suicide risk: comprehensive assessment and clinical management david a. brent, m.d. western...
TRANSCRIPT
Suicide Risk: Comprehensive Assessment and Clinical
ManagementDavid A. Brent, M.D.
Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic
March 28, 2006
Objectives
• Review descriptive epidemiology of suicidal ideation, attempts, and completion
• Review risk factors for suicidality across the life span and diagnostic groups
• Use risk factors for purposes of suicide risk assessment
• Review management and treatment of patients who are suicidal or at high risk for suicide
Descriptive Epidemiology: Adolescents
Suicidal ideation 20%
Suicide attempts 1.3-3.8% males1.5-10% females
Risk for recurrent attempts 15-30%/year
Risk for completed suicide 0.5-1.0%/year
Increased risk of suicideamong attempters 10-60-fold increased
Descriptive Epidemiology of Suicidal Ideation and Behavior in
Adults*
Lifetime ideation 13.5%
Ideation with a plan 3.9%
Attempt 4.6%
*Kessler et al., 1999
*Kessler et al., 1999
Hazard Functions of First Onset of Suicide Ideation, Plan, and Attempt (N=5877)*
Suicide Rates by Age, 1982-2002
10
15
20
25
30
1982 1987 1992 1997 2002
Year of Death
Deat
hs p
er 1
00,0
00
15-24 yr
25-34 yr
35-44 yr
45-64 yr
65 -74
75-84
85+
Data are from Center for Disease Control and Prevention
2002 Suicide Rates by Race, Gender & Age
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
15-19yrs
20-24yrs
25-34yrs
35-44yrs
45-54yrs
55-64yrs
65-74yrs
75-84yrs
85 +yrs
Age
Dea
ths
per 1
00,0
00
White Males
White-Females
Black Males
Black Females
Other Males
Other Females
Data from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention
Assessment of Suicidal Patients
• Characteristics of suicidality
• Current and lifetime psychopathology
• Psychological characteristics
• Family and environmental factors
• Availability of lethal agents
Characteristics of Suicidality
• Intent / current ideation
• Lethality
• Precipitant
• Motivation
• Environmental response
Suicidal Intent• “Wish to die”— based on self-report of
observable behavior
• Belief about intent
• Preparatory behavior
• Prevention of discovery
• Communication of intent
• Higher in completers than attempters
• Predicts reattempt and completion
Assessment of Suicidal Ideation
• Have you ever thought you would be better off dead?
• Do you have thoughts of wanting to hurt yourself? (intensity and frequency)
• Do you have a plan?
• Do you intend to carry it out?
• What things keep you from acting on your thoughts (Reasons for Living)?
• What things would increase the likelihood of trying to hurt yourself?
Current Suicidal Ideation / Past Behavior
• Intensity, now and worst ever
• Frequency
• Presence of active plan
• Wish to carry out plan
• Past history of attempt particularly within the past 6 months
Progression of Suicidality*
Ideation to plan 34%
Ideation to attempt 26% (90% in 1 yr)
Plan to attempt 72% (60% in 1 yr)
*Kessler et al., 1999
Lethality• Modestly associated with intent
• But impulsive acts can be very lethal
• Children can have high intent and low lethality
• High lethality is associated with higher risk of completion
• Availability of lethal agents important in younger, impulsive suicides
• Ratio of attempts to completions drops with age
Non-Suicidal Self-Harm
• Self-cutting, repetitive and stereotypical
• To relieve distress/anger, pain, loneliness rather than to die
• Often co-occurs with suicidal behavior
Precipitants
• Abuse
• Family discord
• Romantic attachment disruption
• Legal/disciplinary problems
• Disruption of relationship very high risk for alcoholic suicides
• Bereavement very important factor in geriatric suicidal behavior
• Assess likelihood of recurrence
Motivation• Wish to die or permanently escape
psychological painful situation(1/3 in younger individuals, but increases with age)
• To influence others
• Get attention
• Express hostility
• Induce guilt
Psychopathology
• Over 80% of attempters and 90% of completers have at least one Axis I disorder
• Most commonly mood disorder
• High risk for bipolar disorder, particularly mixed state
• Substance abuse
• Cluster B disorders
• Schizophrenia
• Comorbidity, chronicity, severity
Age and Suicide• Suicide attempts and ideation more common in
the young
• Younger suicides more often involve Cluster B, substance abuse, impulsivity, aggression
• Depression, schizophrenia-- suicide occurs relatively early in course
• “Pure” depression and planned suicide more common in older adults
• Alcoholics tend to commit suicide later in the course of the disorder
Prediction of Suicide Attempt in Community
Samples*• Demographic: Age 15-24, female, <12 years old
• Psychiatric: Mood disorder, psychoses, PTSD, substance abuse, ASP
• Those with 3+ risk factors are 9.2% of population, but make up 55.1% of all attempters
*Kessler et al., 1999
Psychological Characteristics
• Hopelessness (dropout, poor treatment response, attempt)
• Impulsivity and aggression (strong predictor of suicidal behavior, especially in presence of a mood disorder, familial component) - More important in suicide earlier in life
• Social skills deficits (interpersonal problems)
• Homosexuality, bisexuality (bullying, family rejection)
• Inflexibility (in older suicides)
Family and Social Factors
• Parental history of psychiatric illness and suicidal behavior
• Abuse and neglect
• Discord
• Disruption of interpersonal relationships
• Grief
• Disconnection and “drifting”
Cumulat ive Pr opor t ion of S uicide A t t empt A mong O ff spr ing of A t t empt er s vs N on- A t t empt er s
0
0 .1
0 .2
0 .3
0 .4
0 .5
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0
Cu
mu
lati
ve
pro
po
rtio
n
A t te m p te r N o n -A t te m p te r
A g e o f firs t-o n s e t o f s u ic id e a tte m p t (ye a rs )
G e ne ra lized S ava ge : G e ne ra lized S ava ge : 22 = = 7 .89 , 7 .89 , pp = .0 05= .0 05O R = 6 .2 , 97 .5% C I, 1 .2 to 3 3 .4
P ro ba n d S ta tu s :
Abuse and Neglect• Related to attempt and completed suicide
• Sexual abuse prominent in early-onset disorders and attempts
• Parental history of sexual abuse increases risk of attempt in offspring
• Risk related to severity of abuse
• Leads to cascade of mental health difficulties: early sexual activity, sexual assault, early pregnancy, marriage, divorce
• Adversely affects course, adherence to treatment, response to treatment
Family and Social Protective Factors in Adolescents
• Parent-child connection
• High parental expectations
• Parental supervision and availability
• School connection
• Religious affiliation
• Non-deviant peer group
Protective Factors in Adults• Supportive family
• Live with other people (spouse, child)
• Children at home
• Sense of connection and support
• In older people, “pride in aging”
• Sense of purpose
Availability of Lethal Agents
• Case control and quasi-experimental study and guns
• Detoxification of domestic gas
• Blister packs for acetaminophen
• SSRIs vs. TCAs
Guns in the Home & Suicide (OR)Any
Gun
Long
Gun
Hand Gun
Loaded Gun
Brent et al., 1993 4.4* - 9.5* -
Kellermann et al., 1992 4.8* 3.0* 5.8* 9.2*
Beautrais et al., 1992 1.4 - - -
Bailey et al., 1997 4.6* - - -
Shah et al., 2000 3.3* - - -
*95% CI excludes 1.0
Guns in the Home & Suicide (OR): Age †
Age (Years) OR
0-24 10.4*
25-40 7.2*
41-60 4.0*
≥ 61 6.6*
*95% CI excludes 1.0
† Kellermann et al., 1992
Rates of Suicide by Firearm During the Six Years After Purchase Among Persons Who Purchased Handguns in California in 1991
The horizontal line indicates the age- and sex-adjusted average annual rate of suicide by firearm in California in 1991 through 1996 (10.7 per 100,000 persons per year).
Abstracted from Wintemute et al., New England Journal of Medicine, 341:1583-1589
0
25
50
75
100
1 2 3 4 5 6
Years
Suic
ides
by
Fire
arm
(n
o./1
00,0
00 p
erso
n-ye
ars)
Acetominophen (Paracetomol) and Suicide
• Liver damage associated with > 25 tablets (OR= 4.5)
• Those with access to bottle vs. blister pack 3 times more likely to take > 25 tablets
• Only 20% thought a warning would deter them
Toxicity of Antidepressants: DAWN
Drug Odds of Attempt
Odds of Suicide
Risk of Death
in OD
Desipramine 1.51 16.66 8.5
Amitryptiline 1.07 4.79 2.5
Imipramine 1.21 4.66 2.5
Fluoxetine 1.00 1.00 1.0
Kapur et al., 1992
End of Part I
Mnemonic for Assessing Suicide Risk
AID ILL SAD DADS
Proximal Distal
Proximal Risk Factors
Agitation - Anxiety, agitation, EPS, insomnia
Ideation - Active ideation with a plan
Depression - Depression and decline, hopelessness
Instability - Substance use, affective lability, mixed state or rapid cycling, brain injury
Loss - Of relationship, work, health, or function
Lethal agent- Availability of a gun
Distal Risk Factors
Suicidal history - Personal or in family
Aggression and impulsivity
Difficult course - Poor treatment response, comorbid, severe
Difficult patient - Non-adherent
Abuse and trauma history
Disconnection from support, work, relationships
Substance or alcohol abuse
Suicide Among Inpatients*• Risk 137 / 100,000 admissions
• Majority on weekend pass
• In hospital - not on constant observation
• Admitted for either planning or making an actual attempt
• Recent bereavement
• Chronic disorder, psychotic
• Family history of suicide
*Powell et al. 2000
Suicide in Psychiatric Inpatients*
• 31% of inpatient suicides on unit, usually not on intense observation
• Judged to be at low risk
• Staffing, ward design, staff training, observation
• Often homeless, SPMI, multiple admissions, previous non-adherence and self-harm
*Meehan et al., 2006
Suicide within 3 Months of Discharge*
• 32% occur within 2 weeks of discharge• Greatest number on first day post-discharge• 40% occurred before post-discharge contact
with treatment in the community• Drugs and alcohol, non-adherence, previous
self-harm, personality disorder• Prevention through improved treatment
adherence and closer supervision (?)
*Meehan et al., 2006
Suicide within 12 Months of Mental Health Service
Contact*• Youngest and oldest suicide victims least likely to be
engaged in treatment• In those under 25 - outreach to those with
schizophrenia substance abuse, non-adherence, legal or relationship issues
• In the elderly, recognition of depression, especially in context of bereavement and decline in physical health; suicide pacts most common in those with ill health in themselves, partner, living alone, low support
*Hunt et al., 2006
Risk for Suicide in Mood Disorders (Bostwick, 2000)
Hospitalized for suicidality 8.6%
Hospitalized 4.0%
Outpatient 2.2%
Non-affectively ill 0.5%
Tends to occur relatively early in the course of illness
Proximal Risk Factors for Suicide in Depression*
• Agitation - Panic attacks, agitation, insomnia, poor concentration
• Ideation - More specific (intent or planning)
• Depression – Anhedonia; decline in health in elderly
• Instability - Alcohol abuse
• Loss, especially in elderly
•Lethal agents
*Fawcett et al., 1990
Distal Risk Factors for Suicide in Depression
•Suicide history - Personal and family
•Aggression - Impulsive aggression
•Difficult course – Hopelessness
•Difficult patient - BPD
•Abuse and trauma
•Disconnection
•Substance abuse
Proximal Risk Factors for Suicide in Bipolar Disorder*
•Agitation - Anxiety
• Ideation - Ideation and recent attempt
•Depression - More prominent
• Instability - Mixed state, rapid cycling, substance abuse
•Loss
•Lethal agents
*Hawton et.al., 2005a
Distal Risk Factors for Suicide in Bipolar Disorder*
•Suicide history - Personal and family
•Aggression and impulsivity - ? Role of lithium
•Difficult course - More time in depressive state
•Difficult patient – Non-compliant
•Abuse and trauma
•Disconnection
•Substance abuse
*Hawton et al., 2005a
Proximal Risk Factors for Suicide in Schizophrenia*
• Agitation, EPS (Extra- pyramidal Symptoms)
• Ideation
• Depression and decline
• Instability - Drug abuse
• Loss - Recent loss, fear of mental isintegration
• Lethal agent
*Hawton et al., 2005b
Distal Risk Factors for Suicide in Schizophrenia*
• Suicide history - Personal and family
• Aggression and impulsivity
• Difficult course
• Difficult patient - Non-adherent
• Abuse and trauma
• Disconnection
• Substance abuse
*Hawton et al., 2005b
Proximal Risk Factors for Suicide in Alcoholics*
• Agitation
• Ideation - Ideation, threat, attempt
• Depression and hopelessness
• Instability - Recent heavy drinking, drug abuse
• Loss - Recent interpersonal loss (within 6 weeks)
• Lethal agents
*Murphy, 1992; Conner et al., 2003, 2004
Distal Risk Factors for Suicide in Alcoholics*
•Suicide history - Personal and family
•Aggression - Impulsive aggression
•Difficult disorder - Early onset, comorbid, chronic course
•Difficult patient - Non-adherent
•Abuse and trauma
•Disconnection
•Substance abuse (especially polysubstance abuse)
*Murphy, 1992; Conner et al., 2003, 2004
Proximal Risk Factors for Suicide in Eating Disorders
•Agitation – Obsessive concern about weight
• Ideation
•Depression and hopelessness
• Instability - Drug and alcohol abuse, mood lability
•Loss
•Lethal agent
Distal Risk Factors for Suicide in Eating Disorder Patients
• Suicide - Personal history
• Aggression and impulsivity - Cluster B personality
•Difficult course - Poor treatment response, binging / purging, high obsessionality, lower BMI, longer course
•Difficult patient
•Abuse and trauma
•Disconnection
•Substance abuse
Proximal Risk Factors for Geriatric Suicide
•Agitation - Insomnia, anxiety, traumatic grief
• Ideation
•Depression, decline and hopelessness
• Instability
•Loss of relationship; health, function (in self or spouse)
•Lethal agent
Distal Risk Factors for Geriatric Suicide
•Suicidality - Personal and family history
•Aggression - Not so prominent
•Difficult course
•Difficult patient
•Abuse and trauma
•Disconnection from supports
•Substance abuse
Why Target Depression?
• 80% of attempters and 60% of completers are depressed
• Depression increases the risk for suicidal behavior 10- to 50-fold
• Quality improvement studies also suggest that improved treatment of depression reduces suicidality risk (Asarnow et al., 2005; Wells et al., 2001; Brown et al., 2001)
• Pharmacoepidemiological studies show reduction in suicide with SSRI use
Treatment of Depression Reduces Suicidal Risk
• Gotland study – Improvement in GPs ability to treat depression resulted in decreased suicide rate
• PROSPECT – Collaborative care for depressed suicidal elders was more effective than TAU for reducing suicidality
• Pharmaco-epidemiology studies – Increase in SSRI prescription related to decline in suicide, particularly in 15-24 year-olds
Gotland Study: Suicide Rates (per 100,000)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1982 1983 1984 1985
Sweden
Gotland
*p<0.01
Intervention
Treatment of Depression May NotReduce Suicidal Risk
• The most suicidal individuals are excluded from clinical trials of depression
• Suicidality is associated with other factors that also predict treatment non-response of depression (chronicity, severity, comorbidity, personality disorder)
Khan et al., 2000: FDA Database (n=19,639)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Drug Comparator Placebo
Suicide
AttemptedSuicide
Storosum et al., 2001: Dutch Studies, 1983-1997
00.05
0.10.150.2
0.250.3
0.350.4
Drug
Su
icid
e Ra
te %
0
Short Term
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Drug
Suicide
AttemptedSuicide
Su
icid
e Ra
te %
Long Term
Placebo Placebo
Changes in Mood and Suicidality Not
Always Closely Related
• Suicidal behavior is multifactoral
• Studies of CBT, IPT, antidepressants differentially decrease depression, but not suicidal ideation, attempts (Brent, 1997; Lerner, 1990; Mufson, 1999; Khan et al., 2000; Storosum et al., 2001)
• Studies that decrease suicidal ideation / attempts do not affect mood (Linehan, 1991; Harrington, 1998; Wood, 2001)
• SSRIs may increase suicidal risk
End of Part II
SSRIs and Suicidality: A Summary of the FDA Findings
• Rate of “suicidality” increased 1.78-fold
• On average drug vs. placebo, 4% vs. 2%
• Mostly new or worsened ideation, few attempts, no completions – question clinical significance
• Early in treatment
• Most common in trials that also showed increase in hostility
• No difference in ideation on standard measures
• More pronounced in non-depressed (e.g., anxious, OCD) subjects
Pittsburgh Meta-Analysis: Efficacy and Suicidality in Pediatric Clinical Trials for MDD, OCD and ANX*
Response % SuicidalityIndication N Drug Placebo NNT Drug Placebo NNH
MDD 2,750 59.5 47.9 9 45/1,708 21/1,433 125
OCD 705 51.5 32.2 6 4/362 1/339 200
ANX 1,143 68.9 38.8 3 6/573 1/582 143
*Bridge et al., in preparation
Suicidality and Antidepressants
Drug % Placebo % Pooled Pooled
Risk Difference* Relative Risk*
(95% CI) (95% CI)
MDD 2.6 1.5 0.8% 1.7
(-0.2%-1.8%) (0.97-2.8)
OCD 1.1 0.3 0.5% 1.8
(-0.1%-2.2%) (0.4-8.5)
ANX 0.4 0.2 0.7% 3.1
(-0.0%-1.8%) (0.6-16.8)
*Using random effects models
Rates of Suicide Attempts During the 3 Months Before and the 6 Months After Initial Antidepressant
Prescriptiona
aBars indicate 95% confidence intervals
Simon et al., 2006
Treatment Studies of Adult Suicide Attempters
Type of Treatment ComparisonOdds of Repetition
(95% CI)
Problem-solving therapy Usual aftercare 0.73(0.45-1.18)
Intensive aftercare Usual aftercare 0.83(0.61-1.14)
Emergency care Usual aftercare 0.45(0.19-1.07)
Dialectical behavior therapy
Usual care 0.24(0.06-0.93)
Antidepressant Placebo 1.19(0.53-2.67)
Flupenthixol Placebo 0.09(0.02-0.50)
Hawton et al., 1998
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
• Linehan et al., 1991: DBT vs. TAU: 64% vs. 96%
• 1 year follow-up: DBT vs. TAU: 26% vs. 60% (parasuicide episodes), by 2 years, differences were gone
• Van der Bosch 2002: lower DSH in BPD with SA
• Bohus et al., 2004: lower DSH: 38% vs. 69%
CBT for Prevention of Recurrent Attempts
• Chain analysis of attempt
• Focus on cognitions leading to attempt
• Safety plan
• Case management
• Two-fold reduction in re-attempt
Brown et al., 2005
*Brown, G. K. et al. JAMA 2005;294:563-570.
Survival Curves of Time to Repeat Suicide Attempt*
Treatment Studies with Suicidal Youth
Harrington et al. (1998) – Home-based family intervention no better than TAU for adolescent overdose attempts. In non-depressed group family treatment reduced ideation
Wood et al (2001) – 6-session group treatment >TAU for reducing single (OR=.6) and recurrent attempts (OR=.16), anger, and conduct disorder, but not depression. More of experimental treatment better, more of TAU worse.
Effects of Long-Term Contact on Suicide*
• 843 inpatients hospitalized for depression or suicidality and refused ongoing care
• Randomized to contact or no contact
• Contact letter with 24 contact, over 5 years
• Significant in suicide rate difference at 2 years = 1.7-% vs. 3.6%
*Motto & Bostrom, 2001
Aftercare: Postcards from the Edge*
• 772 patients who made overdose, ≥ 16 years of age
• Received postcards (up to 8) and standard treatment vs. standard treatment alone
• Proportion of repetition in experimental group is lower (15.1% vs. 17%)
• RR=0.55
• Reduction in bed-days=110
*Carter et al., 2005
Carter et al., 2005
Pharmacologic Targeting of Impulsive Aggression and/or Suicidal Behavior
• Lithium – decreases aggression, quasi-experimental findings, decreases suicide rate in adults
• Neuroleptics – Risperidone decreases aggression in children, RCT clozapine > olanzapine for suicidal schizophrenics
• SSRIs – decrease in impulsive aggression in one study, did not decrease recurrent suicide attempts in two studies
Forest Plot Showing Meta-Analysis of Suicides Plus Deliberate Self-Harm in Randomized Trials
Comparing Lithium with Placebo or Active Comparators
Cipriani et al., 2005
Lithium and Odds of Suicidal Behavior
OR Pt. Yrs. Contrast
Bipolar Disorder* 20.7 44,584 Li vs. No
All Mood Disorders* 11.0 64,233 Li vs. No
Unipolar Depression* 19.5 4,740 Li vs. No
Unipolar Depression† 4.2 Li vs. No
Bipolar Disorder‡ 2.7/1.7 60,060 DV vs. Li
CM vs. Li
*Baldessarini, 2003 †Coppen, 2000 ‡Goodwin, 2003
Direct Targeting of Suicidal Behavior: Clozapine*
• 980 schizophrenic or schizoaffective patients
• Randomized to clozapine or olanzapine
• Suicide attempt rate lower in those treated with clozapine (34% vs. 55%, p=0.03)
*Meltzer et al., 2003
Montgomery et al., 1994: Prevention of Recurrent Suicide Attempts in Patients with
Recurrent Brief Depression
Fluoxetine Placebo
N 54 53
Suicide Attempt (%) 33.3 34
Verkes et al. (1998) Paroxetine for Recurrent Attempt
05
101520253035404550
Overall <5Attempts
-B +B
Paroxetine
Placebo
*p<.05
* *
TASA (Treatment of Adolescent Suicide Attempters) CBT
• Safety plan
• Case management
• Chain analysis of attempt
• Focus on cognitions leading to attempt
• Two-fold reduction in re-attempt in Brown et al. (2005)
• Now being tested in multi-site study of adolescent attempters funded by NIMH
Chain Analysis of Suicide Attempt
• Precipitant
• Motivation
• Negative affect
• Hopelessness
• Emotion regulation
• Environmental response
Management of “External Factors” in Treatment of Attempters
Attempt
Family
Discord
School Problems
Interpersonal Difficulties
Restrict Access to Means
Family Therapy , Education
Treatment of Parents
Case Management
Adjust Expectation
Social Skills
Training
Availability of Lethal Agents
Management of “Internal Factors” inTreatment of Attempters
Attempt
Negative Affect and other Disorders
Emotional Lability
Problem-solving
Positive Health Habits
Cognitive Restructuring
Distress, Tolerance, Treatment Disorder
Emotion Regulation
Impulsivity
Hopelessness
In setting treatment priorities, ask
(collaboratively):
• What will yield the greatest risk reduction for the least effort?
• Is it something that can be changed?
• Does the patient want to / have the capability to change this factor?
Relapse Prevention Session
• Imagine situation that led to attempt
• Role play how would cope now
• Identify skills and resources necessary to stay well
Treatment Guidelines
• Establish safety plan
• Increase likelihood of adherence
• Determine appropriate level/intensity of care
• Increase hopefulness about treatment
• Conduct chain analysis of the attempt
• Target most relevant individual and environment factors to the suicide attempt
• Increase protective factors (family connection)
• Coping plan, hope kit
Safety Plan
• Will try to implement coping plan
• Promises family and clinician not to engage in suicidal behavior OR
• Will contact clinician/family/responsible adult if suicidal thoughts reoccur
• Need 24-hour availability or back-up
• Review precipitants, develop truce and conduct brief training in emotional regulation
• Secure lethal agents
Secure Lethal Agents
• Find out motivation for gun ownership
• Find out who owns the gun
• Negotiate most secure situation possible
• Parental regulation of medication
Hopelessness
• Address hopelessness about treatment first
• On a scale of 1-10, how hopeful are you that we can help you? What would increase/decrease it?
• Establish concrete, realistic, achievable goals
• Reasons for Living
• Predict “bumps in the road” to prevent undue discouragement
Education• Educate parents and families about depression
as a chronic and recurrent illness
• Depression is nobody’s fault
• Help set reasonable expectations regarding chores, school, work
• Often family members are worried and want information and reassurance from a withdrawn and secretive patient
• Goal to teach family and patient how to monitor for treatment response, side effects, and long-term course
Recognize Intercorrelation of Health Risk Behaviors
• Unprotected sex
• Alcohol, drug, tobacco use
• Weapon-carrying
• Binge eating and obesity
• Bullying/being bullied
Increase Protective Factors
• Improve family-patient connection, supervision, expectations
• Improve school connection (when relevant)
• Choice of friends and romantic attachments / marriage
• Connection to social groups and institutions
Education and Anticipation: Relapse and Recurrence
Prevention• Sleep hygiene
• Avoidance of tobacco, alcohol and drugs
• Pleasurable activities
• Self-talk and practice of skills
• Exercise
• Detection of relapse
Summary
• Provide a framework for assessing suicidal risk, examining proximal and distal risk factors
• Discussed the management of the suicidal patient with regard to development and implementation of a safety plan
• Reviewed empirical data base on interventions to decrease risk of suicidal behavior