual ascension, the Su murid (lit., one who aspires oraspirant; novice; disciple), ascends from one spiritual station to

another spiritual station until he ends with certainty in the onenessof God and gnosis128.

As for ahwal or spiritual states, these are in the form ofcontradictory pairs such as dejection and delight and fear andhope. The hal or spiritual state is something that descendsupon the hearts [of the mystics] regardless of their intentions,their [attempts to] attract it, or their [desire to] earn it.129In this,

the spiritual station is distinguished from the spiritual state or in


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terms of its source; for, spiritual states are [divine] gifts, whereasspiritual stations are earnings.130

The spiritual stations and their descriptions and denitionsvary amongst the Sus and amongst the Su orders. Duringthe nascent years of Susm, spiritual stations were simple andcomposed of clearly delineated and dened elements. Forinstance, al-Junayd, presents the spiritual stations as clearly asfollows; they are Repentance that rules out insistence on sin; fearthat destroys vain expectations; hope that keeps you on the roadof righteousness; and contemplation of God that does not allowother ideas in the heart131. And, for al-Sarraj, there are sevenspiritual stations, which are repentance (tauba); abstinence (wara;also piety), renunciation (zuhd; also asceticism), poverty (fuqr),

patience (sabr), trust in God (tawakul) and contentment (rida; or,satisfaction with divine decree)132.

Over time and with the evolution of Susm, the spiritual stationswould expand to the point that, for example, with al-Harawi al-

Ansari, they reached one hundred in his book manazil al-saireen

(lit., The Stations of the Seekers)133. And, the multiplicity ofspiritualstations and their propagation is not related to historical evolutionalone, but also to the individual nature of the Su experience, whichin itself yields numerous and diverse perceptions and visions. For,according to Ibn Khaldun, The way to God Almighty equals thenumber of souls of all created things134.

Repentance (tauba) is considered the beginning of the path and

its rst step; and, it is the rst spiritual station in the successionof spiritual stations. According to the Su, Repentance is theorigin of every spiritual station and the key to everyspiritual state,and it is the rst of spiritual stations135. Repentance means to ridoneself of the animalistic self and of the corporeal world; and, theSu does not mean by repentance the cessation of sin... rather,they mean by it something else, much farther and more profoundthan all this... It is stripping oneself of the self and ridding oneself

of the self136.


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The path of gnosis (marifa) and union with God is based onstruggling against the self as the self is considered a veil thatprevents the light, or the unveiling of certain knowledge in the

unseen. Al-Ghazali addresses the wayseeker, saying, Unless youkill the carnal self with the sincerity of self-exertion (mujahadah137),you will fail to illuminate your heart with the light of gnosis138.For, the rst thing that the wayseeker must do is know the self in

order to distinguish between thoughts and notions whose sourceis inspiration and between thoughts and notions whose sourceis xations, obsessions and apprehensions; the latter is requiredin order to be able to conquer the self and avoid its control andnegative inuence over the aspirant. In the words of Kalabadhi,the rst obligation of the wayseeker is to rise above the plague ofthe self, to know it, and exercise it, and discipline its manners139.

Al-Ghazali summarizes the path of purication to be followed asbeing one of remembrance of God (dhikr140) and constrainingthe stomach and staying up at night observing silence andseclusion.141

Remembrance or recollection of God (dhikr) enjoys an elevated

rank and rened status in the doctrine of the Sus. The wayseekermust immerse himself in the remembrance of God to the pointthat the sense of tangible things becomes absented, andthis remembrance is in order to avoid the veiling of the mind.

According to al-Ghazali, Godliness is the gate to remembranceand remembrance is the gate to revelation142. And, according to

Abu Ala A, remembrance or recollection of God is the meansto arousing a state of ecstasy (wajd), and for illumination (ishraq)

to occur143.

The path of Su gnosis is not simple or easy. Those who seekthese paths of spiritual ascension must be patient and endure, andeven with patience and endureness, those who seek this path maynever be capable of attaining its aim, because Direct knowledgeof God is based on revelation or apocalyptic vision. It is not theresult of any mental process, but depends entirely on the will and

favor of God, who bestows it as a gift from Himself upon those


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whom He has created with the capacity for receiving it144. And,if this path does not necessarily lead to gnosis, attaining gnosis

requires, by obligation, seeking the path of purication, as Purity

of awareness, active intelligence and the power of illumination willexist only to the extent that one can strip himself of all profaneand worldly ambitions. And, here, for those who adhere to theapproach of the wayseekers and travelers of this path and of thepeople of this way, the Su way of self-exertion on the path of Godis an obligatory requirement in the quest to attain the glimmeringsof the illumination of gnosis and the ashes of divine revelation145.

The wayseeker will not attain the [Divine] Truth of gnosis andthe purity of tawhid (certainty in the oneness of God) until hepasses through the spiritual states and spiritual stations of the Su

path on the way to God146. Andhaqq al-marifa(Truth of gnosis)emerges from mukashafat, tajilliyat and ishraqiyat. With theseconcepts being gnostic terms unique to the Sus withmukashafameaning, revealing that which conceals the unseen, unveilingit to the servant of God, as if he were seeing it with ones owneyes147; and tajallimeaning, the [divine] illumination of the heart

by and the lights of the reception of the Truth upon the hearts ofthose capable of receiving it148; andishraqmeaning the momentof [self-] manifestation [self-] revelation of gnosis (marifa)149.

The quest for gnosis, attained through the Su path of spiritualascension, has led to many and diverse tendencies, perspectives

and approaches to the Divine and to divinity, from fanaor self-annihilation, toittihad or unication with the Divine, to wihdat al-

shuhud or the doctrine of the Unity of Witness or Oneness ofPerception; Apparentism, to wihdat al-wujudor the transcendentUnity of Existence [of God]; or Oneness of Being. And, accordingto Muhammad Bin al-Tayyeb, a thorough examination of Su textswill reveal that these concepts all reect different degrees andlevels of one spiritual experience, and that wihdat al-wujud is asensory, subconscious and intuitive state in origin. However, thegnostic cannot attain this state at once, but gradually, and only as

the fruit of the Su path of spiritual ascension. Here, the gnostic


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undergoes the rst level of fana, or the passing away of onesattributes and accomplishments; and, in this state, the gnostic

no longer witnesses his own attributes or accomplishments, but

rather the attributes and accomplishments of the Divine, the MostExalted and Beloved. Then, the gnostic undergoes the next levelof fana, or the passing away of everything but the Divine, untilhe attains the highest level of fana, where he enters into thestate of unication with the Beloved. And, this unication is nota unication of the Truth or of Reality, but rather a sensory andintuitive awareness that the gnostic is the eye of his Beloved,that there is nothing but God, One and Alone, and that thecorporeal in the gnostic no longer exists and is entirely absent inhimself. Finally, the state of wihdat al-shuhud(Unity of Witness; orOneness of Perception; Apparentism) precedes wihdat al-wujud

(transcendent Unity of Existence [of God]; or Oneness of Being)with wihdat al-shuhudbeing the rst attainment, or attaining thebeginning; whereas wihdat al-wujud is the last attainment, orreaching the end150.

The concept of wihdat al-wujudhas been further developed and

internalized within the domain of Susm by the work of Ibn Arabi,who altered the pantheistic and atheist concepts of wihdat al-wujud, which claimed that unity of existence was related to allthings of corporeal and material existence. Instead, with Ibn Arabiand his followers, a spiritual nature in the context of fanawasattributed to wihdat al-wujud, and not an integrationist, material

unity. Or, in other words, according to Ibn Arabi and his followers,the true (real) existence is this material world, as represented

before our senses, but unity of existence is the ideal or spiritualrepresentation which replicates the existence of a Higher, Absoluteor Ultimate Truth which is the Truth as manifested in the imagesof all things present in creation where all things dwell in non-existence, because they do not exist in themselves but ratherexist in God; for, according to Ibn Arabi, Everything that exists isa part of and a manifestation of the Oneness of God151.


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The approach of wusul, or gnostic ascension or attainment,for the Sus is founded on wisal, or union and reunion with theDivine. Gnosis does not occur by dhikror remembrance of God,

or through seclusion and other forms of methodological spiritualexercises and practices. The latter are considered no more thana means through which the wayseeker is assisted in purifying hisheart so that his heart is ready to receive the (divine) revelations

(mukashafat) and effusions (fuyoudiyat). Finally, the wayseekeris obliged to progress and ascend through the spiritual stationsand spiritual states and wait, patiently; because, Su gnosis isdistinct in that it is absolute knowledge that is direct, immediateand instantaneous. It dees expression and is distinct in itstruthfulness, its sincerity and its constancy before God. And,the conditions for its attainment are unity and oneness betweensubject and object152. 153

Indeed, gnosis in the Divine, according to the Sus, is notattained by sight, intellect or reason, and tawhid(certainty in theoneness of God) is a lofty, sublime matter that goes beyond the

awareness of the mind; gnosis is of the secrets which God shall

reveal to those of His servants He wills.


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Mahabba and Fana


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Mahabbaor Divine Love or love of God154holds a central placein Su philosophy and is closely linked by Sus to the spiritualstation of gnosis ormarifa. For the Sus, Divine Love and gnosisare complementary notions that represent the end, or ultimateaim, of the Su path. Some Sus place the spiritual station ofDivine Love ormaqam al-mahabba above the spiritual station ofgnosis or maqam al-marifa. Indeed, in the words of al-Ghazali,Love of God without knowledge of God is impossible; for, onlythose who know can love155. Sus have also differed over whether

Divine Love is a spiritual state (hal) or a spiritual station (maqam).

Ibn Arabi considers Divine Love as being a spiritual station anda spiritual state at the same time, inuenced as he was by al-Suhrawardi, who also sanctioned this notion156.

The religious references used in sanctioniong the spiritual stationof Divine Love are the Holy Quran and the Prophetic Sunna.Indeed, the term love or hubbis mentioned in the Holy Quran83 times157. Specically, the Sus have focused great heed on the

following Quranic verses: Say, [O Muhammad, to mankind], Ifyou should love God, then follow me, [so] God will love you158and

God will bring forth a people He will love and who will love Him159.The particular focus by Sus on these two Quranic verses is basedon the belief that these verses specically establish the mutuallove that exists between God and His servants160. The PropheticSunna also frequently refers to love, with one of the most widelyreferenced by the Sus being the Sacred Hadith or hadith qudsi

that is, a Hadith or statement transmitted from the Prophet in


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which God is the speaker which says, The Prophet, may Godbless and greet him, said that God, blessings be upon Him, said:

[My servant] draws near Me through nothing more than that which

I have made obligatory for him. My servant never ceases drawingnearer to Me through supererogatory works until he loves Me andI love him. Then, when I love him, I become his sight and hearingthrough which he hears and sees When he asks me, I grant him

and when he seeks my protection, I protect him161

The Su notion of Divine Love emerged from within the earlystages of Susm, withmahabbaor love of God being perceivedas a means to perfecting obedience and surrender to God and asa means of salvation from Hellre and for triumphing in Heaven.Indeed, Divine Love, for the Sus, is desire and fear turned into a

passion that overwhelms hearts and their existence. This discourseof Divine Love was that of God being the Beloved.

It was from within the context of this discourse that the asceticSu tendencies and the Su quest for self-exertion on the path ofGod sprung forth, in addition to the belief in reliance on God and

in the Hereafter, and of renouncing the corporeal world or lowerlife, of despairing of people and of disconnecting and severingoneself from all relations with things material. These beliefsbestowed upon the Sus a sensitivity which carried them forth ina determined struggle to be more complete in their obedience, intheir submission to God and in their quest to be closer to God.

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sufism and sufi orders: god's spiritual paths adaptation and renewal in teh context of modernization

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