Suicide• A sensitive subject

which also forms part of the deviance section, here the emphasis is on using it as an example to illustrate methods in action

Durkheim

Durkheim was concerned with establishing sociology as an academic, scientific discipline.

He used suicide to get this across to the academic world.

He studied official stats in different European countries at the end of the 19th century

He called suicide a social fact which could be explained by reference to other social facts

SuicideHe chose to study suicide for a number of reasons

1. Personal – a close friend had committed suicide

2. Academic – Durkheim was interested in whether social facts could influence a person’s state of mind. He wanted to establish sociology as an academic subject.

3. Accessibility – Durkheim could find stats on suicide across Europe and therefore could do a comparative study.

Durkheim

Durkheim's approach to suicide was' positvist'. He followed the methods of the sciences in generating hypotheses and looking for causal explanations

Durkheim

Durkheim identified a number of variables which affect the rates of suicide.

• Religious affiliation

• Degree of urbanisation

• Age

• Marital status

• Children

• level of education

Durkheim

Durkheim believed that suicide rates depended on 2 key factors

1. The degree to which an individual was integrated into society.

2. The degree to which an individual was regulated by society.

• Too little or too much of these would predispose people to suicide.

Suicide

1. Altruistic Suicide

This occurs when there is excessive integration within a group. There is a strong sense of loyalty.

E.g. suicide bomber, kamikaze pilots etc.

The individual gives his/her life for the group

Suicide

2. Egoistic Suicide

This is where there is insufficient integration.

Protestant countries had higher rates than Catholic ones.

Durkheim believed this was because this was a more individualised religion

Modern eg’s include Kurt Cobain – self interested pursuit of destruction

Suicide

3. Anomic Suicide

Is a feature of societies/individuals undergoing rapid change – where there is confusion over norms and values

Suicide goes up in times of economic prosperity and decline

E.g. Wall St Crash, Lottery winners

Suicide

4. Fatalistic Suicide

Occurs where there is excessive regulation.

Durkheim only gave this a footnote in his book – young husbands with futures ‘pitilessly blocked’

Also slaves, concentration camp members

Modern e.g’s – Fred West?

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

• The Samaritans and other organisations today do recognise the importance of integration and regulation in affecting the suicide rates. However, in sociological circles Durkheim's work has been criticised.

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

Positivist Criticisms

1. Durkheim was too vague on his concepts of integration and regulation

2. Agreed with Durkheim’s approach but criticised his lack of rigour with the stats.

3. Maybe the stats were affected by the the hesitance of reporting such deaths in ‘religious’ countries.

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

Social Action Criticisms

1. Jack Douglas (1967)

Douglas believed that people who commit suicide attach different meanings to the act in the first place

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

Social Action Criticisms

1. Jack Douglas (1967)

1. Transforming the self

Suicide victim believes his/her life will change for the better. E.g. religious sects

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

2. Transforming the self for others.

Giving ones life for others – E.g. Captain Oates ‘I may be some time’Maximillian – a priest at Auschwitz

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

3. Achieving fellow feeling

To elicit sympathy – often associated with attempted suicides

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

4. Gaining revenge

Aiming to get back at others to make them feel guilty, ruin their lives etc.

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

• Suicde statistics tell us nothing about why people commit suicide

Evaluating Durkheim's approach

Social Action Criticisms

2. . J.M. Atkinson 1978

Atkinson through ethnomethodological study examined how coroners made decisions at inquests as to whether a death was a suicide or not

Evaluating Durkheim's approachCoroners have to play detective and rely on a number

of things to help inform their decision

1. Suicide notes

More likely to pass a verdict of suicide when a clear note has been left

30% of victims leave notes

Some are destroyed by relatives

Evaluating Durkheim's approach2. Mode of death

Hanging, overdoses seen as typical

Drowning, car crashes less so

Evaluating Durkheim's approach3. Location and circumstances

Certain locations get notoriety for suicides e.g. Beachy Head

Coroners believe the more serious attempts are in private

More public places suggest ‘attempted suicides’ crys for help etc – termed ‘parasuicides’

Evaluating Durkheim's approach4. Life History and mental condition

Experts are often called to judge the person’s state of mind.

History of depression, mental illness helps get a suicide verdict

Also recent happenings – divorce, financial crisis etc

Evaluating Durkheim's approach• Classification of deaths by the coroner operate

within this framework. He/she uses a check list approach. The more 'typical' characteristics found in the above - the more likely the death will be classified as suicide.

• Consequently, Atkinson is very critical of positivist attempts to develop a causal theory of suicide based on stats which he sees as a social creation.

Evaluating Durkheim's approachComparing Danish and English Coroners

Both sets of coroners were given

the same case studies

Danes gave more suicide verdicts

Less stigma in Denmark etc.

Therefore the higher rates in Denmark were not necessarily higher in ‘real’ terms

Suicide verdicts are social constructions

Evaluating Durkheim's approach• For Atkinson and others stats are simply a reflection

of the common sense assumptions and decisions of officials. A 'proper' investigation of suicide must involve an examination of the work of officials in arriving at definitions of what is or is not a suicide.

• This emphasis is very different from the structural approaches to sociology and emphasises the methodologies of qualitative research - in-depth interviews, observation, content analysis etc

Recent developments in the debate• Until the 1980's, the debate about suicide was polarised

between the positivists and the social action (interpretive)theorists.

• Hindess (1973) criticised Atkinson and other ethnomethodologists in stating that 'their common sense' affects how they look at things.

• Recently Steve Taylor has argued that Durkheim was aware of the social construction of stats but still argued that broad statistical patterns are important. To this end Durkheim can be seen as a 'realist'

Recent developments in the debate

Steve Taylor 1988

Taylor offers his own categories of suicide which combine the approaches of Durkheim and the Social Action Theorists.

Recent developments in the debate

Steve Taylor 1988

Ectopic Suicide

Inner directed suicides

1. Submissive – person has decided life is over e.g. spouse dies, terminal illness.

2. Thanative – person is unsure about themselves and puts themselves in dangerous situations.

Recent developments in the debate

Steve Taylor 1988

Symphsic Suicide

Other directed suicides

1. Sacrifice – suicide is act of revenge against those who have made one’s life intolerable.

2. Appeal – where person is unsure about how others feel about them – ‘cry for help’