sumerian clay tablet from n1ppur - the learning link

MESOPOTAMIA:Society and Culture

he god lnki said to Ziusudra, the king of Shumppak:

“Listen to my instruction:By our will a flood will sweep over the cities to destroythe seed of mankindAndput an end to the rule of kings.”

The next forty lines are missing from the original text, but a later version has

these lines:“Tear down your house, forget your belongings,build a large ship and take with you the seed of allliving creatures.”Ziusudra began work the next daybuilding a huge ship with seven deckssealed with bitumen.He then loaded on gold, silver,wild beasts andfarm animals.lie loaded on his family, relationsand workmen and only then boarded up the hatch,Then came the powerful windfrom allDirections and attacked the land at once.At the same time the flood swept the cities.After the flood had covered the landJor seven daysand seven nightsAnd the huge boat had been tossed by the wind onthe great u’aters,The sun-god, (Itu, came out.”

CHAPTER

3

Figure 3-1A Sumerian godand g/dcc

SUMERIAN LEGENI)

CLAY TABLET FROM N1PPUR

Why do ciihzatioiis create legends’ Often,

legends help to explain a major event in a

iwople’s past or some mysterious aspect oftheir natural world. The Assyrian legendabove, which suggests that a “great flood”took place in Mesopotamia, tries to address amystery that dates from an early period inthis civilization’s history. For a short time,clay tablet accounts of kings and their reignsceased to he produced What had happenedto these kings? What had happened to thepeople of these city-states? How can this gapiii Mesopotamian history be explained?

One possible explanation was that thegod Enki had brought a great flood upon thepeople. As floods were common in Mesopotamia, the legend made sense to thepeople, even though it did not explain whythe wrath of the god was unleashed. Archaeologists, however, have found no evidenceto prove that a great flood ever swept over thecity-states of Mesopotarnia. It is more likelythat the legend is based on several smallerfloods, rather than on a single catastrophe.

Can you think of other flood legendsor stories associated with other civilizationsand their religions? How do the legendscompare?

RELIGION

GODS AND GODDESSESThe Mesopotamnian people believed thattheir gods had the traits and appearances ofhuman beings. In other words, their godswere anthropomorphic. Though immortal, they ate, drank, developed relationships, got married, and had children. Theyexperienced and expressed human emotions such as anger, hate, jealousy, andlove. When a flood struck the riverbank

communities, it was not uncommon tobelieve that one of the gods was angry.

Religion in Mesopotamia was alsopolytheistic. That is, the people worshipped many different gods and goddesses.The Sumerians, for example, believed inover 3000 different deities. Each city-statealso selected one of the gods as its personalpatron, and the people believed the citybelonged to that god.

As was the case in many other ancientcivilizations, the main deities in Sumerwere associated with aspects of nature. Fourgods were considered superior to all others:Enlil, the god of air, whose city was Nippur;An, the god of heaven, whose city was Uruk;Enki, the god of earth and water, whose citywas Eridu; and Ninhursag, the mothergoddess of all living things, whose city wasLagash. Other important gods and goddesses were Utu, the sun god; Nannar, themoon god; and Innana, goddess of love.

In the Sumerian world view, the godslived in the skies or heavens and ruled overthe earth. Below the earth was a gloomyunderworld where the dead were entombed.The god Enlil provided the universal lawsthat governed everything in the universe,though he broke one of the laws himselfand was banished for a time to the under-

world. Enki provided all that made theearth rich, from the water in the rivers tothe stalls for livestock. Humans werecreated from clay to serve the gods on earthand save them from the hard work ofproviding for their own food and shelter.

The Babylonians replaced many of theSumerian gods with gods of their own,although their functions remained muchthe same. The goddess Ishtar, for example,replaced lnnana, Marduk replaced Enlil,and Anu replaced An. The Babylonian

1 MIDDLE-EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS

Figure 3.3 An Assyrian priest with a whipused to chase away evil spirits

MESOPOTAMIA: SOCIETY AND CULTURE 45

pantheon also contaijied several lesser

deities such as Apsu, god of fresh waters;

Ti’arnat, goddess of the sea; and Ea, the god

of wisdom.

The Assyri:ins also recognized many ofthe same gods aS the Sunierians, but worshipped as well a chief god, A.shur. Ashur was

world. All of 11w Assyriaii kings were closeI

associated with Ashiir. One of tile oilier most

popular deities among the Assyrians was the

THEN AND NowThe Temple-Towers of Sumer

What role did the temples have in Sumerian society?What determined their unique shape? Since little of thetemples remain today, how do you think historians areable to reconstruct what they actually looked like?

Some of the most fascinating remains of Sumerian civilization are the magnificent terraced temples calledziggurats. The Sumerians built their mountain-shapedtemples, with a shrine at the very top, to house the godswhile they visited the land of mortals. The ziggurat wasalways the most importalfi architectural structure in anySumerian city. In plain view of all citizens, it served as areminder that the people were under the watchful eyeof their gods.

In all likelihood, the temples were first built to raisethe shrine above the level of the floodwaters. Over thecenturies the Sumerians built them larger and larger. Theziggurat at Uruk, for example, constructed on a terrace12 m high, was one of the oldest, though not one of thehighest. Some archaeologists believe that this templewould have taken 1 50() men five years to construct, an

estimate that suggests Sumerian rulers could mobilizelarge numbers of people in the service of the gods.

The ziggurat al Cr, built by King Ur-Nanimu in about2110 BCE, was used for over 1500 years. Like most ofthese temples. it was constructed from thousands ofsun-dried bricks. Burnt brick laid in bitumen mortar

covered the entire outside. Rectangular at its base, theziggurat measured 65 m by 45 m, and rose 30 in to thetop of the shrine.

Construction likely took place in several stages. Astaircase connected each section to the next. The finalstaircase rose to the shrine of Nanna, the city’s god, situated at the pinnacle. There were no interior chambers.

Since the Sumerians intended the ziggurat to represent the far-off mountains where the gods lived, theymight originally have l)lanted trees on the terraces tomore closely reflect the mountainous landscape.

Figure 3.5 shows the ziggurat of Ur that was exca

vated by the team of English archaeologists led by SirLeonard Woollcv. Unfortunately, mud brick weathersbadly, and little of theoriginal ziggurat remains today.The main structure is a reconstruction.

lord of heaven and earth and creator of the mother goddess, lshtar, the goddess of love

Figure 3-4 The zigu rat at Ur ahen)


and hr ility and 11W niislrcss Id !)]Cttle.

Althou gir Mesopol ;lm 1:11 IS believedthat their gods lived in the heavens and inlngh places such as on the summits of

mountains, they also believed that tlwdeities came clown to earth. To muse them,

they built high temples called ziggurats—terraced pyramids topped with ashrine—and dedicated these buildings tothe gods’ honour. Food was placed in tireshrine daily for the gods to eat while theywere in the temple.

RELIGIOus BELIEFS ANI)PRACTICESThe Mesopotamian gods controlled all aspects of the human and natural world.‘Fhey controlled the rains, the floods, thechanging seasons, the fruitfulness of theharvest, and all other forces of nature. Theycould influence major human events, suchas peace or war, and they could also affectevents in individual lives, such as the success or failure of a business venture, Theycould bring good or ill fortune at will. Thepeople were subject to the mysteriouswhims of the gods, but their religion alsoprovided them with a sense of a universalorder and explained some of the mysteriesof life and the natural world.

The Sunierianis, Babylonians, andAssyrians all created a strong mythologywhich told stories of the gods and theirrelationship to the world. This mythologyalso included tales of demons, who lived inthe fearsome underworld and foughtconstant battles with the deities of good.

Since the gods and demons couldbring good or ill fortune, the people wereconstantly on the lookout for omens of thefuture. Many consulted oracles or seers tointerpret the signs of the gods. Liver divina

tiC))) WIS a l)Ol)I1lli Illet hod of illtcI’pl’cIa—

lion because tile liver was considered theseat of emotion and true knowledge. Priests

sacrificed sheep and examined the lines,valleys, spots, and wrinkles oii the liver to

uncover the future.Religious festivals were also frequent

events in Mesopolamia. The new year’s festi—val, which could last for as long as 12 days,

was the most popular and sacred. Almost theentire population of a city gathered to witness the ritual renewal of the earth’s fertility

and to celebrate the marriage of tile City’S

god to the city Festivals were also held whelm

a city won a war to celebrate the capture of

the conquered city’s treasure. Competitions,

games, and short plays telling stories of the

gods were often part of the festivities.

I)EATFI AND THE AFTERLIFEThe people of Mesopotalnia feared death.They believed that, once they died, theyentered a bleak underworld that was a landof no return. Some sources refer to it as aplace with seven walls and rio gates, wherethe dead would live forever, alone and indarkness. Therefore, it was important for

the Ileall to take tI lii)’ 111051 1 ft’151l red posses—51111)5 alolig with theni ilItI) the aftellile.

When a king died, the people’s fear ofdeath increased because they considered a

ruler’s death to be a bad omen for the

future of the country. Mourning was officially observed throughout the land.

A deceased king being prepared forburial was sprinkled with perfumes,anointed with oils, and clad in his royalrobes. He was then laid out in a hugerectangular stone chest, or sarcophagus,that had great rings inset in tile sides sothat cords oi’ rods could be passed throughto help move it. A lid was fixed in place withbronze bolts, and a curse label was attachedto the outside to frighten away would-begrave robbers. Once the sarcophagus wasburied along with a large treasure, usuallyinside the palace, sacrifices were made.

Leonard Woolley’s discovery of theroyal cemetery at Ur revealed that the Mesopotamians buried the servants of a deadking or queen in the tomb as well. The beliefwas that aroyal person should not go Ori IC)

the afterlife alone. In the later period, onlystatues of servants were buried in the tolnhs.

REFLECT AND ANALYZE

I. a) Construct a diagram or chart identifying the main gods and

goddesses of Sumer and their functions.

b) Explain how the Assyrian hierarchy of gods was different from that

in Sumer.

2. l)efi ic the term ‘‘myth.” \Vh at role dill mythology play in the rd gum

of the ancient Mesopot am ians?

3. \ou are a citizen of \leNopotanlia. Describe ‘our rd at onship to our

gods, the religious plctices you tollos and your view of the afterlife.

i. Construct a three—dimensional model of a Sumerian ziggurat. Explain

the stages in construction and the ways in which the building was used.

MESOPOTAMIA: SOCIETY AND CULTURE ‘17

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

lii Mesopotarnia, the kings were at thepinnacle of the social pyramid. They derived their power from their position ashead of the government, either as divinelyordained humans, as the Sumerians believed, or as actual gods on earth, as theAssyrians believed. Among all of the peoplesof Mesopotarnia, the word of the king waslaw.

Priests and scribes formed the upperclass or nobility of Mesopotarnian society.The priests were influential because of theimportance of religion. Sumerians, for example, accepted that the priests were theonly direct link with the gods of their cities.Priests were also influential because theycontrolled the distribution of land to farmers and ran the schools where scribes wereeducated.

Scribes, the educated class, were ableto read and write. The Mesopotamianswere one of the first civilizations todevelop a system of writing. This development, which made it possible to record knowledge, brought great prestigeto those who were educated. The scribes,primarily the sons of the wealthy, workedeither for the temple, the palace, thegovernment, or the army. Others workedfor merchants or set up their own businesses as public writers.

The merchants and artisans werethe traders and craftspeople. They helpedto develop Mesopotamian civilization byexchanging products and ideas throughout the territory and beyond. They tradedup and down the Tigris and Euphratesrivers, and their caravans ventured evenfarther afield to Egypt, Cyprus, and Lebanon. The artisans of Mesopotamia pro-

duced varied products such as goldrings, statuettes inlaid with lapis lazuli,and intricate shell containers used forholding coloured cosmetics. The evolution of a distinct merchants and artisansclass, which allowed for specializationin the economy, was possible in Mesopotamia because of the stable foodsupply. Many historians point to specialization in areas other than farming asevidence of a true civilization.

The common people, who made upthe lower class, earned their living from theland as farmers. Close family ties wereimportant. Although the husband was thehead of the family, wonien in Mesopotamiaenjoyed more rights than in most otherancient civilizations.

Slaves, who performed householdlabour and various chores, were at the hot-

torn of the social pyramid and had norights. They were identified by a singlename only; when they lost their freedom,their family name was taken away. Mastersowned their slaves outright, and any slavecaught trying to escape was beaten,branded, and put in chains. If a slave wasinjured, the master received the cornpensation—not the slave.

In Mesopotamia, there were two typesof slaves. The first group included prisonerscaptured in battles against foreign cities;they were given as slaves to the temple orsold by auction to wealthy citizens. Thesecond group included debtors who soldthemselves, or members of their family,into slavery for a number of years to pay off

the debt. In general, most masters treatedtheir slaves well, but the slaves wereexpected to work long and hard.

II 111 KING

ThePriests

The Scribes

‘l’he lerchants and Artisans

The Comic iPeop’

Figure 3.6 The social pyrainid—Mesopotarnia

The Slaves -

-. - - .-


EVERYDAY LIFE

THE FAMILYThroughout Mesopotamia, the family wasconsidered important and the birth of achild was a welcome event. The father, ashead of the family, had unlimited authorityover his children. In fact, legal documentsof the period describe the father as“master” or “owner” of his children. Legally, he could deposit any of his childrenwith a creditor as security for repayment ofa debt. Parental respect was the focus of achild’s upbringing.

Women in Mesopotamia had morerights than women living in many otherlands at the time. They were highly respected, could own land and property, andcould also set up their own businesses.However, they could not vote or rule, andwere not considered equal to men. Inupper-class families, women stayed in aseparate part of the house.

Traditionally, parents arranged marriages for their sons and daughters whentheir children were still in their teens.During the engagement ceremony, thefuture husband poured perfume on thehead of his future bride and brought her

presents. After that, she was considered afull member of her future husband’sfamily. On the wedding day, the bride wasdelivered to her husband where he veiledher in the presence of witnesses andsolemnly declared her to be his wife.

The newlyweds usually went to live inthe household of the husband until he wasold enough to set up a household of his ownor, if the family was wealthy, until his fatherdied and he was granted the estate. Thebride brought with her a shirqu or dowry aswell as a trousseau (clothing, linens, etc.),

both of which becanie the future property ol

her children, If the bride’s father was richenough, he gave her a gift of gold, silver,

furniture, or slaves at the time of her engagement, and she was allowed to use thisgift in any way she wished, including to setup her own business. This property remainedhers even if her husband divorced her.

While monogamy was the rule among the people of Mesopotamia, some mentook in secondary wives. The title “wife,”however, was reserved for the legal wifealone. The secondary wives, sometimesreferred to as concubines, were often Inemhers of the slave class and were toleratedwithin the household and society.

EDUCATIONAt age eight or nine, boys of the wealthiestfamilies began to attend school. Childrenfrom lower-class families were taught lifeskills at home. Boys learned a specific tradesuch as boat-building or brickmaking, andgirls were trained as wives and mothers.

The school, constructed of brick withsmall windows near the roof, was called an

REFLECT AND ANAIXZE

1. What groups made up the upper classes of Mesopotamian society?

How did they earn their prestigious positions?

2. Why were the artisans and merchants important in Mesopotam ian

society?

3. Write a brief first-person account describing a day in the life of a

Mesopotamian priest, scribe, merchant, farmer, or slave. Argue that

you are vitally important to the fabric of your society.

Figure 3-7 A Sumerian school room


(‘dubba or ‘tablet house’ becaUSe the children wrote school exercises on clay tablets.Sitting on rows of benches made of mudbricks, pupils learned writing, arithmetic,grammar, history, and geography. The students were called “sons,” the teacher (whowas a priest and scribe) was called “fathe”and his monitors were called “big brothers.”

The school day ran from sunrise tosunset, and discipline was very strict. Students who did not do their work perfectlywere punished. If they made mistakes, theyhad to smooth the work over and repeat theexercise. If the clay dried before they couldmake the corrections, the errors remainedforever. Archaeologists have found manysuch tablets with the teacher’s correctionsmarked on them.

URBAN AND RURALLIVING

What was life like in a Sumerian city-state?What would you see if you took a walkaround Ur, Kish, or l.agash? The city-statesin Sumer were surrounded by thick, highwalls of mud brick. Inside the walls were afew broad streets, public squares, andbustling marketplaces. The temple, themost sacred building, was always located inthe centre and served as the focus of mostactivities including craft industries andreligious ceremonies.

The homes of lower-class Sumerianswould probably have seemed quite simple.They were constructed of sun-driedearthen-brown bricks. A typical homefeatured a low door and a few windowscovered with wooden grilles high up on thewalls. An outside staircase led to a flat roofwhere people often slept on hot nights.

Inside was a single room, which was coolhut poorly lighted. Decorations werelimited to matting on the floor and wovenblankets along the walls.

Wealthy urban Sumerians lived inmore elaborate homes. We know more abouttheir dwellings because they could afford tobuild with kiln-dried rather than sun-driedbricks. These more permanent materialshave allowed archaeologists to determinemore accurately what the homes were like.

A vestibule (passage) connected thehome to the street. Off the vestibule was alarge reception room for guests and a linkto an open court, around which the housewas built. The open court contained a well,an oven, and a grinding stone for makingflour, Rooms for dining, sleeping, andleisure were located around the court.

In Assyria, the urban homes of thewealthy were similar to those in Surner.

Assyrian homes, however, may have been

better decorated, with wall paintings, hangings, and fine rugs. Each room had a nichefor lamps and for storing personal belongings. For the very well-to-do, lavatorieswere constructed with asphalt floors anddrains, a testimonial to the excellent technology of the Assyrians.

Figure 3-8A map ofthe city ofNi/ipur, showing (a) the ziggurat, (b) the canal, (c) the enclosure andgardens, and (ci) the city gate

Figure 3-9 A wealthy Sumerian home


Compared to houses in the cities, therural homes of tenant farmers throughoutMesopotamia were very simple. Built closeto the irrigated fields, each one was linkedto the nearest neighbour by a well-beatenfootpath. Because stone was very scarce forconstruction, the earliest rural dwellingswere simple reed huts covered in mud.Later, sun-dried mud bricks were used tobuild somewhat more permanent dwellings. While these homes, with their flatroofs, were small and cheap to construct,residents had to live with the constantthreat that they might collapse at any time!

Management of the household was thewoman’s responsibility. Wealthy women hadhousehold slaves to help them with theirdaily routine. If there was no well in thecourtyard, water had to be transported fromthe public well. In addition, grain had to hefetched from the granary, children had to becared fo and food had to he prepared.

All the peoples of Mesopufanila shareda siruilar daily diet. Supper wa_s the main

meal of the day. In poorer homes, familymembers gathered on floor mats and atewith their fingers from an array of food setout in baskets and on pottery dishes. Thewealthy usually dined at tables, eating 1mmtableware that often included fine coppercups. A typical menu included staples suchas baked fish, unleavened bread, goat’smilk, dates, honey, grapes, and other fruit.The wealthy could afford to add lamb,chicken, and pork to their diet, The

THE ECONOMY

AGRICULTURELittle rainfalls in [Mesopotai’niaj, enough,however, to make the corn begin to sprout,after which the plant is’ nourished and theears formed by means of irrigation fromthe river. For the river does not, as inEgjpt, overflow the corn-lands of its ownaccord, but is spread over them by thehand, or by the help oJ’ engines [invention]. The whole of Babylonia is, like

comuimirmir drinks were beer nid (late wine.Ban quets and I casts were pop nI a

lorms of eutertai uncut anion g all ci assesof Mesopotanhians. The wealthy servedlavish spreads of duck, deer, and roastedwild pork on huge copper platters, alongwith side dishes of fresh fruit and vegetablesand loaves of bread. Even poor familiesenjoyed opportunities to host a feast. Forthe main dish, they generally offered driedor fresh fish dressed up for the occasionwith a mixture of onions, cucumbers,apples, spices, cheese, and eggs.

Egypt, intersected with canals. Of all thecountries that u’e know there is none whichis so fruitful in grain. It makes nopretention indeed of growing the fig, the olive,the vine, or any other tree of the kind, butin grain it is so fruitful as to yieldcommonly two hundredfold, and whenthe production is the greatest, even threehundredfold.

The Persian WarsHerodotus

(Greek historian, fifth century BCE)

Figure 3-10Sumerian woman of the wealthier classes

REFLECT AND ANALYZE

1. Why do we know more about the general living conditions of thewealthy Mesopotamians than we do about the poor?

2. Provide evidence that, in both design and materials, city and fannhomes were products of the M esopotam ian environment.

3. What advantages and disadvantages can you see in the design oflower—class homes in both city and country?

4. Consider the status of women in ancient Mesopotamia. What are some

of the positive and negative aspects of their lives?

5. Create a sketch or mural depicting a Mesopotamian wedding feast.Include a menu for the feast and pay attention to details such ascloth lug and decorations.


In this e’atIilt. the (;rttk historian Hero

(lotus shows his amazement at II me grain

yields that farmers in Babylonia were able

to produce, in spite of the environmental

obstacles. The farmers had to control the

floodwaters of the rivers and irrigate the

lands to produce sizeable crop yields.The fertile banks of the Tigris and

Euphrates produced three main crops:barley, dates, and sesame seeds. The choicefarming lands were located in the higherregions out of reach of the floodwaters, orelse in areas that drained on their own.

The Sumerians’ agricultural developments testify to their ingenuity. They werethe first people to harness animals (oxen) totheir ploughs. They then developed a shoulder-yoke for the oxen that made steering theplough easier. Next, they changed the shapeof the plough so that it became a machinefor turning the soil, not just one for scratching a furrow. The Sumerians were also the

first people to add a seed drill to the plough.But their most significant invention

was the system of dams and canals that theydeveloped to control the floodwaters and toirrigate their fields. Each city-state built amain canal that was fed by a dani on eitherthe Tigris or Euphrates river. Feeder canals,constructed on a slant so that the watercould flow easily, linked the main canal toditches surrounding the city’s fields. Allchannels, large and small, were controlled

by gates regulated by removing or insertingclods of earth. Simply maintaining such an

intricate network of canals required a greatdeal of time and effort.

Even a well-constructed canal systemcould not guarantee the farmers success.Flooding remained a constant concern. Atany time, ruslung floodwaters could dumpsoil into the canals, clogging them and de

stroying the fields. Iven one clogged canalconld mean disaster. l’lierefore. the govern—

nwnt hi red irrigators to hel1) keep the large

canals clear, and made each farmer re—

sponshle for maintaining his own small

canals and cleaning them out regularly.

The importance of the irrigation

works is illustrated in the message on thisclay tablet, dating from 2000 BCE:

I,en you are about to cultivate your

field take care to open the irrigationworks so that the water does not rise too

high in it. When you have emptied it of

water, watch the field’s wet ground that itstays even; let no wandering ox tranipleit. chase the prowlers and have it treatedas settled land. clear it with ten narrowaxes weighing no more than two thirdc ofa pound each. Its stubble should be tornup by hand and tied in bundles; itsnarrow holes should be dragged and thefield fenced. During the hot weatherdivide the field into parts. Let your toolshum with activity.

The fertile, rain-watered valleys in the

northern areas of Mesopotamnia did not

need as much irrigation to grow grain andfruit. Yet the Assyrians also developed asystem of irrigation. Like the regions fartImer south, farming land in Assyria waslimited to a narrow band aloHg the riverbanks. The people protected this valuableland by preventing cows, donkeys, andsheep from grazing on it. Instead, mostfarm animals were raised in enclosed pens.But on the rich grasslands of the northernmonntain slopes, flocks of sheep grazedfreely, and wool became an important industry in the region.

Agriculture was closely linked to the

political amid SoCial orianiz:ltinns iii Mes—

opotamia. The Siiiiieri:iiis, tom’ ex;iiiiplu,

believed tI mat the land siirronndi 0 g a par

ticular city—state belonged to the god of that

city—state. Since priests were die voice of the

gods, the land was owned by the temples

and the priests leased out the land tofarmers.

Sumerian farmers were expected toreturn one-third of the proceeds from theirharvest to the god of the city-state and onetlurd to the king to help finance the operation of the government. The final thirdwas theirs to keep, even though the government still taxed them on their profit! In theperiod between 2500 BCE and 2360 BCE,

priests levied higher taxes than usual andconfiscated the land of any farmer who didnot pay. These actions enraged the farmers.

Urukagina, king of Lagashi, realized

how unfair the system was. He took over thetaxing powers of the priests and returned

much of the land in his city-state to thefarmers. Later, during the time of Ham

murabi and the Babylonian empire, individuals were allowed to own a great deal ofthe land around the cities.

INDUSTRYAbundant agricultural production in Mes

opotamia meant that not all citizens had tofarm: some could become craftspeople or

artisans. Workroonis were located around

and within the low walls of the ziggurats.Here, in various clusters, you could seetanners preparing animal skins for con

tainers, military dress, and harnesses;

potters spinning clay vessels on wheels;

carpenters making agricultural tools,

wagons, and ships; arid weavers producing

woollen textiles. There were also metal-

workers, whose smiths worked in copper,


gold, silver, and bronze, creating copperbowls, statues of gods and goddesses, toolsfor the fields, weapons, objects for thetemples, aHd ornaments for the public.

Overseers supervised the various operations, monitoring the quality of eachperson’s crafts. The temple scribes kept de

tailed records and accounts on clay tabletsto guarantee that the industries were runefficiently.

TRADESmall boats made of reeds and inflatedgoatskins, called keleks, carried goods up

and down 11w ‘l’igris and Euphrates rivers

from one Sumerian city to another, Bill

transport along the river was not always

easy. Swift currenis and sandbarik.s encoun

tered on the trip downstream could cause

the boats to capsize. Sometimes, the travellers had to dismantle the vessels and carry

them hack upstream.Long ships, powered by square sails

and oars, brought back building stone fromAfrica, copper from Cyprus, gold from

Egypt, and cedar from Lebanon. Inexchange, the Sumerians traded wool,

cloth, jewellery, oil, and grains. Overland,caravans of donkeys set out in search of

silver from the Taurus Mountains, Suchventures in trade netted an exchange in

culture and ideas that further promoted thedevelopment of the civilized world.

The Babylonians were perhaps thegreatest traders of all. The main traderoutes of the ancient world met at the city ofBabylon. While Babylonian ships tradeddown the river and along the coast of Arabia

Figure 3-11 The temple oval where industry and crafts developed

INNOVATIONSThe First [se of Money

-.---—--

Why (lid the Babylonians decide to introduce coins asthe unit of exchange in trade? I-low did the Babyloniansdetermine the relative value of each coin? 110w is thevalue of our currency determined today?

When trading, the Sumerians used a barter system: thatis, instead of using money, they traded goods for othergoods. But the medium of exchange was grain.Therefore, if they were negotiating a trade deal, they

would strike the final bargain by exchanging a volume

of the product they hoped to purchase for an agreed-upon number of sacks of grain.

The Babylonians changed this practice by introducing

one of the first uses of money in the ancient world.Although it was still based on grain, the Babylonian

system was much more practical.‘lhe Babylonians introduced a precious metal coin,

most often of silver, called the shekel. The shekelweighed the same as 180 grains of barley, the mostimportant grain product of the Mesopotamian economy.Another coin, the mina, was worth 60 shekels. Finally,a talent was worth 60 minas.

The most commonly used coin was the mina. Withthese CoilS in use, ships and caravans had a muchlighter load since they no longer had to carry the heavysacks of grain!


THE ARTS

WRITINGIran, 1835

Henry Rawlinson stood staring up at thesheerface of the Behistun Rock, a 120-rnc4ff that contained ancient carvings

Red Sea, and iron wcapoi is Ironi Aiialol in(part of irkey in western Asia)

‘L’rading became very important to theeconomy of major Assyrian cities. A popii—lation of craftspeople grew in each centre,taking up residence in their own quarterof the city according to their specialty.They opened stalls on the streets to exchange their bronze, pottery, or woollengoods for imported products. Like theSumerians, the Assyrians recorded all oftheir business transactions, but they simplified the systen] somewhat by usilig fewer signs and symbols.

praising the greatness of the PersianKing, Darius I. In 450 BCE, Darius hadordered stone-cutters to climb the side ofthis mountain and carve out atestimony to his greatness in three languages. One was old Persian, a language Rawlinson could read. Another

iliac C’Iiiki/Oi’)il. I/h’ cdul!)! o/ al/chill

lJ(lhylOfl.

Rawlinson wanted to copy the script

from the monument so that he couldcompare the languages, Maybe the oldPersian would help him to read thecuneiform, which linguists had beenhying to decipherfor centuries.

Viewing the script through binoculars didn’t give Rawlinson enough cia,’ity. l’he only way he could get closer wasto climb halfway up the face of the wallto a narrow ledge. A ladder was raisedto the leagefrom the roadwayfar below.Carejully, Rawlinson climbed to the toprung as the ladder pressed against thesteep c4ff Standing at the top, he leanedovei hanging on to a rope, andpressedpieces of wet paper onto the grooves ofthe inscription. As they dried, he carefully peeled them away and loweredthem to the ground. Rawlinson had hisinscriptions.

Once Henry Rawlinson had copies of thescript, he was able to begin the work ofdeciphering cuneiform by comparing it tothe old Persian text. He spent 12 years deciphering the text before he could begintranslating.

Cuneiform was one of the earliestforms of writing and was based on picturesigns. It first appeared in Sumer about3000 BCE, and probably developed from theneed to keep accurate records in trade andagriculture.

Until Rawlinson and others learnedhow to read cuneiform, historians didn’tknow that ancient Sumer had ever existed.They knew about the ancient Babyloniansand Assyrians, from the Bible and othersources, and they knew that cuneiform

and India, Babylonian merchant caravam is

ventured far into Persia and Asia MinoiLike the Sumerians and the Babylon

ians, the Assyrians were enthusiastic traders. Ashur and Nineveh became tradingcentres very early in their history, long before either was considered a prominent city.Caravans came to these centres from Babylonia to exchange manufactured goods forAssyrian raw materials such as stone,metal, and wool. In time, the small tradingbazaars of these two cities became majormarket centres where people could purchase linens from Egypt, pearls from the

PEFLECT AND ANALYZE

What agricultural innovations (lid the Mesopotarnians introduce?

Explain how these innovations were used.

2. On a map, sketch Sumerian and Babylonian trade routes and label the

products they exchanged with distant lands.

3. What role did religion and religious beliefs play in the economy of the

Mesopotam inns:’

4. Evaluate the positive and negative effects these innovations might have

had on Mesopot:niiian society:

• shoulder yoke • money• irrigation canals • iron.

5. Role play a conversation between a Mesopotarnian craftsperson, such as

a tanner or carpenter, and a common farmer. The craftsperson argues

that the specialization of labour is a positive development, while the

farmer argues that it is not.


tablets were the records left by thesepeoples. But it wasn’t until they began todecipher the thousands of cuneiform textsfound in Mesopotamia that they began tolearn of an earlier civilization that predated all the others.

People wrote cuneiform on mud orclay tablets, inscribing the picture signswhile the tablet was still wet. Rather than

::llhL$?:.

Vagv jQ

L

scratch the notations into the niud, scribes

would jab the tablet with the end of a reedcut in the shape of a sharp triangle. Theword cuneiform comes from the Latin wordcuneuc, meaning wedge. Once the wedge-shaped marks were tuade, the tablet was

baked like a brick.The earliest Sumerian cuneiforn] sym

bols were picture symbols or pictogralus

cIl

7

r

lb It re ted cui IC retU II) eels si cli as iii

os or a shaft of grain. At first, they wire

wrillen in columns and read downwards

from right to left, As linie passed, however,ciunei form evolved. Scribes rotated the

symbols ninety degrees to make them easier

to record and the symbols became more

stylized. Eventually, the symbols canie torepresent not only objects, but abstract

ideas as well. Symbols representing ideasare called ideograms. The Sumnerians alsoabandoned the practice of writing fromright to left because it tended to smudge thetablet. On tablets dating from later periods,the symbols were clearly recorded and readfroun left to right.

In the ancient world, the scribes wereresponsible for reading and writing. Theearly scribes were priests, hot later theybecame a recognized professional group ontheir own, greatly respected by all classes ofpeople. Rulers depended on them to recordlaws, and common people needed them to

Figure 3-12The Behistun Rock. The Great King Darius receives the submission of his enemies

A B C D A B C II

STAR

EARTH

MAN

WOMAN

MOUNTAIN

SLAVE GIRL

HEAl)

MOUTH

FOOD

EAT

WAI’ER

DRINK

STAND

BIRD

FISH

Ox

COW

BARLEY

Figure 3-13 The development of cuneform writing

- MESOPOTAMIA: SOCIETY AND CULTURE .55

write letters mid to read for them. liecanse

of lliei r education mid social stai ding,

scnhes rose to positions of high govern

mciii service in the ancient world. n

Sunier, for example. they oversaw suchgoverumelit operations as the development

and maintenance of the irrigation works.

Cuneiform spread from Sumer to tlie

north, where it was adopted and developed

by the Babylonians and Assyrians.

Historians give part of the credit for the

language’s migration to Sumerian traders,

who used this form of writing to maintain

records of their sales and purchases.

LITERATUREIn long narrative poems or epics, thepeople of Mesopotamia preserved ancient

legends and passed on religious teachings,

accounts of disasters, and stories of their

heroes. The earliest example of this literai

tori 11, and 01 ie of tue ol (lest pieces of I te ía—tore in the world, is the Epic 0/ GiIgtiniech.

This epic is the story of a heroic Sum—erian king, Gil gamesli, who ruled aronnd2600 BcE. The story was likely passed downorally for many generations, and not re

corded until long after its creation, Some

historians suggest that the epic’s tablet

versions date from about 1700 BCE.

Gilgamesh, both admired and feared,

was considered to be two-thirds god and

one-third man. In the epic, Gilgamesh was

often seen as brutal and quick to forget the

feelings of others. For example, even

though he protected his city with a solid

defensive wall, he made the people work

hard to construct it. Finally, the people

asked the gods to send a heavenly being who

could match the strength of Gilgamesh.

I’lw gods sent a huge, hairy beast—likecreatui’e cal led Cnkidii, who went to live in

the liii Is neni’ I Jrok. Gil ganmesh then sent awoman into the hills to Imnue Enkidu and

bring hini back to Uruk to live like a man.When (iilgamesh and Enkidn later caine to

battle, neither emerged a whiner. Instead,

they joined forces and set out on adventures

together.

ART AN1) SCLILPT[JRE

Sculpture was an important part of life in

Mesopotamnia. Almost evem’yone owned a

small statue of one of the gods made of

terra—cotta, gypsum, stone, or copper. Near

ly all of the statues depict a figure standing

quietly with hands clasped in prayer. Larger

carvings were (lone for tIme temples.

Mosaics were often used to tell a

story. One of the most famous mosaics is

In this extract from the Epic ofGilgarnesh. Enkidu is describing to(lilgamesh a place he was forced toenter in a dream. What is this place?What does this extract tell us abouthow the Sumerians view the afterlife?

‘There is the house whose people sit in darkness; dust

is their food and clay their meat. They are clothed likebirds with wings for covering, they see no light, they sit

in darkness.

His was a vampire face, his foot was alion’s foot, his hand was an eagle’stalon. He fell on me and his claws were

Figure 3-15 in my hair, he held me fast and I

Gilgamesh smothered; then he transformed me sothat my arms became wings covered

with feathers. He turned his stare towards me, and he ledme away to the palace of Irkalla, the Queen of Darkness,to the house from which mione who enters ever returns,down the road from which there is no coming back.

In the house of dust which I entered were high priests

and acolytes, priests of the incantation and of ecstas;there were servers of the temple, and there was Etana,

that king of Kish whom the eagle carried to heaven in

the days of old. I saw also Samuqan. god of cattle, and

there was Ereshkigal the Queen of the Underworld; and

Belit-Sheri squatted in front of her, she who is recorder

of the gods and keeps the book of death. She held atablet from which she read. She raised her head, she

saw me and spoke: “Who has brought this one here?”

the Standard of Hr found by LeonardWoolley (luring his excavations of the royaltombs at Hr in 1922. A standard is a symbolof the power or authority of the king. Inmodern times, we often use a flag as a standard of king or country. The Standard of Urconsists of two small rectangular woodenpanels inlaid with mother-of-pearl, musselshells, and lapis lazuli. Each panel is 56 cmlong and 28 cm wide. One side of eachpanel depicts scenes of war. The other sidedepicts scenes from a banquet or victoryfeast.

The mosaics of battle show soldiersbringing prisoners of war back to theirking, some of the people riding in four-wheeled chariots. The depiction of thesevehicles is the earliest evidence we have ofthe use of the wheel.

Reliefcarvings on buildings were an

important art form in Babylonia andAssyria. In some cases, they depicted myth-

THE SCIENCES

THE WHEELMesopotamia’s most important technological advance was the wheel, invented by the

ical animals or figures; in other cases, theyportrayed an important king.

Sumerians. How did this discovery comeabout? We can only speculate. Perhaps aninventive citizen was watching a farmerstruggling hopelessly with a heavy load,and suddenly got the idea that simply


Figure 3-17 The Standard q/, Ur

Figure 3-16 Stone carved Sumerianfigure—Lugal of Gudea of Lagash

REFLECT AND ANALYZE

1. What important event unlocked the secret to the ancient language of

cuneitorm? I)escrihe the method used to copy and decipher the

script.

2. How did cuneiform evolve as a form of writing throughout the

history of Mesopotamia?

3. Explain the importance of art and literatu in the lives of the

Mesopotamian peoples.

4. Using a flattened piece of plasticene as your clay tablet and a straw

with a sliced bottom edge as your stylus, write a sentence incuneiform. Use the pictograrns in Figure 3.13 as a guide.

5. In groups, devise a job advertisement for a Mesopotamian scribe.Outline his or her qualifications and the ways in which thecuneiform script could be used.

6. Find modern retellings or translations of the Epic of Cilame.ch.

These can be the subject of dramatic readings.

MESOPOTAMIA SOCIETY AND CULTURE 57

rolling a tree trunk heHeatli the burden

would move it along more easily.The wheel had a monumental impact

from the first days of its discovery. By 3250BCE, the Sumerians built wheeled wagonsand chariots to replace the sleds that theyhad used previously. With an ox pulling awagon, farmers transported three to fourtimes the weight in crops and produce thatthey had been able to carry on sleds, ondonkeys, or on their own hacks.

The invention of the wheel had applications beyond the field of transportation.Pulleys, for example, made it easier to raisewater from wells, facilitating the irrigationprocess. The potter’s wheel marked the beginning of fine pottery, as it made shapingsymmetrical vessels much easier.

METALLURGYHistorians have credited the Sumerianswith the technological advance that gaverise to the Bronze Age, which began about3000 BCE. Some recent discoveries inThailand, however, suggest that the BronzeAge may have begun in eastern Asia.

Before the Bronze Age, dating from asearly as 8000 BCE, copper had been themain metal used in western Asia. A softmetal, copper is fine for creating jewellerybut poor for making weapons or tools. Mosttools in this period were made of stone. Fora long time, copper was processed by beinghammered into shape. Then someone discovered how to smelt and cast copper bypouring it into moulds.

Bronze is an alloy composed of copperand tin. It is superior to copper because it isharder, more durable, and provides asharper cutting edge. The Sumerians probably created bronze by accidentally smelting copper and tin together. The Sumerians

traded wtth Egypt Ion S{IppI es fand with Analolia and Arnicinia for tin.

Bronze was an expensive metal to produce,hut easier to cast than copper because it hasa lower melting point. Bronze took overfrom stone as the chief material for toolmaking, and was widely used in westernAsia and Europe for about 2000 years. Thenit was replaced by iron, which makes bettertools and is more common, hut is nioredifficult to process.

The Iron Age began in about 1200 BCE.

The Flittites introduced iron into the MiddleEast, and the Assyrians were the first peoplein Mesopotamia to work with the newmetal. The Hittites of Anatolia (Turkey)were descendants of waves of Indo-Europeans who had arrived in the MiddleEast approximately 2500 BCE. The Hittiteslearned how to extract the iron from the orefound in the mountains of their homeland.They found that the smelting processrequired a hotter fire than for bronze,and that the ore needed to be mixed withlimestone, When the ore was poured intomoulds, it hardened as cast iron, hut wasrelatively weak. But if the cast iron wasreheated, beaten or “wrought,” and thencooled, it became stronger. This metal wascalled wrought iron. Trade and militaryconquests spread an awareness of iron andits value to the Assyrians in Mesopotamia.

MATHEMATICSThe Suinerians could count in tens andhundreds, hut they preferred to use 60 astheir arithmetical unit. Some mathematicians, who have tried to guess why theSumerians preferred this system, note that60 can be divided by all numbers up to six.Perhaps this base made their mathematicalcalculations easier.

Whatever time mVISOIC Ion the mlUnihul’60, mathematics was extremely i mu Inortan it

to the Sumerians’ political and econoin ic

systems. They used mathematics to helpbuild canals, to keep accurate farm andtrade records, and to tabulate taxes owed tothe state. This mathematical system left usa legacy as well. From the Smnerians, wehave received the 360-degree circle, the 60-minute how; and the 60-second minute.

TlMThe ancient Mesopotamians believed thatthe stars controlled the forces of heaven.They named various groups of stars, gavethem special meanings, and used thesegroups and their movements to predict thefuture. The signs of the zodiac that astrologers use today developed from thispractice.

Astronomers studying the stars workedout a lunar calendar of 12 months. Theydivided their year into two seasons, emesh(summer) and enten (winter). Since thetime lapse from one new moon to anotheris only 29Y4 days, the lunar year of 12months contained only 354 days—11¼days short of the solar year. After threeyears, therefore, the calendar was 333/4 daysout. As a result, an extra month was putinto the calendar to bring it in line with thesolar year. It was always the king’s responsibility to decide when to add the extramonth every three years, but he usuallyrelied upon the advice of his astronomers.

Of all the Mesopotamian peoples, theChaldeanis took the greatest interest in themovements of the heavenly bodies. Theybelieved that they needed detailed observa

tion and measurement to develop a moreaccurate calendar so that they could planagricultural operations more effectively.

58 MIDDLE-EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS -

‘lIw ( haldeans erc convinced that evenl,son earth were a reflection of, or related to,events in the sky. in particular, they relied

LOOKING BACK

The people of Mesopotamia developed amagnificent and thriving civilizationdespite environmental obstacles. They

on the stars for dtterniiiii ng (lirectioLl,whether on land or sea.

learned to control the forces of nature andturn adversity to advantage. Throughouttheir history, they established and nurtured most of the basic components thathistorians consider essential to the devel

OplUtflt ((1 itine Ci’ ihizatioii.Consider I he legacy. The first known

form of writing was developed in Sowerand was used to record business transactions, farm yields, laws, myths, and legends. It was also used by the Assyrians tochronicle the history of their kings. Sumerian cuneiform writing evolved and remained the standard form for thousands ofyears. Laws and law codes, developed byUr-Nammu and Ilammurabi, were recorded to regulate human hehavioLir andserved as models for later codes. The rulersof Mesopotamia, although not democratic,demonstrated the need for stable government, a principle that other civilizationswonld adopt as well. Finally, the innovations that Mesopotamians made in thefields of architecture and art, their invention of the wheel, and their extended use ofiron would greatly affect the course ofhuman history.

REFLECT AND ANALYZE

1. What conti-ibutions did the Mesopotamians make in the fields of

mathematics and astronom\ ?

2. How were bronze and iron acquired by the Mesopotamians?

3. ‘l’he wheel was the greatest mechanical invention of all time.’’

Defend or dispute this statement.

4. Some of the greatest innovations in human history have heen

achieved by accident. Research two such innovations and consider

how our lives would he different without them.

sumerian clay tablet from n1ppur - the learning link

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