summarized lecture

8/11/2019 Summarized Lecture

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Nature of Psychology

Psychology Came from the Greek words:

Psychesoul/mind

Logosstudy Study of mind

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

A science because it employs scientific methodologies. Behavior is observable. Any related action or reaction we do under specified circumstance is

called a behavior.

Mental processes are internal subjective experiences (i.e thinking, imagining, decision-making,and other cognitive processes).

Two General Classifications of Behavior

a. Overt or Extrinsic Behaviorconsists of responses which are publicly/directly observable.Examples: dancing, singing, eating, walking

b. Covert or Intrinsic Behaviorrefers to responses which cannot be directly observed.

Examples: glandular reaction, hate/love feelings and other internal bodily processes.

Goals of Psychology1. Descriptionhow organisms behave in certain ways.

The whatness of the behavior.

2. Understandingexplain the causes of an organisms behavior.

The whyness of the behavior.

3. Predictionhow an organism will behave in the future.4. Controlaltering the conditions that influence behavior in a predictable way.

Brief Historical Background

Wilhelm Wundt founder of modern psychology. He was recognized as the Father of Psychology because he

elevated the field of psychology from philosophy to science. A German who established the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Leipzig in 1879.

Late 1880s psychology was born as the science of consciousness.

Early Perspectives of Psychology

a. Structuralism (1890-1920, Germany)E. B. Titchenerdeveloped the school of structuralism based on the concepts of Wundt.Structuralism limited the subject matter of psychology to the study of conscious experience. According to thestructuralists, the theme of psychology is the study of the structures/elements of the conscious experience,

namely:sensations, images and affective states. Structuralists believed that all conscious experiences are merely intricate combinations of elemental

sensations (i.e. sensory knowledge is the building block of our intellect.)Its method of study was introspection(method of self-analysis). In introspection people are taught, trained to

observe and report the 'content' or 'elements' of awareness in a particular situation. For example; people are

presented with stimulus such as a sentence on a card and asked to describe in their own words their ownexperiences.

b. Functionalism (1875, USA ) The American psychologist William James pioneered functionalism, but was later on succeeded by JohnDewey. Functionalism was strongly influenced by biology. The work and ideas of Charles Darwin had a great

impact on the emergence of functional psychology. It focused on what the mind does or the functions of mental activity and the role of behavior in allowing

people to adapt to their environment. James held that the function of consciousness was to enable humans to behave in ways that would act

survival through adaptation to the environment.Methods include objective observation

c. Behaviorism (1878-1958, USA)John Watson revolutionized psychology by changing the subject matter of psychology from the study ofconscious experience to the study of behavior.


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Watson believed that the study of psychology should be about observable behaviorand its aim should be to

describe, predict, understand and control behavior.Watsons view of learning relied to a great extent onPavlovs account of classical conditioning. Accordingly,

it is possible to break down and analyze a certain behavior into stimulus-response units.

Other proponent was B.F Skinner, known for his operant conditioning theory.

Methods include objective methods/empirical approach (i.e. experimentation)

d. Gestalt psychology (1912, Germany)

The leading proponents of the Gestalt view were theGerman psychologistsMax Wertheimer, Kurt Kafka andWolfgang Kohler.

Instead of considering separate parts that make up thinking, Gestalt psychologists concentrated on the

whole. Their slogan is the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Gestalt means shape, form orconfiguration. Their belief was that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. In order to understand our

environment we have to perceive it in its totality not in its individuality. Method of studying behavior is phenomenological approach (studying phenomena as perceived by the

subject).

e. Psychoanalysis (1920, Austria)The Viennese neurologist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) pioneered the psychoanalytic

perspective.Freud said that conscious experiences are only the tip of the Iceberg. Beneath the conscious experience is

Primitive biological urges that seek expression but which are in conflict with the norms and morality of the

society.These unconscious motivations and conflicts have powerful influences on our conscious thoughts and actions.

Therefore they are responsible for much of human behavior including physiological problems. According to

Freud, all behavior whether normal or abnormal is influenced by the unconscious mind.According to Freud the methods of studying the unconscious mind are:

Free association

In this method the psychoanalyst gives the client a word and asks to reply with the first word that comes to

mind be it nonsense or irrelevant. The psychoanalyst makes associations and meanings between ideas, words,

and thought.It is a projective technique to explore the clientsunconscious thoughts.

Dream analysis based on case studiesThe contents of dreams are analyzed for underlying or hidden motivations.

Dreams are viewed as indication of what a person is truly feeling within the conscious mind. Freud said

dreams are the royal road to the understanding of theunconscious.

Current Psychological Perspectives

1. Biological Perspectives focuses on the functioning of the brain, genes, nervous system and the

endocrine system.2. Psychodynamic Perspectives behavior is explained in terms of past experiences and motivational

forces. Sigmund Freud

3. Behavioral Perspectivesobservable behavior that can be objectively recorded. John Watson, B.F. Skinner

4. Humanistic Perspectives emphasizes an individuals phenomenal world and inherent capacity for

making rational choices and developing to maximum potential. Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

5. Cognitive Perspectives emphasize the role of mental processes perception, thinking and memory

that underlie behavior.

6.

Evolutionary Perspectivesroles of inherited tendencies that have proven adaptive in humans.7. Socio-cultural Perspectivesthe role of social and cultural influences on behavior.

Branches of Psychology

1. Experimental and Physiological Psychology investigate basic behavioral and nervous system

processes.

a. Experimental Psychologyinvestigates behavioral processes.


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b. Physiological Psychology and neuropsychology explore connection between nervous and

endocrine systems and behavior.c. Neuroscienceinvestigates the way the brain works.

d. Psychopharmacologystudies the relationship between drugs and behavior.

2. Developmental Psychologydeals with the behavioral development over the entire life span.

a. Child Psychology - studies child from prenatal until early adolescent.b. Adolescence Psychologystudies development from puberty to later life.

c. Senescence Psychology - the study of human behavior in old age.

3.

Personality Psychology studies relationship between personality and behavior especially individualdifferences.

4. Social Psychologystudies behavior of people in groups.

5. Educational and School Psychologyinvestigates how people learn in educational settings.a. Educational Psychologycovers all the psychological aspects of the learning process.

b. School Psychologyassesses and assists children with learning or emotional problems.

6. Industrial/Organizational Psychologystudies the relationship between people and their jobs.

a. Human-factors Psychology specializes in the fitting between a machine and environment and itsprobable user.

b. Personnel Psychology - screens job applicants; evaluates job performance and recommends

employees for promotion.

c.

Consumer Psychologystudies consumer preferences, buying habits and responses to advertising.7. Clinical psychologydevelop ways of studying, diagnosing and treating abnormal behavior.

Methods Used in Psychology

1. Introspection a method of mental self-analysis wherein the researcher studies himself, records hisfeelings and experiences, analyzes these and later interprets them.

2. Observationmost widely used method in the study of behavior.

3. Life-History Methodan extensive background study of an individual.

4. Survey method or Group Method refers to the utilization of questionnaires or interviews from a

representative sample.5. Experimental Method a method where the study of behavior is done inside a laboratory under

controlled conditions.


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Biological Bases of Human Behavior

Neurons: Basic Unit of the Nervous System

Also known as nerve cells

A brain cell with two specialized extensions: one extension is for receiving electrical signals and the

second is for transmitting electrical signals. Allows us to receive sensory information, control muscle movement, regulate digestion, secrete

hormones and engage in complex mental processes such as thinking, imagining and remembering.

Glial Cellskeep the neurons functioning by supplying them with nutrients, clearing away their wastes, helpingto separate them from other neurons and giving them a structural and chemical foundation in which to grow and

organize themselves.

Three Types of Neurons

1. Sensory Neuronsreceive and transmit information about what is happening in the outside world.

2. Motor Neuronsneurons which connect to the body skeletalmuscles and carry signals that cause those

muscles to contract, producing movement.3. Interneuron/s - connect one neuron to another.

Parts of a Neuron

1.

Cell Bodymain part of the neuron. It has one axon and many dendrites.2. Nucleus the most vulnerable part of the neuron. If it is damaged the whole cell dies and cannot be

replaced.

3. Dendritesbranches that connect with the axons of other neurons and carry nerve impulses towards thecell body.

4. Axonconveys impulses away from the cell body to another neuron or to motor-end plates.

5. Collateral Branchconducts impulses onto other nerve or effector cells such as those in muscles.6. Myelin Sheatha fatty layer insulating the axon and accelerating the nerve impulse.

7. Node of Ranvier - interruption in the myelin sheath. Nerve impulses jump from one node to the next.

8. Motor-end Platethe termination of an axon. It passes the nerve impulse to the muscles.

9. Synapsejunction across which nerve pass from an axon to another neuron or from motor-end plate to a

muscle.

Neurotransmitterschemical chemical made by neurons, or nerve cells. Neurons send out neurotransmitters aschemical signals to activate or inhibit the function of neighboring cells.

1. Acetylcholine controls muscle contraction, prevalent in the hippocampus which is involved in the

formation of memories.

Excessmuscle paralysis or convulsion, sometimes death.Deficit memory impairment (Alzheimers disease gradual impairment of memory and cognitive

functions).

2. Dopamine primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It is involved in voluntary movements, learningand emotional arousal.

Excessschizophrenia (hallucinations and disturbances of thought and emotion).DeficitImpaired movement (Parkinsons diseaselose control over ones muscles).

3. Norepinephrine produces largely by neurons in the brain stem. It speeds up the heartbeat and otherbody processes and is involved in general arousal, learning and memory and eating.

Excessanxiety symptoms resembling schizophrenia

Deficitmemory impairment4. Serotonininvolved in emotional arousal and sleep.

Deficitsincreased aggressive behavior, sleeplessness

5. Endorphinstransmit pain message to the brain.Excessinhibition of pain.

Deficitincreased pain.

6.

Neuropeptideschains of amino acids.


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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The first major system of sending signals throughout the body.

It consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

A. BRAINmaster control center of all human activities.

Parts of the Brain1. Forebrainlarge part of the brain, consisting of left and right hemispheres.

Left Hemispherecontrols language and logical operations. Right Hemispherecontrols emotion, artistic and spatial abilities.

a. Limbic System a group of brain structures that play a role in emotion, memory and

motivation.

Thalamus the main relay station for incoming sensory signals to the cerebral

cortex and for outgoing motor signals from it.

Hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, sexual driveand other functions.

Amygdalainvolved in emotional behaviors like fear, anger and aggression.

Hippocampus involved in transforming many kinds of fleeting memories intopermanent storage.

b.

Corpus Callosumlarge bundle of axons that connects the brains two hemispheres.c. Cerebrum (Cerebral Cortex) the largest part of the brain. It receives information from

all the sense organs and sends motor commands to other parts of the brain and the rest ofthe body.

Frontal Lobes responsible for social-emotional behaviors, awareness and

memory.

o Brocas Area located in the frontal lobe which is responsible for speech.

Parietal Lobesinvolved in processing body sensations.

Occipital lobesinvolved in vision.

Temporal Lobes critical to hearing, speaking coherently and understandingverbal and written materials.

o

Wernickes Area located in the temporal lobe which is responsible forunderstanding language.

2. Midbrainsmallest division of the brain which makes connection with the hindbrain and forebrain

and alerts the forebrain to incoming sensation.

a. Reticular Formation (upper portion)governs the state of alertness or arousal.3. Hindbrain (Brainstem)involved in sleeping, waking, coordinating body movements and regulating

vital reflexes (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and breathing.

a. Reticular Formation (lower portion)b. Cerebelluminvolved in coordinating movements, also maintains posture and balance.

c. Pons a bridge that connects the spinal cord with brain and parts of the brain with one

another. It is also involved in sleep.

d.

Medulla/Medulla Oblongatacontrols vital reflexes such as respiration, heart rate and bloodpressure.

B. SPINAL CORDthe brains link to the peripheral nervous system. It receives information from the skin and muscles and transmits it to the brain.

It is a relay station.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Made up of nerves, which are located throughout the body, except in the brain and spinal cord.

Nerves carry information from the senses, skin, muscles and the bodys organs to and from the spinal

cord. Nerves in the peripheral nervous system have the ability to re-grow, regenerate or reattach if severed or

damaged.

The Somatic System (Voluntary)

Transmits sensations from the outside world to the spinal cord or brain and relays central nervous

systems skeletal muscles (the muscles attached to bones), thus generating movements.

The Autonomic System (Involuntary)

Affects heart rate, certain glandular secretion, and the activities of smooth muscles.


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Two Divisions

a. Sympathetic Nervous System works in emergencies and stressful situations, when vigorous action isneeded.

- Prepares the body to fight or to flee by increasing heart rate, blood pressure and blood sugar level

and by slowing down digestion.

b. Parasympathetic Nervous System - exerts control in relaxed situations.- Enhances digestion and conserves energy by slowing down the heart rate and the blood flow to the

skeletal muscles.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Made up of numerous glands that is located throughout the body. These glands secrete various

chemicals, called hormones, which affects organs and other glands in the body.

Glands- Are organs of the body that secrete a substance to be used in, or eliminated from, the body.

a. Hypothalamusregulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, sexual drive.

b. Pituitary gland

-Located at the base of the brain.

- Referred as master gland, it controls the activities of the other endocrine glands and secretes a

growth hormone that has the crucial role of controlling body growth.

- Oversecretion of the hormone leads to giantism, while undersecretion causes dwarfism.

c. Thyroid gland

- Located in the tissue of the neck around the windpipe

- Thyroxinhormone produced by the thyroid gland. This hormone controls the metabolic processesby which the energy is provided for vital functions and activities.

- Oversecretion of the hormone leads to hyperthyroidism that is characterized by increased

metabolism, resulting in rapid physiological processes that make the individual easily tired andirritable.

-Undersecretion of the hormone leads to hypothyroidism that may arrestphysical and mentaldevelopment in children.

d. Adrenal glands

- Inner layer secretes adrenalin or epinephrine, which gives extra energy very much needed during

emergencies and prolonged stress.e. Pancreasregulates the level of sugar in the blood stream by secreting insulin.

Lack of insulin results in some form of diabetes, while too much causes hypoglycemia(low blood sugar).

f. Sex glands/Gonads- are responsible for producing the sex hormones of the body. These sex hormones determine the secondarysex characteristics of adult females and adult males.

Testessex glands of males. It secretes testosterone for the production of male secondary sexcharacteristics.

Ovariessex glands of females. It secretes estrogen for the appearance of female secondary sex

characteristics and progesterone for the thickening of the uterine wall in preparation for pregnancy

and childbirth.


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Human Growth and Behavior

Growthrefers to quantitative changes, increase as to size and structure

Developmentrefers to those changes which are qualitative in nature. It may be defined as a progressive series

of orderly, coherent changes leading toward the goal of maturity

Principles of Development


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Development is orderly and follows a sequential pattern. The stages that we go through from birth to death

are always in the same order.

Laws of Developmental Dir ection

a. Cephalocaudal Lawdevelopment takes place from head region first downwards.

b.

Proximodistal L awdevelopment from the center axis to the extremities1. Development is the product of the interaction of maturation and learning. Maturation is the process in

which hereditary traits unfold at an appointed time as the individual grows older. Learning on the otherhand is influenced by


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Sensation and Perception

Sensationan experience when our sense organs are stimulated.

- Makes things in this world a beautiful reality.Adaptationrefers to the decreasing response of sense organs, the more they are exposed to a continuous level

of stimulation.

- Example: clothes on your skin will soon no longer be felt.Transduction refers to the process in which a sense organ changes or transforms physical energy into

electrical signals that become neural impulses, which may be sent to the brain for processing.

The stimulus excites the receptors and receptors receive that stimulation. There will be no sensation without

this process.

Stimulus1. Internal Stimuluscomes from within.

2. External Stimuluscomes from the environment.

Receptors1. Exteroceptorfound in the different sense organs such as eye, ear, tongue, nose and skin.

2. Interoceptorfound in the lining of the internal organs like the digestive system.

3. Proprioceptorfound in the lining of muscles, tendons and joints.

The Five Major Sense Organs1. EyeVision

Light wavesthe most effective stimulus for vision.

Parts of the Eye

a. Sclerathe hard outermost covering of the eye which serves as a protective layer.b. Choroidcontains the color of the eye.

c. Retinacontains the true receptor cells which are extremely sensitive to light.

Conessensitive to light of normal intensity.

Rodssensitive during twilight vision.d. Cornearounded, transparent, covering over the front of the eye which bends or focuses the waves

into a narrower beam.e. Lensa transparent, oval structure attached to muscles that adjust focusing.

f. Pupilregulates the light entering the eye.g.

Iriscontrols the size of the pupil and contains the pigment that gives the eye it characteristic color.

h. Vitreous Humorkeeps the round form of the eye ball.

i. Blind Spotthe area where nerve fibers from all over the eye converge to form an optic nerve.

j. Optic Nervecarries the impulse to the brain.


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Visual Defects

a. Nearsightedness (Myopia)when the eyeball is too long; distant objects appear blurry.b. Farsightedness (Hyperopia)when the eye ball is too short, near objects is blurry.

c. Oldsightedness (Presbyopia) - condition brought on by the hardening of the lens because of age.

d. Astigmatismthere is a clear vision in one eye but unfocused vision in the other eye.

-Cornea becomes irregular causing distortion on the image on the retina.e. Diplopia (Double Vision)cause by muscular imbalance.

f. Color Blindnessinability to distinguish two or more color shades in the color system.

Monochromatsrefers to total color blindness. Dichromatsrefers to the trouble distinguishing red from green.

2. The EarAudition

Sound Wavesstimulus for audition.

Parts of the Eara. Outer Earconsists of three structures: the external ear, auditory canal and the tympanic membrane.

External Earcollects sound waves.

Auditory Canalwhere the sound waves travel to the tympanic membrane.

Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)divides the outer ear from the middle ear.b. Middle Ear contain three bones: the malleus, the incus and the stapes which act like levers that

greatly amplify the vibrations.c. Inner Earcontains the cochlea and vestibular system.

Cochleainvolved in hearing.

Vestibular Systeminvolved in balance.

3. TongueGustationTaste Budshas four basic sensitivities: sweet, salty, sour and bitter.

Perform transductiontransform chemical reactions into nerve impulses.4. NoseOlfaction

Olfactory Cellsreceptors for smell.

5. Skinbodys largest organ.- Sensitive to pressure, temperature and pain.

Perception Process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the

world.

Illusiona mistake in the perception of a sensory experience.

Principles of Perceptual Organization

A. Gestalt Laws of Grouping

The three founders of Gestalt psychology were German researchers Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, andWolfgang Khler. These men identified a number of principles by which people organize isolated parts

of a visual stimulus into groups or whole objects. There are five main laws of grouping: proximity,

similarity, continuity, closure, and common fate. A sixth law that of simplicity encompasses all of these

laws.1. Law of Proximity - states that the closer objects are to one another, the more likely we are to mentally

group them together.

2. Law of Similarity - leads us to link together parts of the visual field that are similar in color, lightness,texture, shape, or any other quality.

3. Law of Continuity - leads us to see a line as continuing in a particular direction, rather than making an

abrupt turn.4. Law of Closure- we prefer complete forms to incomplete forms.

5. Law of CommonFate - leads us to group together objects that move in the same direction.

6. Law of Simplicity - states that people intuitively prefer the simplest, most stable of possible

organizations.B. Figure and Ground

Not only does perception involve organization and grouping, it also involves distinguishing an object

from its surroundings. Notice that once you perceive an object, the area around that object becomes thebackground.

For example, when you look at your computer monitor, the wall behind it becomes the background. The

object, or figure,is closer to you, and the background, or ground,is farther away.

Four General Extra Sensory Perceiving Abilities

1. Telepathythe ability to transfer ones thoughts to another or to read the thoughts of another.


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2. Clairvoyancethe ability to perceive events or objects that are out of sight.

3. Precognitionthe ability to perceive or accurately predict future events.4. Psychokinesisthe ability to exert influence over inanimate objects by sheer will power.

- The person can move inanimate objects without touching them.

Intelligence

Term usually referring to a general mental capability to reason, solve problems, think abstractly, learn

and understand new material, and profit from past experience.

Intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure.

Theories of Intelligence

1. Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearmen) Intelligence has two factors: a general ability factor, which represents what different cognitive

tasks have in common and specific factors, which include specific mental abilities.

2. Multiple Intelligence Theory (Howard Gardner)

Linguistic Intelligence- involves aptitude with speech and language.

Logical-mathematical Intelligence - involves the ability to reason abstractly and solvemathematical and logical problems.

Spatial Intelligence - used to perceive visual and spatial information and to conceptualize theworld in tasks like navigation and in art.

Musical Intelligence - the ability to perform and appreciate music.

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence - the ability to use ones body or portions of it in various

activities, such as dancing, athletics, acting, surgery, and magic.

Interpersonal Intelligence - involves understanding others and acting on that understanding.

Intrapersonal intelligence - the ability to understand ones self.

Naturalist intelligence- the ability to recognize and classify plants, animals, and minerals.According to Gardner, each person has a unique profile of these intelligences, with strengths in

some areas and weaknesses in others.3. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg)

Analytic Intelligence - skill in reasoning, processing information, and solving problems.

o It involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, and compare.

o Draws on basic cognitive processes or components.

Creative Intelligence - skill in using past experiences to achieve insight and deal with newsituations.

Practical Intelligence - relates to peoples ability to adapt to, select, and shape their real-worldenvironment.

o It involves skill in everyday living (street smarts) and in adapting to life demands, and

reflects a persons ability to succeed in real-world settings.

In Sternbergsview, successfully intelligent people are aware of their strengths and

weaknesses in the three areas of intelligence. They figure out how to capitalize on their strengths,compensate for their weaknesses, and further develop their abilities in order to achieve success in

life.

4. Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized Intelligence (Raymond Cattell and John Horn)

Fluid Intelligence -represents the biological basis of intelligence.

Crystallized Intelligenceis the knowledge and skills obtained through learning and experience.

Two Major Factors that Influence Intelligence

a. Genetic Factors


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b. Environmental Factors

Mental Retardation - disorder in which a persons overall intellectual functioning is well below average,

with an intelligence quotient (IQ) around 70 or less.

Down Syndrome - chromosomal disorder that results in mild to severe learning disabilities and physical

symptoms that include a small skull, extra folds of skin under the eyes, and a flattened nose bridge. Savant Syndrome - disorder in which an individual displays exceptional mental gifts in one particular kind

of thought but is otherwise subnormal in intelligence.

Prodigies - children or youths with exceptional talents and are normal in other respects.

Learning, Thinking, Remembering

Learning a process which brings relatively permanent change in the individuals way of responding as a

result of practice and experience.

- A lifelong process and a universal experience.

Three Principal Factors Affecting the Rate of Human Learning

I.Those within the individual.Five Categories which Influences Learning

A. Intelligencepeople with higher IQ, score high in intelligence tests, and learn things more rapidly.

B. Chronological Agebeyond 50, there is a fairly sharp drop in the ability to learn new things.

C. Arousal and Motivationthe learner must desire or intend to learn.

For learning to proceed efficiently, a subject must be wide awake and alert to theenvironments stimuli.

Motivation in learning is very important in at least three ways:

1. It is a condition for eliciting behavior.2. Motivation is necessary for reinforcement, which is an essential condition for learning.

Reinforcementa consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chances that itwill occur again.

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) a kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus

acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by different stimuli.

Example: dog, meat, bell and salivationa. Establishing Stimulus and Response.

Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response(Food) (Salivation)

b. Establishing Classical Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus

(Ringing of a bell) Neutral ResponseUnconditioned stimulus (Salivation)

(Food)

c. Testing for Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response(Ringing of a bell) (Salivation)

3. Motivation controls the variability of behavior when learning a new habit; a motivated organism

will run into an extensive repertory of responses, one of which may be correct.II.Methods of Learninglearning process.

A. Classical Conditioning

B. Operant Conditioning (B.F Skinner)also called instrumental conditioning.

- A kind of learning in which human performs some behavior and the following consequences (rewardand punishment) increase or decrease the chances that they will repeat to perform the same behavior

or response. Operant Responsea response that can be modified by its consequence and is a meaningful unit

of doing behavior that can be measured easily.


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Punishment a consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chances that the

behavior will occur again. Negative Reinforcementdeprivation.

Avoidance learninga response to a cue is instrumental in avoiding a painful experience.

C. Cognitive Learning (Wolfgang Kohler)involves perception and knowledge necessary in order to learn

with understanding.- Also known as insight learning.

Insighta mental process marked by sudden and expected solution to a problem.

o

A phenomenon often called the Ah-ah experience.

Laws of Learning

E.L Thorndikelearning occurs by establishment of responses (impulses) to action.1. Law of Effect states that if the responses are rewarded and the reward is satisfying or pleasant, the

connection or behavior is strengthened.

- If the effect is unpleasant or annoying, the connection is weakened.

2. Law of Readinessstresses need motivation of learners through building up the proper background andfostering the proper mind-set.

3. Law of Exercisestates that the more connections are exercised, the stronger the connection become.

- Practice makes perfect.

-

We learn by doing, we forget by not doing.

Memoryability of retaining information.

All learning implies retaining.

Three Processes of Memory

1. Encoding refers to making mental representations of information so that it can be placed in our

memory.2. Storingthe process of placing encoded information into a relatively permanent storage for later recall.

3. Retrievingprocess of getting or recalling information that has been placed into short-tem or long-term

storage.

Four Types of Memory

1. Sensory Memory refers to an initial process that receives and holds environmental information in its

raw form for a brief period of time, from an instant to several seconds.2. Short-term Memory - also called working memory.

- Another process that can hold only a limited amount of information, an average of seven items for

only a short period of time.3. Long-term Memoryit refers to a process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information over long

periods of time.

4. Repressed Memorybased on Freuds Theory of Repression.Repressiona mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening memories.

Forgettinginability to retrieve, recall or recognize information that was stored or is still stored in the long-

term memory.

Factors Affecting Forgetting

1. Poor Retrieval Cues Retrieval Cues mental reminders that you create by forming vivid mental images of

information or associating new information that you already know.

2. Interference we forget information not because it is lost from storage but rather because related old

information or similar information gets in the way and mix up or block its retrieval. Proactiveoccurs when old information (learned earlier) blocks or disrupts the remembering of

related new information (learned later). Retroactive occurs when new information (learned later) blocks or disrupts the retrieval of

related old information (learned earlier).3. Amnesialoss of memory that may occur after a blow or damage to the brain (temporary or permanent)

after drug use or after severe psychological stress.


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Emotional and Motivated Behavior

Motivationrefers to the various physiological and psychological factors that cause us to act in a specific way

at a particular time.

Three Characteristics

1. You are energized to do or engage in some activity.

2. You direct your energies toward reaching a specific goal.

3.

You have differing intensities of feelings about reaching that goal.

Theories of Motivation1. Instinct Theorymotivation is the result of biological and genetic program.

William McDougallclaimed that humans were motivated by a number of instincts.

Instinctsinnate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior.

2. Drive-Reduction Theory says that a need results in a drive which is a state of tension that motivatesthe organism to act to reduce the tension and return the body to homeostasis.

Needa biological state in which the organism lacks something essential for survival. Drivea state of tension that motivates the organism to act to reduce the tension.

o Once the need is satisfied, the body returns to a more balanced state.

Homeostasisthe tendency of the body to return to, and remain in, a more balanced state.3. Incentive Theoryexplains that we are motivated by positive incentives such as praise, recognition and

rewards.4. Cognitive Theory

Two Kinds of Motivation

a. Intrinsic Motivationinvolves engaging in certain activities or behaviors because engagingin these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations.

b. Extrinsic Motivationinvolves engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either reduce

biological needs or help us obtain incentives or external rewards.

Biological and Social Needs

Biological Needs are physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well-being.

Social Needsare needs that are required through learning and experience.

a.

Achievement Motivethe need to excel.

b. Affiliation Motivethe need for social bonds.

c. Nurturance Motivethe need to nourish and protect others.

d. Autonomy Motivethe need for independence.e. Dominance Motivethe need to influence or control others.

f. Order Motivethe need for orderliness.

g. Play Motivethe need for fun, relaxation.


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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs- Indicates that we satisfy our biological needs before we satisfy our social needs.

Abraham Maslowproposed that we satisfy our needs in a certain order or according to set hierarchy.

Level 1: Physiological Needsbasic needs.

Level 2: Safety Needsprotection from harm.Level 3: Love and Belongingness Needsaffiliation with others and acceptance by others.

Level 4: Esteem Needsachievement, competency, gaining approval and recognition.

Level 5: Self-Actualizationfulfillment of ones unique potential.

Emotioncan be defined in terms of four components:

1. You interpret or appraise some stimulus in terms of your well-being.2. You have a subjective feeling such as fear or happiness.

3. You experience physiological responses.

4. You may show observable behaviors.

Functions of Emotions1. Emotions motivate learning.

2. Emotions make life colorful.

3.

Emotions give motives to our lives.4. Emotions release tension and energy.

5. Emotions achieve signification.

6. Emotions inspire individuals to heights of glory.7. Emotions accentuate the character traits of an individual.

8. Emotions determine the direction that the behavior will take.

9. Emotions affect many bodily processes.

Personality

Came from the Latin term persona which means masks.

The arrangement or configuration of individual characteristics and ways of behaving that determine ones

unique adjustment to his environment.

Components of Personality

1. Habitsreactions so often repeated as to become fixed characteristic or tendencies.2. Attitudescertain ways of viewing things.

- It may be positive or negative, favorable or unfavorable, learned or acquired.

3. Physical Traits4. Mental Traitsability to control the mind.

5. Emotional Traitsgive an individual the capacity to face different situations in life.

6. Social Traitsthe ability to get along with others.7. Moral and Religious Traitsstandards for a persons actions and behavior.


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Factors in Personality Development1. Inherited Predisposition

2. Abilities

3. Family and Home Environment

4. Culture

Three Forces in the Study of Personality

1.

Psychoanalysis/Psychoanalytic Approachthe role of early experiences, the unconscious and emotionsin the shaping of personality.

a. Freudian Psychoanalysis

Three Structures of Personality1. Idunconscious, governed by the pleasure principle.2. Egopartly conscious, governed by the reality principle.

- Balances the id and superego.

3. Superegogoverned by the moral principle.

Defense Mechanismsconflict resolution strategies, refers to peoples unconscious ways of

dealing with conflict.1. Repression the dismissal from consciousness of a thought or feeling which is too

painful to experience or recall.2. Projection instead of accepting an impulse as ones own, one may attribute it to

someone else.

3. Identification an individual enhances self-esteem by behaving in fantasy or in actual

conduct as if he were another personthe one with whom he identifies.4. Reaction Formationconcealing a motive by giving strong expression to the opposite.

5. Rationalizationthe process of justifying ones conduct by offering plausible or socially

acceptable reasons in place of real reasons. Sour-Grapes Mechanismpretending to dislike what one really likes.

Sweet-Lemon Mechanismpretending to like what one really dislikes.

6. Denialhelps a person cope with difficult circumstances such as illness in the family or

a philandering spouse.7. Displacement used by individuals who shift unacceptable feelings from one object to

another, more acceptable object.

8. Sublimation occurs when the ego replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially

approved course of action.9. Regression occurs when we revert back to the way we used to behave as younger

person.

b. Carl Jungs Depth Psychology

Collective Unconscious refers to the impersonal, deepest layer of the unconscious mind,shared by all human beings because of our common ancestral past.

oAnima

o

Animusc. Alfred Adlers Individual Psychology

Adler believed in the capacity of an individual to consciously monitor and give direction to

his life.

Compensation developing of ones own abilities in order to overcome real or imagined

inferiorities.

Overcompensation

oInferiority Complexan exaggerated feeling of weakness and inadequacy.

oSuperiority Complex exaggerated self-importance, still mainly to mask very strongfeelings of inferiority.

d. Karen Horneys Socio-Cultural Modifications

The prime motivation among humans is the need for security.

Three strategies that are used by individuals in coping with lifes problems:1. Moving towards people seeking love and support (being dependent).

2. Moving away from people (becoming more dependent).

3. Moving against people, becoming competitive and domineering (being aggressive).2. Behaviorism/Behavioral Approach categorized as either based on associative learning or on social

learning constructs.

a. Associative Learning Approach

1. Ivan Pavlov and John Watson


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Personality is the summation of behaviors learned by a person as he interacts with the

environment.2. B.F. Skinner

Personality is a collection of observable and outward (overt) behaviors, all of which were

learned through a series of reward and punishment experiences.

b. Social Learning Theory Approach1. John Dollard and Neal Miller

Tried to put together behaviorism and psychoanalysis in 1950.

2.

Julian Rotter Idea of Expectancyrefers to the belief of a person that certain behaviors will probably

lead to the attainment of important goals.

3. George Kelly

Theory of Personal Constructsone must consider how the person views and constructs

the world as he experiences it.4. Walter Mischel

Delay of Gratificationthe ability of an individual to delay immediate satisfaction for amore desirable outcome in the near future.

5. Albert Bandura We learn to behave in certain ways largely through imitation.

Concept of Self-Efficacythe individual believes that he can master a situation so that itwill lead to positive outcomes.

3. Phenomenological/Humanistic ApproachPhenomenology the unique view of the world held by a person, reality is what the individual

perceives.

Humanistic psychologists stress on our positive qualities, our human capacity for personalgrowth and our freedom to choose our own destiny.

a. Carl Rogers

He believed strongly in the human potential to resiliently adapt, develop and become fully

functioning individual despite the constraints set by the environment.

Self-Concept refers to the individuals overall perceptions of his abilities, behavior and

personality.Real-Selfthe self as a result of experiences.

The self the person would like to be.b. Abraham Maslow

He believed that we all have needs and that they come in two forms:

1. Deficiency Needsrelated to individuals physiological needs and psychological needs.

2. Growth Needs/Metaneeds/Self-Actualizing Needs refers to higher needs for truth,beauty, goodness, wholeness, vitality, uniqueness, perfection, justice, inner wealth and

playfulness.

Theories of Personality

1.

Theory of Body Types (William Sheldon) relates personality with bodily constitution, health andvigor.

a. Endomorphic Components means prominence of intestines and visceral organs and fats are in

proportion to height.- Classified temperamentally as viscerotonic, such persons seek comfort, love to find food and eat too

much, sociable and are greatly interested in seeking affection.

b. Mesomorphic Componentsrefer to bones and muscles.- Classified temperamentally as somatotonic, such persons are energetic, like exercise and are direct in

manners; tend to be aggressive and self-assertive.

c. Ectomorphic Componentsindividual tends to be long, thin and poorly developed.- Classified temperamentally as cerebratonic, such persons are characterized by excessive restraints,

inhibition and avoidance of social contacts.2. Theory Based on Body Built and Strength (Ernest Kretschmer)

a. Asthenic Typesindividuals who are thin, tall and emaciated.b. Pyknic Typeopposite of asthenic, can be called human ball.

c. Athletic Typebetween the asthenic and pyknic types who are extremes in body build.

- Strong and robust. cccccd. Dysplastic Typethose persons who cant be classified among the three types above.

3. Psychological Type Theory (Carl Jung)

a. Introverted Individualtends to withdraw into himself in times of emotional stress and conflicts.b.

Extroverted Individualtends to b very sociable, well dressed and outgoing.


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4. Theory Based on Body Chemistry, Endocrine Balance and Temperaments (Galen)

a. Sanguinewarm-hearted and pleasant.b. Phlegmaticlistless, slow, unexcitable and calm.

c. Melancholicperson who suffers from depression and sadness because of having too much black

bile.

d. Cholericperson is easily angered or temperamental as influenced by his yellow bile.5. Theory of Personality Based on Birth Order (Maxine Abraham)

- Stress that growing personality trait is attributed to family rank.

a.

First Bornare conscious, task-oriented and responsible, high achievers.b. Middle Bornare diplomatic and skillful in interpersonal relationships.

c. Later Bornare very creative, charming and playful, very popular and often are spoiled.

d. Only Childvery dependent but may enjoy a high sense of self-esteem and optimism.6. Psychoanalytic Theory

7. Superiority and Compensation Theory

8. Trait Theory

Theory of Personal Dispositions (Gordon Allport)a. Common Traits traits comparable among people and are appraised by comparing one with

another according to preferred values.

b.Personal Dispositionstraits unique for the person.

1.

Cardinal Dispositioncharacteristics so pervasive influence all aspects of behavior.2. Central Traitsa few traits that centrally describe their personalities.

3. Secondary Traitstraits expressing relatively isolated interests or modes of responding.

The Filipino Personality1. Ningas Kugonstarting something but not finishing it.

2. Maana Habitpostponing for tomorrow what can be done today.3. Bahala NaFilipino fatalism.

4. Hospitalitysolicitous welcome for visitors.

5. Utang Na Loobreturning a favor with interest.

6. Strong Family Tieskinship relationship within a family.

7.

Pakikisamagiving in following lead or suggestion of another.8. Smooth Interpesronal Relationsmost striking quality of pleasantness.

9. Itiyaa kind of anxiety, a fear of being left, exposed, unprotected and unaccepted.

summarized lecture

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