sulzar manual packing

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INSTALLATION MANUAL FOR

SULZER STRUCTURED AND RANDOM

PACKING Sulzer India Limited

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LIST OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 2 of 27

2. GENERAL SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS 2 of 27

3. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE 5 of 27

4. SETTING-UP THE COLUMN 5 of 27

5. COLUMN REVAMPS 7 of 27

6. FILTRATION OF THE FEEDS OUTSIDE THE COLUMN 12 of 27

7. DEGREASING OF INTERNALS 12 of 27

8. INSTALLATION OF STRUCTURED PACKING 12 of 27

9. NUTTER RING RANDOM PACKING 21 of 27

10. DISMANTLING OF STRUCTURED PACKING 24 of 27

11. INSTALLATION OF PILOT COLUMNS 26 of 27

12. FINAL INSPECTION OF INSTALLATION 26 of 27

13. EXPERIENCE AND FREQUENT ERRORS 27 of 27






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1. INTRODUCTION

We recommend that Sulzer Field Service Engineer should be presented during theinstallation and assembly of the Sulzer structured packing and associated internals, aswell as during the subsequent check of the column alignment. The recommendedprocedures for the same are explained in the following pages.

Sulzer reserves the right to reject any claims in connection with the guarantee if theinstallation has not been supervised by its own specialists. Ask Sulzer Field ServiceEngineer if unsure!

The high degree of effectiveness inherent in Sulzer columns can only be achieved whenall parts are correctly installed and the following specifications are complied with.

2. GENERAL SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS

"It shall be the duty of every employee while at work - to take reasonablecare for the health and safety of himself and other persons who may beaffected by his acts or omissions at work..."

Sulzer Recommendations Regarding Installation and Revamp ofMass Transfer Columns Involving Structured Packing.

NOTE:While thousands of installations and revamps of columns involving structured packinghave been carried out safely, there exist a few cases where a fire incidence occurredduring such work.

“ It has to be recognized, that structured packing, given the presence of asufficiently high energy ignition source possibly in connection with other adversesituations, can lead to self sustaining combustion of the packing, which can leadto destruction of the packing, health hazards and in extreme cases to thedestruction of the column structure ”

General recommendations are made to minimize this type of risk, where it is to beunderstood that established safety precautions dictated by authorities or site specificsafety regulation take precedence over these recommendations. Further, for everysingle project, the potential hazards and appropriate safety precautions need to beevaluated individually, taking into account specific conditions as the likelihood ofpresence and nature of residual organic material on the packing or in the column,possible presence of pyrophoric materials, material of construction of the packing,internals and column shell, and the type of work to be performed. It is therefore stronglyrecommended that safety procedures be established for every installation and revampwork, starting with appropriate shut down procedures up to closure and start up of thecolumn. A Sulzer Site Services specialist is available to assist with these safetyrecommendations.






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Recommendations Relating to Shut Down Procedures:The following guidelines are complementary to existing operation manuals orestablished proceduresFollow normal shut-down procedures including solvent or chemical cleaning and / orsteam out as the case may be. Use dry steam (to avoid blow out).

2. Let the column cool out to below 100° C.

3. During the entire cooling process, compensate any volume contraction by nitrogenblanketing to avoid creation of vacuum and intake of air.

Continue to cool the column by introducing clean, cold water (in case of carbon steelpacking, properly inhibited against corrosion) whereby ensuring that no iron sulfide,scale, sand or other dirt is introduced into the column. Ensure that all column sectionsare adequately supplied with water.

Monitor the cooling of the column and continue for at least 24h, but at least until thetemperature is below 40°C and the cooling water temperature difference inlet to outlet isnear zero degrees.

After cooling is performed to satisfaction, the man-ways may be opened and the blindflanges set starting from the top to the bottom, one after the other and allowing a timeinterval of two to four hours in between each, but only after each section has been

checked for temperature and absence of organic vapors. Continued flushing with coldwater may be required during this operation.

7. Before entering the column and performing any type of work, make sure that all safetychecks have been preformed and permits given.

Recommendations Relating to Minimizing Fire Hazards during Installationand Revamp Work:

Note: The risk of fire can be related to various mechanisms, including spontaneousignition of residual organic material on the packing in contact with atmospheric oxygen,presence of pyrohoric materials, other exothermic reactions with materials present in the

column (residual chemicals or materials of constructions), or ignition through hot workinside the column.

Sulzer recommends that hot work not be performed over structured packing.However, if this is not possible, special precautionary measures need to beimplemented as recommended below:

Establish a fire-proof barrier between the hot work and the structured packing. Install supply of cooling/ fire water at each work level and the top of the column insufficient amount and in such a way, that it will not interfere when closing the man-ways.Where distributors are still in place feed the cooling water through the distributor, toensure that water will be adequately spread across the column diameter.






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3. Monitor the temperature throughout the column, preferably below and above eachpacked bed for absolute temperature level and temperature differential. This isespecially true if column venting changes.

4. Have a safety inspector on every work level to enforce safe practice during work andmonitor column conditions at all times (smell, fumes, discoloration including condition offire blanket etc.) with authority to order evacuation of the column and initiate emergencymeasures.

5. Have buckets of water and fire extinguishers available on every work level and prepare

containers with water to catch and cool down spent welding rods and hot materials fromcutting operations. Have appropriate tongs available to pick up any hot debris from thefire barrier.

6. If temperature differential is detected or temperature increases above 40°C startflushing the packing with cooling water immediately. Flushing the packing at given timeintervals should be considered in certain cases.

7. Be prepared for rapid evacuation of the column.

8. Be prepared for rapid cut off of the ventilation.

9. Be prepared for rapid closure of the man-ways (allow for a vent to avoid build up ofpressure in the column however avoiding creating a draft inside the column).

10. Be prepared for emergency flooding of the column with nitrogen.

11. Have an authorization procedure for initiating any safety and emergency procedureestablished and designated persons responsible for deciding and performing suchmeasures available at all times.

Sulzer and its Customer understand that the safety procedures discussed above areonly recommendations of Sulzer which should be considered by the Customer inpromulgating safety procedures at the work site. In this regard, it is further understood

that the Customer is ultimately responsible for all safety procedures imposed at the worksite. Sulzer has taken effort to ensure and believes that the above recommendations areeffective and adequate to reduce the risk of fires and its consequences associated withshutdown, opening and work performed in open columns. Sulzer makes no claims thatthese recommendations will eliminate any fire hazard and to the appropriateness of themeasures recommended for any particular case. Sulzer will not be liable for damage tolife, property or loss of production or any other misadventure or accident that may occur.Oil refineries, chemical plants and other similar installations are hazardous areas by theirnature and the responsibility of safety remains with the site management of the particularinstallation.






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3. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE Under normal circumstances, the internals are not assembled before the on-siteinstallation at the customer's premises. The Sulzer Structured Packing and associatedinternals are delivered on pallets or in closed wooden crates and adequate precautionmust be taken to ensure their safe storage. Preferable the storage should be close tocolumn.The packing cases are not to be opened until immediately before commencement ofinstallation, preferably in the presence of Sulzer Field Service Engineer.

Transport damage to packing case has to be reported immediately to the responsibleperson. Inventory checks of boxes / crates to be executed in accordance with Packing

Lists. Any discrepancy between packing list and received boxes quantity to be reportedimmediately.The Sulzer Structured Packing and internals supplied are to be transported and stored inan appropriate manner for the constructional material used.1. C-steel / AISI 410S: protect from moisture and dirt 2. Stainless steel: protect against surface contamination, in particular against thedeposition of rust from other sources 3. Graphite: to be carefully transported, to be stored in a clean and dry environment 4. Plastics: to be stored in a clean environment, protected from sun lightThe packing cases containing the structured Packing will carry suitable instructionsconcerning transport, e.g. “This way up " or "Protect from moisture".The pallets transporting Packing and internals cannot be stacked.

4. SETTING-UP THE COLUMN

Column is to be checked for cleanliness before installation. There should not be anyprojections inside the column and especially nozzle welded portion needs more attentionSealing surfaces are to be very carefully handled during the assembly work.The erection sequence for the two principal column designs is as follows:

4.1 Flanged columns of sectional design.First the column sumps with the skirt of the column carrying the support lugs are to beplaced in position. The connecting flange sections of the column are aligned to thehorizontal, maximum deviation 0.1%. After assembly of all column sections, the

verticality is to be checked in vertical position by using a plumb line or a theodolite.Packing and internals are to be installed through the column manhole.

“PLEASE ENSURE THAT THE COLUMN OVALITY AND VERTICALITY CHECKSARE TO BE CARRIED OUT FOR THE ENTIRE COLUMN LENGTH BEFORECALLING OF SULZER FIELD SERVICE ENGINEER TO SITE”

The assembly of the packing and internals in vertical sections of the column takes placesection by section. Instructions for this are given in the column assembly drawing.Already assembled sections have to be transported in the vertical position and withminimum mechanical stressing.






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4.2 Welded vessel columns, Mono-block






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The column is set upright by means of suitable lifting equipment and lowered onto theprepared foundation. Deviation of the column axis from the vertical is not to exceed 0.3%of length up to 20 mm max.For tall column above 30 meters, the verticality of the column is to be checked withtheodolite.

All segmental internals are installed through the manholes.

5. COLUMN REVAMPS

5.1 Responsibility of client:

Column should be gas free, cleaned and isolated, accessibility, safety and wastedisposal.

Existing nozzles and manholes which will be reused to be checked for correct elevationand orientation.After removal of existing packing, internals and tower attachments, the column diameterand roundness must be checked. If necessary, recommendation for corrective action tobe given.The final phase of the removal of the old internals and the installation of the Sulzercomponents are to be supervised by Sulzer Field Service Engineer.

5.2 PREPARATIONA well carried out preparation / plan shortens the installation time. The following itemshave to be checked,

1. General procedures for installation activity

2. Clearance for entering column (gas free/permits)

3. Ventilation (Exhaust fans or breathing apparatus)

4. Lighting within the column (safe low voltage 24V)

5. Accessibility, scaffolding, cranes, hoists, rope-ladder, etc.

6. Means of transport and routes to be followed

7. Space availability near the installation site for partial pre-assembly(in order to save time during shut down)

8. Telephone or wireless communication

9. Safety regulations

10. Correct storage of hardware






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5.3 Cutting off the rings

All rings, brackets, inward projecting pipe connections have to be removed from the areainto which the structured Packing are to be installed. Any unavoidable projections stillremaining after removal of the rings etc. are not to exceed: 5 – 10 mm for welded carbonand stainless steel columns

Tray rings are to be removed by flame cutting.Wherever possible, existing rings are to be utilized and, if necessary, supplemented tocarry new ring channels and support beams in consultation with engineering.

5.4 Cutting of tray support rings in carbon steel

Cutting with acetylene/oxygen torch Velocity approx. 5-8 m/hRest of ring after flame cutting < 5 – 10 mmCut has to be cleaned with brush. Normally slight grinding is required before wirebrushing. Torch for oxy acetylene / 02 mixture with jet valve to purge oxygen, Nozzle oftorch, especially long and bent.






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5.5 Cutting of tray support rings in stainless steel

Cutting with plasma torch Velocity approximately 8 – 10 m/hRest of ring after flame cutting < 5 – 10 mmCut has to be cleaned with brush. Normally slight grinding is required before wirebrushing.






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5.6 Welding

All welding to be performed by qualified welders according to the applicable pressurevessel code.Welding procedure specifications (WPS) and Procedure Qualification Records (PQR) forthe involved materials must be available.Site welds are clearly marked with the sign on the drawings submitted.Parts welded to the column wall must be welded on both sides with fillet welds. If notspecified on drawings, all weldments to be as follow:






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For load carrying brackets (beam brackets), the bracket welding to the vessel wallshould be executed as follows:

Note: Venting holes in reinforcement plate to be closed in hot condition.Supports and support rings are welded as follows:

Before any welding application on to the vessel wall the base or ground clean surfacesmust be checked visually for cleanliness and by PT (liquid penetration method) for anymaterial flaw. After welding the weldments i.e. the vessel surfaces must be checked

again.Cracks or any indication of flaws shall be submitted for consideration or decision by theclient or any other statutory organization determined by the client or contractor.Nozzles and manholes are to be welded and tested according to the proceduresmentioned in drawings and relevant specifications.

Chimney trays, down-comers and ring channels are to be seal welded. Followinginstructions are important:

1. Seal weld sizes must be kept to the minimum necessary to effect liquid tight joints

2. The heat build up must be kept to a minimum to reduce plate distortion.






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3. Welding must start from the centre progressing forward the side.

4. The last weld must be the welding on to the support ring or vessel wall.

5.7 Typical installation tools necessary for revamping columns

Proposed tools:

Block chain (500 kg) Motor cable winch

Mobile crane Magazine container Acetylene/oxygen torch, 3 x 50 m hose Arc welding machines incl. 5 x 40 m cable Electric grinding machine (slider) angular-type diameter ø 150 mm Electric grinding machine, diameter ø 115 mm 220 V Isolating transformer Halogen lamp 500 W Cables for lighting and other electrical equipments. Sledge hammer and wooden hammers Tape measure (surveyor’s tape ) 10 m Spiral level bars

Plasma cutting machine Ventilation units Fitter tool boxes

6. FILTRATION OF THE FEEDS OUTSIDE THE COLUMNS

The filtration of the liquid feed to ensure that no solids are entering the column is theresponsibility of the customer.Cleanliness is an important factor for good functioning of the column because of the riskto plug the distributor holes.Basically, two sources of contamination have to be prevented:a) Contamination caused by new equipment, pipes and by installation

b) Contamination caused by the feeds, reflux, vapor inlet, and other inlets.If contamination arises from a), filters are to be fitted for the first start-up phase.Contamination as per b) should arise, continuous filtration is required.

Two filters are always to be fitted together with a switch-over facility. The mesh aperturesize is to be chosen to match the diameter of the hole of the liquid distributor. Filter sizeis dependent on the flow rate, the degree of contamination and on the pumping capacity.Should fine or coarse particles be deposited in the distributor arm channels, as liquidflow velocity is very low, it could be only then only a question of time before thedistributors are blocked. In this situation a filtering device, inside or outside the columnmust be implemented as well.






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7. DEGREASING OF INTERNALS

If aqueous mixtures are to be distilled in operation, or if Packing and internals have to befree from grease for other reasons, it is worthwhile to order degreased Packing andinternals from Sulzer. In such a case, however, it has to be established that the column,pipelines, connected equipment and tanks are absolutely clean and free from greasebefore fitting and that the assembly itself is carried out with the highest degree ofcleanliness. If necessary, a final cleaning has to be carried out.

8. INSTALLATION OF SULZER STRUCTURED PACKING INTERNALS

a) Assembly of packing support

The cleats are to be welded to the column shell as shown in the assembly drawing. Careis to be taken that cleats are welded at the same level. In case of support ring, it shouldbe flat and inclination of support ring across the diameter of column should be withinlimits.

In columns made up from body flanged longitudinal sections, the support grids are placedon cleats or rings which are welded already to column shell. In mono-block columns,segmented support grids are placed on support beams and support rings. The correctpositioning is shown on the assembly drawing. The drip sheet arrangements provided onthe metal strips of the packing supports is to be placed downwards. Care is to be taken

while installing packing support that it seats properly on the tower attachments. Thecorrect positioning is shown in the assembly drawing.(Refer Fig)






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b) Structured packing

The packing is fabricated in one-piece for small column diameters and is segmented forlarger column diameters.

The installation instructions depend on the type of packing .

The installation procedure for one-piece packing and segmented ones are different.

THE DIRECTION OF THE PACKING OF THE BOTTOM LAYER IS ROTATEDBY 90 DEGREE TO THE DIRECTION OF THE PACKING SUPPORT.

Successive packing elements are always rotated by 90 degree to the previousone. Precaution to be taken that no gap is left in between successive packingelements. This can be ensured by pushing the element downwards with help ofinsertion aid.

c. General packing installation instructions

The installation should be supervised by a Sulzer Field Service Engineer. Sulzerdoes not take over costs caused by unqualified installation. The performanceguarantee is only valid if the installation is carried out under Sulzer supervision.

Attention: When welding in the column, no inflammable products should bepresent and all necessary safety precautions are to be taken.

• Sulzer Packing only fitted into columns standing vertically upright.






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• Field installation can start in the pre-erected mono-block column onlyafter all the piping and welding inside the column has been thoroughlycleaned.• Fitting rods and metal sheets used as installation aids are supplied withthe packing.






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D. Installation instructions for one-piece metal

packing.






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Packing with fixed collars

One piece packing have two collars one at top and other bottom fitted on thecircumference of each layer to seal the gap between the packing and column wall. Thecollars must be bent outwards before installation.

Packing of a diameter over 500 mm should be installed using 3 fitting rods whichuniformly support the packing element under the centre band as it is lowered down thecolumn.






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E. Installation sequence of segmented metal packing

Segmented packing are sealed as standard to the column wall with loose collars. Startthe installation of the segmented layer with the head segment. The last segments willthen be on the opposite side of the column. The last packing segments are installed withthe aid of metal plates. This allows the segments to slide against one another.(See Fig. 1)

The gap between the packing and the column wall is occupied by the loose collar. Theother gaps between segments have to be distributed evenly over the whole crosssection. (See Fig. 2)

The loose collars are placed on the circumference of the packing after the installation ofthe first packing layer is complete.

The collars should have a minimum 20 mm overlap at the intersecting points with theouter segment of the successive packing layer, the loose collar is then pushed to thecolumn wall in such a way that it touches the column wall.

Please Note: The first layer of the packing to be installed without collars. Afterthat every layers of packing to be installed with loose collars.






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F. Installation of temperature sensor in SULZER-PackingVia the instrument connection, a hole is to be carefully made into the packing to insertthe temperature sensor.

The diameter of the protective tube should be as small as possible (max. 12 mm). Thedepth of penetration into the packing is not to exceed 100 mm.

Installation of temperature sensor in Gauze and sheet packing.






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9. NUTTER RING RANDOM PACKING9.1 Initial receipt and storage

Nutter Ring packing is normally transported in 40 cubic feet bags. An inventory checkshould be made as soon as possible after delivery and a record made of the number ofbags supplied. Operational problems have been known to occur because of a lack ofcontrol during filling.Nutter Ring packing is vulnerable to impact damage. Disorganized storage can lead toscattering of packing elements over an appreciable area, and consequently, they canbecome permanently damaged. Fragmented storage can result in inventory loss.






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Storage facilities will be required for the period between delivery and installation.Preferably, this storage will be covered and away from the immediate plant area. Notethat carbon steel packing can rust in damp storage areas. Since the presence of ironoxide is normally deleterious to column operation, dry storage should be provided in suchcases.

9.2 Column preparation

Before Installation of the internals, care should be taken to ensure that the vessel is cleanand that pipes leading into the vessel are free of dirt, slag and other debris which couldcoat or plug distributors and/or packing.

Facilities for hoisting the bags of packing to the working elevation and into thecolumn should be provided by the client or contractor, by agreement. The supplyof scaffolding, lifting equipment, and internal walking boards will normally be theresponsibility of the contractor or subcontractor carrying out the work.

Only the quantity of packing required for the bed being filled should be taken tothe working area. In that way, overfilling (which could occur if the bed wasinadvertently compressed during filling), or under filling (if, for example,

previously filled beds had used unexpectedly greater amounts of packing) can beavoided.

Packing support rings should be level and free of weld splatter. In revampsituations, redundant tray support rings need to be cut back to within 3/8" of thevessel wall. Down comer bolting bars should also be cut back. Packing bedlimiter lugs, where installed, should be checked to ensure the correct depth ofpacking can be installed. After installation of the bed support plate, a continuousguideline should be drawn to indicate the depth of packing required, unless this isclearly indicated by the bed limiter lugs or other support means. This guidelineshould be measured from the top side of the support ring for the packing support

plate.

Packing should be installed through a suitable manhole or other means of access to thepacked bed. Where appropriate, nozzles, including those with vortex breakers, shouldbe shrouded to ensure that dropped packing elements and other debris do not enter thepipe work.






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9.3 Installation of Nutter ring random packing

1. Nutter Ring random packing should be dry packed by dumping the rings from theshipping bag or a chute. The use of a pneumatic filling device is not recommendeddue to the potential for ring deformation.

2. Where possible, start from the lowest packed bed and work upwards. When this isnot practical, or where beds at different levels are being filled simultaneously,adequate protection must be provided for those working below.

3. Ensure that the upper limit of the bed is clearly recognizable. This will usually beindicated by the bed limiter lugs welded to the vessel wall. Where this is not the

case, a chalk mark should be drawn as indicated earlier.4. Nutter Rings can be dry dumped from the top of the bed. Care should be taken to

ensure that the elements are evenly spread over the whole cross-sectional area ofthe column and that a reasonably level surface is maintained during the fillingprocess. The use of a chute and filling sock is recommended in order to break thefall and to allow the elements to be efficiently distributed over the column cross-sectional area.

5. Walking directly on the packing should be avoided since it can cause localizedcompression and damage. Where the column diameter is such that entry into thecolumn is necessary, walking boards must be available and the supervisingengineer should specifically ensure that they are used. The boards should be rigidand used in such a way that the packing elements are not damaged. The utmostcare is needed to ensure that the walking boards are subsequently removed.

6. When the desired bed depth is reached, the top of the bed should be leveled priorto the installation of the bed limiter. The bed limiter should lay directly on itssupports. The bed should not be compressed to accommodate the bed limiter, northere do any gap greater than 2 packing ring diameters between the top of the bedand the bed limiter.

7. At a suitable time during installation, and in any case upon completion, a countshould be made to ensure that all bags have been removed from the column.






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10. DISMANTLING THE STRUCTURED PACKING

The method of removal of the Packing depends on the type and diameter of thepacking and can be carried out as follows:

10.1 One-Piece MELLAPAK:

The longitudinal section of the column has to be dismantled and laid horizontally. Theindividual Packing can be removed by applying special hooks to the middle edge bandand withdrawn carefully from the section of the column.

10.2 MELLAPAK made in segments:

In the reverse sequence to fitting, i.e. the last edge segment to be fitted is withdrawn bymeans of special hooks. The remaining segments can then be removed without specialtools.

CLEANING OF THE STRUCTURED PACKING

There are various possibilities of cleaning packing inside the column or, in

emergencies, outside the column.

A few examples:• with solvent• with high pressure water/steam jet

SPECIFICATION FOR THE ERECTION OF SULZER PILOT COLUMNS

Scope: Column inside diameter: 25 - 300 mmGap between packing and column wallSulzer Packing gives best efficiency when there is a small gap between the Packing andthe column wall.

Therefore, the outer diameter of the Packing is a few millimeter less than the insidediameter of the column. In order to prevent vapor and liquid bypass, sealing collars areattached to the packing elements.






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11 INSTALLATION INSTRUCTIONS FOR SULZER PILOT COLUMNS1 Support clips / support ring

Support clips or rings are welded or fitted inside to column wall.

2 Support gridMinimum height of 25 mm with a free cross section 80%. The provided drop-offplates prevent a premature flooding. This is especially for Packing DX, EX, DXMand DYM.

3 CollarBefore the Packing installing, the sealing collars made of metal must be well bentout. When installed the collars will adapt to the column wall.

Exceptions are: BX made of plastic with diameters below 100 mm. For this Packingthe collars i.e. the sealing device is a cord often made of the same material.

4 Installing of packing on siteThe column has to be positioned vertically. The Packing with the bent out collarsfacing upward have to be orientated correctly and carefully lowered. SuccessivePacking is always placed rotated by 90° to the previous one. Exceptions are foreasier installation Packing 100 mm can also be installed in horizontal columnposition.

5 Locating gridFor metallic columns with a diameter greater than or equal to 100 mm, locatinggrids can be installed.

6 Liquid SupplyThe liquid should be fed into the middle of the column. For metallic columns with adiameter 100 mm, a distributor will improve the efficiency of the packing byproviding an equal distribution over the whole cross section.

7 Verticality TolerancesThe column in the installed position is allowed to deviate by a maximum of 0.3%

from the vertical.

12 FINAL INSPECTION OF INSTALLATION

On completion of the plant installation, before the column entry man-ways will be closed,inspection has to be carried out.The correct installation of packing and internals is essential for a good columnperformance and hence recommend that a Sulzer Field Service Engineer is used tosupervise the installation. Our Field Service Engineer will write an erection supervisionprotocol relating to the scope of work applicable to the Sulzer packing and internals.






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13. EXPERIENCE AND FREQUENT ERRORS

A few items are listed below which have a negative influence on the proper functioningof Sulzer columns:

Inlet pipes without filters, with filters dismantled or bypass open Pipes installed without downwards gradient or with liquid catchments Suction head of circulating pump too small Irregular reflux from condenser which flows back uncontrollably into the column Unsuitable measuring and control instruments, e.g. For the pressure drop

Operating conditions not constant Poor thermal insulation Sub cooling of the reflux which is not taken into account for the thermal balance Blocked distributor Distributor too little loaded (liquid well below minimum load)

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