summary - grammar basic points units 1-6

7/29/2019 Summary - Grammar Basic Points Units 1-6

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1 C 6402310- Gramtica Inglesa

Curso 2012 -2013

Basic Points Summary.

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UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS.

MODULE 1: LANGUAGE AND MEANING.

1.1. What is a speech act? Book page. 3

It is the act by which people communicate with each other.

1.2. Can you name ten types of speech acts? Book page. 4

Making statements, asking questions, giving directives with the aim of getting the hearerto carry out some action, making an offer, making a promise, thanking, expressing anexclamation.

1.3. What is a situation or state of affairs ? Book page. 4

Any happening or state in real life, or in an imaginary world of the mind. It doesnt referdirectly to an extra-linguistic reality, but to the speakers conceptualization of it.

1.4. What functions or semantic roles can be distinguished in a communicative act?Book page. 5

1. PROCESSES: Actions, events, states.

2. PARTICIPANTS: Entities of all kinds, even abstracts.

3. ATTRIBUTES: Qualities and characteristics.

4. CIRCUMNSTANCES: Contingent facts or subsidiary situations.

1.5. What difference is there between interpersonal, representational and textualmeaning? Book page. 5

INTERPERSONAL MEANING: The meaning encoded in questions, statements, offers, etc. asa communicative act.

REPRESENTATIONAL MEANING: The meaning encoded in the elements of semanticstructure (participant, processes, attributes, etc.)

TEXTUAL MEANING: The meaning in an organized strand of text ordered in a certain way.

1.6. What is the difference between transitivity structures, mood structures andthematic structures? Book page. 5

TRANSITIVITY STRUCTURES: Encode the representational meaning. In the sentence Illcome into your shop tomorrow , I is the participant, ll come the process, into your shop a circumstance, and tomorrow another circumstance.

MOOD STRUCTURES: A speaker interacts with others to exchange information or toinfluence behaviour. This is typically carried by the indicative mood or clause type(interpersonal meaning).

THEMATIC STRUCTURES: The speaker organizes the content of the clause to establish apoint of departure desired for the message. This is called the Theme; and in Englishcorresponds to the first element of the clause. The rest is the Rheme (textual meaning).

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MODULES 2: LINGUISTIC FORMS AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS.

2.1. What is a unit? What is a rank? What is an element? Book page. 11.

UNIT: Its a sequence that constitutes a semantic whole and which has a recognisedpattern that is repeated regularly.

RANK: Its a group level. Each unit consists of one or more units of the rank below it.

ELEMENTS of structure of each unit are realised by units of the rank.

2.2. Name four main types of structural units. Book page. 11.

Clause, group, word and morpheme.

2.3. Differences between finite and non-finite clause, independent and dependentclause, a supplementive unit, a verbless clause, and an abbreviated clause? Bookpage. 12-15.

FINITE AND NON FINITE: Depends on the verb. Finite verbs are marked for either tense ormodality. Their function is to relate the verb to the speech event. Tensed forms distinguishthe present from the past. Person and number are marked on the third person of the singular.

Tense can be marked too by the finite operators and modality by the modal verbs. If thespeaker wishes to express tense or modality, a finite form of the verb is chosen, and we havea finite clause. If verb does not express tense or modality (infinitive, participle) it is a nonfinite clause.

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT: An independent clause is complete in itself. All are finite,and have variations in structure that make for the different types (declarative, interrogative,etc.) Dependent clauses, even when finite, do not have that possibility.

SUPPLEMENTIVE UNIT: They are not integrated in the main clause, but add supplementaryinformation. They are subordinate but not embedded. They are set off from the main clause

by commas or a dash and have their own intonation.VERBLESS CLAUSE: A clause which lacks a verb (and often a subject too). The omitted

verb is usually be.

2.4. What is a finite dependent clause? Major classes. Book page 14.

Dependent clause is a clause that forms part of a larger structure and has a finite verb.Major classes are:

1. Circumstantial.

2. Relative

3. That Clause

4. Wh- nominal relative clause.

5. Wh- interrogative clause.

6. Dependent exclamative clause.

7. Comparative clause.

(From 4 to 7 are nominal clauses)

2.5. Main classes of groups and words. Book page 16.

GROUPS WORDS

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Nominal group (NG) NounsPrepositions

Verbal group (VG) Verb Pronoun.

Adjectival group (AdjG) Adjective Article

Adverbial group (AdvG) AdverbConjunction

2.6. What is the difference between a morpheme and a morph? Book page 16.

Morpheme is an abstract category that has either a lexical or a grammatical meaning. These abstract categories are realized by morphs, the actual segments of written and spokenlanguage.

2.7. Clause elements within common clause structures. Book page 17.

Subject (S) Jupiter is the largest planet.

SPCsPredicator (P) The election campaign has ended. SP

Direct Object (Od) Ted has bought a new motorbike.SPOd

Indirect Object (Oi) They sent their friends postcards.SPOiOd

Prepositional Object (Oj) You must allow for price increases.SPOp

Subject Complement (Cs) He is powerless to make any changesSPCs

Object Complement (Co) We consider the situation alarming.SPOdCo

Locative/Goal Complement (C loc ) We flew to MoscowSPC loc

Circumstantial Adjunct (A) The news reached us on Tuesday SPOdA

Stance Adjunct (A) Unfortunately, we could not do it.ASPOd

Connective Adjunct (A) However, other friends were present. ASPCs

2.8. The main syntactic elements of groups. Book page 18.

NOMINAL GROUP. There are three primary elements of functions: head (h) preceded by apre-modifier (m) and followed by a post-modifier or qualifier. Both describe or classify thehead, and we can have also determiners (d) which specify it.

VERBAL GROUP. The lexical verb is the main element (v), preceded sometimes byauxiliaries (x).

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. Two obligatory: prepositional head (h) and complement (C) andan optional modifier.

2.9. What is the relationship between componence and realization? Book page 19.

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A structure is considered composed of elements which form a configuration of functions(such Agent-Process-Affected or Subject-Predicator-Direct Object). Each of these functions isrealised by a unit.

There is not one to one correspondence between the class of unit and function, manyclasses of unit can fulfill different functions, for example, a nominal group (NG) can beSubject, Adjunct, Direct Object, etc.

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MODULE 3: NEGATION AND EXPANSION.

3.1. What is a finite operator used for? Book page. 21.

A finite operator is used for negative and interrogative clauses.

3.2. How many types are there? Book page. 21.

Three types:

1. Primary: am, is, am not, wasnt, havent, etc.

2. Modal: can, could, should, may not, shant, etc.

3. Do operator: do, did, dont, didnt, etc.

3.3. What ways are there of negating a clause? Book page. 22-23.

Negation is usually made with the particle not . Another form is a non-finite verb in adependent clause ( Not wishing to disturb them ), and another, using a non-verbal nuclearnegative word as nobody , nothing , no or never .

3.4. Assertive vs. non-assertive words. Book page 24.

The any words are not in themselves negative, and are what we call non-assertivewords, as opposed to some and its compounds, which are assertive.

Assertive have factual meaning, can typically occur in positive declarative clauses ( some,someone, somebody, something, somewhere, sometimes, already, still, a lot )

Non-assertive are associated with non factual meaning (non-fulfillment or potentiality) afeature of negative, interrogative, conditional and comparative clauses (any, anybody,anywhere, any longer, anyone, anything, anymore, ever, yet, much)

3.5. Local and transferred negation. Book page 25.

In local negation groups, words and non finite clauses can be negated by not withoutnegating the entire clause ( She was admitted not long ago ). Transferred negation displacesthe negative element to negate the verb in the main clause ( I dont think she was a Londoner instead of I think she wasnt a Londoner ).

3.6. What are coordination, subordination and embedding ? Book page. 26.

COORDINATION: Linking together elements of the same rank ( She got dressed quickly,had breakfast and went out to work ).

SUBORDINATION: Complex (not compound) clauses, formed by a main sentence anddependent ones. Some of the clauses always depend from another, and are not complete bythemselves ( Ill let you borrow the CDs as soon as Ive finished ).

EMBEDDING: A subordinate clause is embedded when it plays a role in the sentence ( Idont know why he left so abruptly ).

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UNIT 2: THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE.

MODULE 4: SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS AND STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE.

4.1. What is the basic structure of a single independent clause ? Book page 35.

Subject + Predicate (with or without adjuncts).

4.2. The predicate: objects, complements and adjuncts. Concept and main types.Book page. 34-35.

The two main categories which occur in post verbal positions are Object (O) andComplement (C). Without them, the clauses can be incomplete both semantically andsyntactically.

Objects: Encode the key participants of the event other than the subject. Two main types,Direct Object (Od) and Indirect Object (Oi) in that order.

Complements: Encode elements that are not participants but are required bothsyntactically and semantically. The two main types are Complement of the Subject (Cs) andComplement of the Subject (Cs)

Adjuncts: There are three main classes, none of them impossible to omit.

Circumstantial Adjuncts: Provide setting for the situation as place, time and manneramong others.

Stance Adjuncts: Express the speakers attitude.

Connective Adjuncts. Link two clauses, signalling its relation.

4.3. What elements determine the number and type of objects and complements ina clause? Book page 37.

The criteria for the classification of functions are four: Determination by the verb, position,ability to become a subject and realisation of these functions. So, the number and type of objects and complements that can occur in a clause are determined by the verb.

Transitive verbs usually require one or more objects. They occur in types SPO, SPOiOd,SPOC.

Intransitive verbs occur in type SP, dont admit an Object.

4.4. What is a locative/goal? Book page 37.

A locative element is required by a few transitive verbs (such as put and place ) to makethe sentence semantically complete. It can also be predicted by intransitive verbs of motionand direction ( come, go, fly ) to mark an end point or goal ( Rome, south, etc .) although

prediction is less strong than requirement. Both are subsumed under the abbreviation C loc .

4.5. What are the four criteria for the classification of clause functions? Book page37-38.

Determination by the verb, position, ability to become a subject and realisation of afunction.

4.6. What is the correspondence between classes of unit and syntactic function?Book page 40.

There is no one to one correspondence, except for the predicate, always realized by averbal group. The Object is only prototypically realized by a NG, as well as the subject andObject Complement etc but this does not mean they cannot be realized by another unit.

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MODULE 5: SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR.

5.1. What are the key syntactic, semantic and cognitive features of the subject?What are the main participant roles that can be associated to it? Book page. 42-43.

SyNTACTC FEATURES OF THE SUBJECT: The subject is the element picked-up in a question

tag. It is placed before the finite verb and after the finite operator. When a pronoun is used, isalways in the pronominal form (I, he, she, we and they ) and agrees in number and person withthe verb. It is prototypically realised by an NG, but it can be realised by a variety of groupsand clauses.

COGNITIVE FEATURES OF THE SUBJECT: The subject is the element with the highest claimto function as a Topic (what the clausal message is about).

SEMANTICALLY: Almost all participant roles can be associated with it. It can be an Agent,Affected in a passive clause, Experiencer in a mental process, recipient in a passive, etc

5.2. List all the syntactic features of the subject. Book page. 43.

It must be present in declarative and interrogative clauses, not required in theimperative.

It is the element picked up in question tags. It is placed after the finite operator. Subject pronominal forms are I, he , she , we and they . It agrees in number and person with the verb.

5.3. Which classes of groups and clauses can realize a subject? Book page 44-47.

1. Nominal Groups: That man is crazy.2. Dummy it: Its hot.3. Unstressed there: Theres plenty of time.

4. Prepositional phrase and Adverbial Group as subject: Now its the time.5. Adjectival head: The poor are the recipients of donations.6. Embedded clauses:

That- clauses: That he failed the test surprised everybody.Wh- clauses : What he said shocked me.

7. Anticipatory it + extraposed subject: It was silly to say that.

5.4. What is a predicator? Book page 48-49.

Its a clause element present in all major types of clauses including imperative, anddeterminer of the remaining structure of the clause.

5.5. What types of verbs can realise this function? Book page 48-49.Both finite and non finite, lexical and primary verbs.

5.6. What types of processes are encoded by the predicator? Book page 48-49.

Material processes of doing ( make, catch ). Mental processes of experiencing

o Verbs of perception like see .o Verbs of cognition like know .o Verbs of affectivity like like .o Verbs of desideration like hope .

Relational processes of being.

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MODULE 6: DIRECT, INDIRECT, AND PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT.

6.1. Key syntactic and semantic features of the direct object. Book page 50.

It occurs only in transitive clauses with transitive verbs ( hit, buy, send ). It is placed immediately after the predicator. Typically realized by a NG. It can be promoted to become a subject (passive). It can be questioned with wh- . Semantically, a prototypical Od occurs in a high transitive situation (process of

doing).

6.2. Key syntactic and semantic features of the indirect object. Book page 55.

It occurs only with verbs which can take two objects such as give or send. Itsposition is between the verb and the Od. Typically realized by a NG, occasionallyby a wh- nominal clause.

It is associated with two semantic roles: Recipient and Beneficiary.

6.3. What difference is there between an indirect object and a prepositional object?Book page 56.

A prepositional (oblique) object is a subsidiary type of object mediated by a preposition. Itencodes a participant in the clause structure. The preposition is associated with a verb, calledprepositional verb. Without the preposition the clause will be either ungrammatical withdifferent meaning.

6.4. Three main types of prepositional verbs. Book page 57.

TYPE A: ( Look after ) Lexical unit in which the verb and the preposition together have adifferent meaning from the separate words.

TYPE B: ( Rely on ). Less idiomatic, verbs in this group are not used without their specificpreposition.

TYPE C: ( Laugh at, count on, hear of ) Verb + preposition represent a special use with adistinctive meaning of the verb which otherwise can function without the preposition.

6.5. When is a preposition stranded? What happens in passive structures? Bookpage 57

When a preposition stays close to its verb we say it is stranded (displaced from its naturalposition). In some combinations, the NG complement of a PP (prepositional phrase) canbecome a subject in a passive clause. The preposition is then obligatory stranded ( My cat waslooked after ).

6.6. What is the difference between phrasal and prepositional verbs? Book page 61.

In a phrasal prepositional verb, the pronoun follows the preposition but precede theparticle ( He broke it up ). The particle is stressed specially in the final position; whereas apreposition is normally unstressed (the stress falls on the verb).

Phrasal verbs do no normally admit an adverb between the verb and the particle. Inphrasal verbs the particle is analyzed as part of the verb. In free combination is analyzed as acomplement ( rain came down directional).

6.7. What are phrasal-prepositional verbs? Book page 62.

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A phrasal-prepositional verb consists of a lexical verb followed by an adverbial particleand preposition, in that order. They are characteristic of informal English.

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MODULE 7 : SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLEMENTS.

7.1. What are the key differences between Subject Complement and ObjectComplement? Book page. 64-68.

The Subject Complement completes the predicate after a copular verb by specifying an

Attribute of the subject or its identity. No passivisation is possible. The Subject Complement isthe obligatory constituent which follows a copular verb that cannot be made subject in apassive clause. It does not represent a new participant as Object does, but completes thepredicate by adding information about the subject.

The Object complement complements the predicate with an AdjG or an NG following adirect object. It can neither become subject in a passive clause.

7.2. What groups and classes prototypically realise each constituent? Book page. 64-68.

Subject Complements: Realized by AdjG and NG (definite and indefinite) and clauses.

Object Complements: Realized by AdjG and NG (definite and indefinite) and clauses.

MODULE 8: ADJUNCTS.

8.1. What is an adjunct? Book page. 69 .

Adjuncts are optional elements. They are flexible in number and position. Semanticallythey represent circumstances, specifications and comments.

8.2. What three main types are according to their function? What are the maindifferences between them ? Book page. 70.

Circumstantial Adjuncts: Provide experiential details and answer wh- questions.Stance Adjuncts: Express speaker evaluation or comment.

Connective Adjuncts: They are connectors of structures, signaling how the speakerintends the semantic connections. Sometimes analyzed as a discourse marker.

8.3. When does a circumstantial function as a central clause element? Book page 71.

When predicted by the verb. Without it the clause would be incomplete syntactically andsemantically. They have then the status of a Complement, and can be:

Of location in place or time: is, stay, live .

Extent in time or places: take, last . Direction and Goal: go, come, fly .

Source: tiptoed out, flew from .

Manner: behave, treated .

8.4. What is a discourse marker? Book page 75

Marks the new speakers turn in the conversation, the management of informational andthe speakers attitude to the message. (Well, now, so)

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UNIT 3: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MESSAGE.

MODULE 9: INTRANSITIVE AND COPULAR PATTERNS.

9.1. What does the term complementation of the verb refer to? Which elementsare determined by the verb? Book page. 83.

Complementation of the verb are the syntactic patterns made up by configurations of theclause elements. Each pattern contains a subject and a predicator.

The number and type of other elements in each pattern is determined by the verb.

9.2. Name the three types of complementation and any subtypes there are . Bookpage 83.

Intransitive.

Copular.

Transitive.

o Monotransitive (S-P-O)

o Ditransitive (S-P-O-O)

o Complex transitive (S-P-O-C)

9.3. What is semantic valency ? Book page 83.

It is the potential number of participants, including the subject (the number of placesthe verb can control). For example the verb eat is a two-place verb, because in any event of eating there must be an eater and a thing eaten.

Syntactic valency often corresponds to semantic valency but not always. For example,

weather verbs have a semantic valency of zero, but we use a dummy it and give them asyntactic valency of one.

9.4. What are the different types of intransitive verbs? Book page. 85

Verbs of behaviour: (Typically involuntary or semi-voluntary): Smile, blink, blush,die, faint .

Verbs of weather : Rain, snow.

Verbs of occurrence: Appear, go, arrive, fade, happen.

Idiomatic intransitive phrasal verbs: Crop up .

All these are pure intransitives, and some of them function as other structures. Someintransitives require a complement:

Position: Require a Locative Complement (live, lie).

Movement: Require a Goal Complement ( go, walk ).

9.5. What is a locative complement? Book page 86.

Locative Complement C loc is the term used to encompass both Locative and Goalmeanings of the complement. These are required by intransitive verbs of location ( be, stand,live, lie, remain ) or movement + manner of movement types ( walk, run, stroll, crawl, fly ).

9.6. What does the locution pragmatic inference of circumstantial meaning referto? Book page 86.

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There are some verbs of position ( wait, stay ) of movement ( go, leave, come back ) thatcan either function as pure intransitives or be followed by a Locative/Goal Complement. Thechoice depends on the support given from the context, if the location or destination is notinferrable, a C loc would be necessary.

9.7. What is the difference between a complement and an adjunct? Book page 87.

A Complement is required for the verb to complete its meaning. An Adjunct is commonlyadded, but not a requirement because the verb has sufficient weight in itself.

9.8. What is a copular verb? Types of copulas? Book page 88.

Copular verbs link the subject with the complement which characterises or identifies thesubject referent. The most prototypical verb is be.

Verbs of being : Are stative and introduce an existing attribute ( be, remain, keep ).

Verbs of becoming : Are dynamic and introduce a resulting attribute ( became,grow ).

Other linking verbs : Are normally used without a complement ( fall, come, run ), butcan function as copulas with specific adjectives as Complement of the subject.

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MODULE 10: TRANSITIVE PATTERNS.

10.1. Difference between a monotransitive a ditransitive and a complex transitivepattern. Are there transitive and intransitive verbs? Book page 90-91.

Monotransitive pattern contains a two-place verb ( stay, carry ) and have one object either

Od or Op.Ditransitive pattern contains a three-place verb ( give, blame ) which semantically

expresses situations with three participants encoded syntactically in the subject and twoobjects.

Complex-transitive pattern has one Object and one Complement ( appoint, name, find ),therefore a 3 place verb.

There are verbs used both transitively and intransitively:

Verbs with an implied object ( smoke, drive ).

Causatives with an intransitive counterpart constituting an ergative pair ( heclicked the camera the camera clicked ).

Verbs with a reflexive meaning ( shave, dress )

Verbs with reciprocal meaning ( Tom and Rob met ).

10.2. What is a three-place verb? What types are there? Book page 92.

A three-place verb has a subject and two Objects, representing the transfer of goods orinformation from one person to another. There are two main types:

Od followed by Oi . I gave her a present.

Od followed by Op . It reminds me of you.

o

Explain + NG + Op . He explained the problem.o Wish + NG + NG . We wish you luck.

10.3. What difference is there between a Direct Object and a Prepositional Object?Book page 95.

The Op is further away from the verb and less object-like. Like other Objects, encodes aparticipant that can be wh- questioned (either before the preposition or stranded). Who doeshe remind you of,

Only the Od can become subject in a passive sentence.

10.4. What is the cognitive notion of frame? What relation is there with thenotion of perspective and attention? Book page 96.

The notion of frame allows us to conceptualise a situation from different perspectives,drawing on the cognitive ability to direct ones attention. For example, the sentence Tombought some old CDs from Phil for twenty , is focused on the buyer. We can focus on theseller in Phil sold old CDs to Tom , on the goods in The old CDs cost Tom twenty , or on thecost, Tom spent twenty on some old CDs.

10.5. What difference is there between current and resulting attributes? Book page97.

An attribute is current when it is contemporaneous with the verb, and resulting when it isa result of the action denoted by it.

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MODULE 11: COMPLEMENTATION BY FINITE CLAUSES.

11.1. What element determines clausal complements ? Book page 100.

All clausal complements are determined by the verb.

11.2. What types of finite clauses are there? What are the main differencesbetween them? Book page 100.

That- clauses and wh- clauses are finite, having a subject, tense and modality. To-infinitive clauses and -ing clauses are non-finite, and lack those distinctions.

That- clauses are the largest group and are controlled by transitive verbs. They areclassed according to communicative function and meaning.

11.3. When is the complementary that omitted? Book page 103.

Omission of that is favoured by: When think or say is the main verb. When the subject refers to the same entity in the main clause and in the that-

clause. When there is a pronoun as head of the that- clause. In informal spoken registers.

11.4. What is recursive embedding? Book page 105.

A series of embedded clauses each within the previous one. I reminded him hed said hedfind out about it.

11.5. What is a nominal relative clause? Book page 106.

A nominal relative clause has a verb ( advise, give, show, teach, tell ) which representfactual information and can be distinguished by replacing the wh-word by a more generalword such us the thing ( He told me what I already knew the thing which I already knew ).

Most elements of clause structure can be realised by a subordinate clause functioning as aSubject, Object, or Complement. Such clauses are said to be embedded. The whole clause isthe superordinate clause, while the main part is the matrix clause.

MODULE 12: COMPLEMENTATION BY NON-FINITE CLAUSES.

12.1. What are catenative verbs? Book page 108.

Catenative verbs are verbs that control a non-finite complement and can link recursivelywith other catenatives ( We decided to rent a house near the sea ).

12.2. What meanings are expressed by the different types of non-finite clauses?

Book page 109.

V + to infinitive : evoke a potential situation. I want to go . V + NG + to- infinitive clause with subject . He wants us to go . V + NG + to infinitive . We asked him to stop .

12.3. What is a verb of retrospection? What type of clause does it control? Bookpage 112.

A verb of retrospection marks a difference in relation to the main verb (ing: action -mental process/ to: mental process - action). It is always followed by a verb of communication(I remembered to turn off the gas ).

12.4. Name five major verb complementation patterns with examples.1. No complement + intransitive verbs. That dog bites.

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2. One complement + copular. This road is the M 403. One complement + monotransitive verb. That dog bit me.4. Two complements + ditransitive verb. I gave Rob a copy.5. Two complements + complex transitive verb. I found it useful.

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UNIT 4: CONCEPTUALISING PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE.

MODULE 13. CONCEPTUALISING EXPERIENCES EXPRESSED AS SITUATION TYPES.

13.1. Why is the clause the most significant grammatical unit? Book page 123.

The clause is the grammatical means of encoding patterns of experience. Languageenables us to conceptualise and describe our experience (actions, events, people and thingsto the external world of thoughts, feelings and perceptions). So, the clause enables us toorganise our experience semantically and syntactically.

13.2. What is a process and how many types can be distinguished? Book page 123-125.

The process is the technical term for the action ( hit, run ), state ( have ) or change of state(freeze ) involved.

Dynamic processes: Something happens, and they can be tested by the questionWhat happened?

Stative processes : Situations are durative over time, as existing rather thanhappening.

Material processes : This are processes of doing ( kick, run ) or happening (fall, melt ).

Mental processes : Processes of experiencing or sensing ( hear, feel, want, regret ).

Relational processes : Processes of being and becoming ( seem, become, turn ).

13.3. Major types of processes: dynamic and stative / material, mental andrelational. (See above).

13.4. What types of roles are involved in a situation? Book page 124.

A participant can be the one who carries out the action or the one who is affected by it. There are usually just one or two, at the most three. The primary role is the Agent/Subject,and after that we have the Attributes (to identify or characterise). The circumstantial roleincludes the known circumstances of time, place, manner and condition.

13.5. Actualised vs. unactualised participants. Book page 126.

In Ted kicked the ball , both the inherent (natural of the processes) participants areactualized or present, Ted and the ball. If instead we said Ted kicked hard , only oneparticipant, Ted is actualised, the second one is unactualised but understood.

MODULE 14: MATERIAL PROCESSES OF DOING AND HAPPENING.

14.1. The roles of agent, affected, involuntary and involuntary processes: whichsyntactic functions do they conflate with? Book page 128.

Material processes express actions or activities which are typically carried out by thedoer or agent, (typically human).

Agentive Subject of a voluntary process of doing . A voluntary one-participantprocess carried out by an Agent as a Subject operating in itself They all left.

Affected participant in a voluntary process of doing . The action does not extend to

the other participant, who is only affected Ted hit Bill. Affected Subject in a passive clause . Bill was hit by Ted.

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MODULE 15: CAUSATIVE PROCESSES.

15.1. What is an ergative pair? What conditions must it fulfill? Book page 134.

When the affected object of a transitive clause is the same as the affected subject of anintransitive we have an ergative pair (I have burned the toast The toast has burned ). Itexpresses a change of state with the second participant always involved.

15.2. What is an analytical causative with a resulting attribute? What syntacticrealization does it have? Book page 134.

It is a causative based on combination of verbs like make and turn. In this situation, anAgent brings about a change of state in the Affected participant. The resulting state isexpressed in the Attribute (complement of the object).

15.3. What does a pseudo-intransitive express? Book page 135.

It happens when a type of Affected Subject combines with certain processes ( break,translate, tan ) which are intrinsically transitive but in this construction behave as intransitivewith an Affected subject.

They differ from other intransitives:

They express a general property or propensity.

They tend to occur in the present tense.

The verb is accompanied by a negation or an adverb such as easily, well or any.

A course is implied but an Agent cant be added.

There is no correspondent transitive construction.

Glass breaks easily. Colloquial language translates badly. This box doesnt shut properly.

MODULE 16. PROCESSES OF TRANSFER.

16.1. Which are the participants in a process of transfer? Book page 137.

There are three participants in a process of transfer: Agent, Affected, and Recipient orBeneficiary.

16.2. What is the difference between a Recipient and a Beneficiary? Book page 138.

Recipient is the one who usually receives the goods, permission or information.Beneficiary is the optional, non inherent participant for whom the service is done. Also,Recipient is central, Beneficiary optional.

16.3. Summary of process types . Book page 138.

Participant Type Example

Agent doing (intrans) The Prime Minister resigned .Agent + Affected doing (trans) Ed kicked the ball .Force doing (intrans) The volcano erupted.Affected happening The dog died.Agent init + Affected/Med causative-transit Ed broke the glass.Affected/Medium anti-causative Glass breaks easily.

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Affected (+ opt Agent) passive The glass was broken(by Ed).Affected get- passive The glass got broken.Ag + Affected + Attribute analytical causative They made the roadwider.Ag + Recipient + Affected transfer Ed gave the cat

a bit of tuna.

MODULE 17. CONCEPTUALISING WHAT WE THINK, PERCEIVE AND FEEL.

17.1. What participants are there in a mental process of perception, cognition,affection and desideration? Book page 139.

There is always a conscious participant, the Experiencer (who knows likes, etc.) andusually a second, the Phenomenon (what is liked, wanted, etc.)

17.2. Four major types of mental processes . Book page 139.

1. Cognition . Know, understand, believe, forget, etc.2. Perception . See, notice, feel, taste.3. Affectivity . Like, love, admire, miss.4. Desideration . Hope, desire, wish.

MODULE 18. RELATIONAL PROCESSES OF BEING AND BECOMING.

18.1. What is a relational process and what patterns of being are there? Book page145.

A relational process expresses the concept of being in a broad sense ( Mount Blanc is ...). There are two main patterns: the attributive ( Mont Blanc is high ) and the identifying ( Mont Blanc is a mountain range ).

18.2. Key features of the attributive pattern and the identifying pattern. Book page145

Attributive characterises the entity as one of a class by a quality, a location or a type of possession ( A mountain can be high, in the Alps, yours).

Identifying it is reversible, identifies one entity in terms of another (Fred is the doorman The doorman is Fred.)

18.3. What difference is there between a current attribute and a resulting

attribute? And between a circumstantial relational process and a possessiverelational one? Book page 145.

Attribute existing as the same time as the process is current ( keep, remain, seem ).Attribute existing as a result of the process is resulting (become, get, turn) .

Relational processes are the ones in which the circumstantial element is essential, notperipheral and the circumstance is encoded in the verb ( The museum is around the corner ).

Possessive relational processes: Two participants, possessor and possessed and thenotion of possession expressed by the Attribute ( That is mine ) or the Process (I have a newPC)

MODULE 19. PROCESSES OF SAYING, BEHAVING AND EXISTING.

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19.1. What are verbal, behavioural and existential processes and their mainstructures? Book page 151.

Verbal processes: They are processes of saying or communicating They have oneparticipant typically human (the sayer) and a second essential Participant which is what issaid. A recipient is required with tell and others.

Behavioural processes: Borderline between mental processes and material processes(cough, sneeze, yawn, blink ). Typically involuntary, but can be deliberate. There is usually oneparticipant.

Existential processes: They are processes of existing or happening ( There is cereal for breakfast ). The basic structure is unstressed there+be+NG. There is not considered aparticipant since it does not have semantic content.

19.2. What difference is there between a saying and a communicating verbalprocess? Book page 152.

The saying can be anything which is put as a communicative signal, and communicating iswhat is said, and can be as a reported statement.

MODULE 20. EXPRESSING ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES.

20.1. Major types of circumstantial elements. Book page 155.

1. Manner. Do it gently.

2. Instrument. Figo headed the ball into the goal.

3. Contingency. He is studying for a degree.

4. Accompaniment. Tom came as well as Paul.

5. Modality. It will probably be well received.

6. Degree. I completely forgot to bring my passport.7. Role. Im speaking to you as a friend.

8. Matter. Is there any news of the missing seamen?

9. Evidence. As the saying goes no news is good news.

20.2. What is contingency? Book page 156.

It covers meanings as cause ( They are dying of hunger) , purpose ( The team is training towin) , reason ( He stopped because he was tired) , concession ( In spite of the delay we reachedthe concert hall in time ), condition ( Send a telegram if necessary ), and behalf ( Ill speak to thedirector on you behalf) .

20.3. What difference is there between circumstance and range? Book page 158

Range is a participant (the nominal concept implied in the process , sing a song, play agame, run a race ). The most common are the deverbal nominals complementing lexicallylight verbs ( have a drink, give a push, take a drink)

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UNIT 5: INTERACTION BETWEEN SPEAKER AND HEARER: LINKING SPEECH ACTS ANDGRAMMAR

MODULE 22 SPEECH ACTS AND CLAUSE TYPES

22.1. What is a speech act? Types of speech acts. Book page 177.

Speech acts are the acts we perform through words. These are statements, questions,exclamations and directives.

22.2. Basic correspondences between clause types and speech acts. Book page 177.

STATEMENT: Declarative QUESTION: Interrogative.EXCLAMATION: Exclamative. DIRECTIVE: Imperative.

22.3. What difference is there between direct speech acts and indirect speech acts?Book page 177.

When a clause type is used to carry out the speech act is typically associated, it is adirect speech act , and it is said to have illocutionary force.

When a clause type has any other but its typical function, we consider it an indirectspeech act.

22.4. What is illocutionary force? Book page 178.

The force is the speakers intended meaning. If the illocutionary force of a statementcoincides with its typical function, it is a direct speech act (If a question wants an answer it isa direct speech act, however if it is a polite form of asking for something it is an indirectspeech act).

MODULE 23 THE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES

23.1. What is the order of the subject and the finite in the five basic clause types?Book page 181.

DECLARATIVE: Subject + Finite. Jane sings.INTERROGATIVE (yes/no): Finite + Subject. Does Jane sing?INTERROGATIVE (wh-): Wh- + Finite + Subject What does Jane sing?EXCLAMATIVE: Wh- + Subject + Finite How well Jane sings!IMPERATIVE: No Subject, base form verb. Sing!

23.2. Differences between abbreviated clauses, question tags and echo questions.Book page 180.

Abbreviated: are independent ellipted clauses based on subj-operator and operator-subject patterns.

Question tags: are also abbreviated but not independent and include expressions such usright, OK.

Echo questions: repeats all or part of the speakers previous utterance.

23.3. What is an alternative interrogative? Book page 185.

It is an interrogative that chooses between two alternatives.

23.4. What is a double interrogative? Book page 186.

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A wh- interrogative embedded as a constituent of a polar interrogative ( Do you know what time is it? )

23.5. What are the functions of question tags? Book page 187.

Question tags are dependent clauses that require response (abbreviated yes or no

interrogative). They are an important interrogative device in spoken English.

MODULE 24 THE EXCLAMATIVE AND IMPERATIVE CLAUSE TYPES

24.1. Structure of an exclamative clause. Book page 190.

The exclamative starts with a wh- word or the degree adverb how, followed by the Subject+ Finite ordering characteristic of the declarative.

24.2. What is the relation between imperatives and vocatives? Book page 191-192.

The imperative consists of the base form of the verb with no Subject. Its unmarked

function is to issue a directive. Vocatives can be understood as the missing or understoodSubject of the imperative.

24.3. Structural features of the imperative, with attention to its verb. Book page191-194.

The verb in the imperative is the base form, so it is indistinguishable from declarativeforms (except the third person singular, where it takes no s . In imperative, the verbs requiresno Subject, uses the basic or base form (no mode or tense), and uses lets to form the firstperson plural.

24.4. Emphatic imperatives. Book page 194.

They are used to emphasise second person imperatives (Do keep still!).

24.5. The relation between verbless clauses and freestanding subordinate clauses.Book page 195.

Verbless clauses are clauses which lack one or more structural elements (Subject, Finiteverb, etc.) They are characteristic of an ongoing conversation.

Freestanding subordinate clauses are characteristic of the ongoing conversation too. Theyare not attached to a previous clause, and are used to reinforce or give the cause (commontypes are relative clauses introduced by which or because ).

24.6. What is the subjunctive? Is there subjunctive in English? Book page 196.

Subjunctive is a verb form that plays a very marginal role in British English (more commonin American). It can express wish, and as a mood is very rarely used, and substituted for otherkinds of constructions nowadays.

MODULE 25 INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS, CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS

25.1. The difference between clause types and speech act functions. Book page 197.

There is no direct correspondence between clause types (declarative, exclamative,imperative), speech acts (issue an order), and functions, because the function depends on themeaning.

25.2. The transferred negation of explicit performatives. Book page 199.

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With some performative verbs ( advise, think ) we have transferred negation, with the not transferred from the logical place to the main clause ( I dont think she was a Londoner ).

25.3. Different ways to form an exclamation. Book page 200.

Using an interrogative. Isnt it a lovely day? Using a declarative. You must be joking. Using an imperative. Fancy meeting you here! Using a verbless clause. What an idiot! Using a nominal group. The trouble Ive had with him!

MODULE 26 QUESTIONS, CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS

26.1. The use of assertive/non assertive elements in biased questions. Book page202-203

If the speaker has a neutral assumption, non assertive forms will be added ( Do you knowanyone in London?) With a positive assumption assertive forms will be added ( Do you knowsomeone in London?)

26.2. What are queclaratives? Book page 203.

Declaratives used to seek confirmation in a tactful way, or leading questions such as Youare seeing her? You dont mind if I stay? are queclaratives.

MODULE 27 DIRECTIVES: GETTING PEOPLE TO CARRY OUT ACTIONS

27.1. What ways are there to produce directives? Book page 205-212.

With imperatives With Lets. With a modal interrogative ( could, would ) With a declarative.

27.2. How does a speaker convey politeness to a directive? Book page 207.

The more optional the act appears, the more polite. We can use a modal tag after animperative, such as cloud you? or Will you?.

27.3. The relation between indirectness, impoliteness and confrontation. Book page209.

Indirectness is used everyday in spoken English as implicit meaning is. Sometimes,impoliteness can represent a form of solidarity. Confrontations can be full of indirectness andimplicit meanings.

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UNIT 6: ORGANISING THE MESSAGE. THEMATIC AND INFORMATION STRUCTURES OFTHE CLAUSE

MODULE 28: THEME. THE POINT OF DEPARTURE OF THE MESSAGE

28.1. What are the three main dimensions of textual meaning? Book page 222.

Theme Rheme structure and its relation to Topic.

Order of constituents in the clause.

Distribution of focus and information.

28.2. What is the thematic structure of a clause? What are theme and Rheme? Bookpage 223.

Theme and Rheme are two components that make up the organisational construct of theclause. Theme (first) is the clause constituent selected to be the point of departure of the

clause as message (initial position). Rheme says something in relation to it. Typically,important new information is presented in the Rheme.

28.3. What is marked/unmarked theme? Where are they in declarative and non-declarative clauses? Book page 224-225.

The natural order in the clause has Subject as Theme and this normal order is theUNMARKED Theme. Any other will mean the Theme is marked.

o In declarative clauses the order is Subject + Predicate, so Theme will be Subject.

o In yes/no interrogatives unmarked Theme is the Finite operator.

o In wh- interrogatives unmarked Theme is the wh- word.

o In second person imperatives, Theme is the verb.

28.4. What is topic (and both global topic and local topic)? Book page 225.

TOPIC is the discourse category which corresponds to what the text is about.

GLOBAL TOPIC is the topic which coherently organizes a whole piece of language.

LOCAL TOPICS are the topics of utterances and sentences.

28.5. Give examples of common and less common Thematisations in declarativeclauses. Book page 230.

- Thematisation of circumstantial adjunct. Its the most common. In London last year, we did a lot of sight seeing.

- Thematisation of objects and complements. Irish you ordered, and Irish youvegot.

- Thematisation of negative adverbs. Never before has the IRA acknowledged it.

- Thematisation of negative object. Nobody could remember a thing.

- Thematisation of adverb + verb of motion. Then came the Norman Conquest .

- Thematisation of detached predicatives. A Saxon princess, she was born near London.

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MODULE 29: THE DISTRIBUTION AND FOCUS OF INFORMATION

29.1. What is an information unit, how are they realised and represented inspeech? Book page 238.

Messages are divided into chunks called information units, represented prosodically intotone units.

29.2. What is focus of information? Book page 239.

Each intonation unit has a series of stressed and unstressed syllables, and always onetonic signalled by tonic prominence to mark the focus of information, which is the point of theunit informationally in focus.

29.3. Given and new information, what do they convey? Book page 240.

The given information is the information that the speaker presents as recoverable by thehearer. The new element is concerned with information not recoverable (new).

29.4. The difference between marked (end-) focus vs. unmarked (end-) focus. Bookpage 241.

The unmarked distribution starts with the Given and proceeds towards the New. This iscalled the principle of end-focus.

The neutral position for information focus is then towards the end, this means unmarked

(end-) focus, when it falls in the last non-anaphoric lexical item or name in the clause. Thisusually means that almost the whole clause or just one part may be new. Marked focus occurswhen the tonic is placed on any other syllable, used for the purpose of contrasting.

29.5. What difference is there between textual and situational ellipsis? When dothey occur? Book page 243.

Textual ellipsis (leaving out recoverable elements) occurs when an item can be recoveredfrom the linguistic co-text, and it occurs when two consecutive clauses have elements incommon.

Situational ellipsis is when the information can be recoverable from the social context, andit occurs when conversation in writing imitates speech ( See you soon Ill ellipted).

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MODULE 30: THE INTERPLAY OF THEME-RHEME AND GIVEN-NEW

30.1. What is the interplay between the Theme-Rheme thematic structure and theGiven-New information structure? The three basic types of thematic progression.Book page 246.

The unmarked relation between them is for Given to coincide with the Theme and Newinformation to be part of the Rheme.

Simple linear progression . Something introduced as new in the Rheme of the firstclause is the Theme of the second.

Continuous progression . The same Theme is maintained across a series of coordinated clauses each with its own Rheme and new information.

Derived progression . A different number of Theme-Rheme structures, all related toa hyper-theme or global topic.

A fourth type will be the split Rheme, a combination of the first two.

30.2. What does Thematisation and clefting consist of? What is the differencebetween them? Book page 246.

Thematisation or Thematic fronting is the bringing of an element to the initial position inorder to focus on it.

In clefting we reorganize the content of a clause in two parts to focus in one element, theNew, which always follows the verb be. There are two kinds, it cleft and wh-cleft (Its money what they need What they need is money.)

30.3. End-focus, end-weight and informativeness, and the connection betweenthem. Book page 254.

A clause not marked is end-focused, so we use the principle of end-weight, puttingshortest first longest last. So the information which is new and needs to be more detailed isplaced at the end of the sentence.

30.4. Extraposition and postponement of clauses. What do they involve andconvey? Book page 260.

Some types of long subject clauses are avoided in English because they violate the end-weight principle and sound awkward. Finite that-clauses, wh-nominal clauses and to-infinitiveclauses can be shifted to the end of the sentence and replaced by anticipatory it in subjectposition. This is extrapositon and it is often used to express an opinion ( It is a nuisance that banks are closed on Saturdays).

To avoid the awkwardness of having long, heavy units to the left of the main verb ( Thetime will come when no-one will write by hand anymore ) we put it to its right, and this ispostponement normally used to re-place the focus.

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INDEX

Basic Points Summary.....................................................................................................................................................1

UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS..........................................................................................................................................3 MODULE 1: LANGUAGE AND MEANING....................................................................................................... ........ .3

1.1. What is a speech act? Book page. 3...................................................................................................................31.2. Can you name ten types of speech acts? Book page. 4......................................................................................31.3. What is a situation or state of affairs? Book page. 4.........................................................................................31.4. What functions or semantic roles can be distinguished in a communicative act? Book page. 5.......................31.5. What difference is there between interpersonal, representational and textual meaning? Book page. 5............31.6. What is the difference between transitivity structures, mood structures and thematic structures? Book page.5................................................................................................................................................................................3

MODULES 2: LINGUISTIC FORMS AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS......................................................................42.1. What is a unit? What is a rank? What is an element? Book page. 11................................................................42.2. Name four main types of structural units. Book page. 11.................................................................................42.3. Differences between finite and non-finite clause, independent and dependent clause, a supplementive unit, averbless clause, and an abbreviated clause? Book page. 12-15................................................................................42.4. What is a finite dependent clause? Major classes. Book page 14. ....................................................................42.5. Main classes of groups and words. Book page 16.............................................................................................42.6. What is the difference between a morpheme and a morph? Book page 16.......................................................52.7. Clause elements within common clause structures. Book page 17...................................................................52.8. The main syntactic elements of groups. Book page 18.....................................................................................52.9. What is the relationship between componence and realization? Book page 19................................................5

MODULE 3: NEGATION AND EXPANSION..............................................................................................................7 3.1. What is a finite operator used for? Book page. 21.............................................................................................73.2. How many types are there? Book page. 21.......................................................................................................73.3. What ways are there of negating a clause? Book page. 22-23..........................................................................7

3.4. Assertive vs. non-assertive words. Book page 24.............................................................................................73.5. Local and transferred negation. Book page 25..................................................................................................73.6. What are coordination, subordination and embedding? Book page. 26. ..........................................................7

UNIT 2: THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE.........................................................................................................8

MODULE 4: SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS AND STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE. .....................................................84.1. What is the basic structure of a single independent clause? Book page 35. .....................................................84.2. The predicate: objects, complements and adjuncts. Concept and main types. Book page. 34-35.....................84.3. What elements determine the number and type of objects and complements in a clause? Book page 37. ......84.4. What is a locative/goal? Book page 37..............................................................................................................84.5. What are the four criteria for the classification of clause functions? Book page 37-38....................................84.6. What is the correspondence between classes of unit and syntactic function? Book page 40. ........................ ..8

MODULE 5: SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR.................................................................................................... ........105.1. What are the key syntactic, semantic and cognitive features of the subject? What are the main participantroles that can be associated to it? Book page. 42-43. ............................................................................................105.2. List all the syntactic features of the subject. Book page. 43............................................................................105.3. Which classes of groups and clauses can realize a subject? Book page 44-47. ........................... ......... ......105.4. What is a predicator? Book page 48-49...........................................................................................................105.5. What types of verbs can realise this function? Book page 48-49....................................................................105.6. What types of processes are encoded by the predicator? Book page 48-49....................................................10

MODULE 6: DIRECT, INDIRECT, AND PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT.....................................................................116.1. Key syntactic and semantic features of the direct object. Book page 50.........................................................116.2. Key syntactic and semantic features of the indirect object. Book page 55.....................................................116.3. What difference is there between an indirect object and a prepositional object? Book page 56.....................11

6.4. Three main types of prepositional verbs. Book page 57..................................................................................116.5. When is a preposition stranded? What happens in passive structures? Book page 57 ................................. ..11

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6.6. What is the difference between phrasal and prepositional verbs? Book page 61. .........................................116.7. What are phrasal-prepositional verbs? Book page 62.....................................................................................11

MODULE 7: SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLEMENTS................................................................................... .....137.1. What are the key differences between Subject Complement and Object Complement? Book page. 64-68.. .137.2. What groups and classes prototypically realise each constituent? Book page. 64-68.....................................13

MODULE 8: ADJUNCTS.................................................................................................................................. ........ .138.1. What is an adjunct? Book page. 69..................................................................................................................138.2. What three main types are according to their function? What are the main differences between them? Book

page. 70...................................................................................................................................................................138.3. When does a circumstantial function as a central clause element? Book page 71..........................................138.4. What is a discourse marker? Book page 75.....................................................................................................13

UNIT 3: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MESSAGE.............................................................................................14

MODULE 9: INTRANSITIVE AND COPULAR PATTERNS. .......................................................................... ........ .149.1. What does the term complementation of the verb refer to? Which elements are determined by the verb?Book page. 83. .......................................................................................................................................................149.2. Name the three types of complementation and any subtypes there are. Book page 83. .............................. ...14

9.3. What is semantic valency? Book page 83. .....................................................................................................149.4. What are the different types of intransitive verbs? Book page. 85..................................................................149.5. What is a locative complement? Book page 86...............................................................................................149.6. What does the locution pragmatic inference of circumstantial meaning refer to? Book page 86................149.7. What is the difference between a complement and an adjunct? Book page 87...............................................159.8. What is a copular verb? Types of copulas? Book page 88..............................................................................15

MODULE 10: TRANSITIVE PATTERNS. .................................................................................................. ........ .......16 10.1. Difference between a monotransitive a ditransitive and a complex transitive pattern. Are there transitiveand intransitive verbs? Book page 90-91................................................................................................................1610.2. What is a three-place verb? What types are there? Book page 92.................................................................1610.3. What difference is there between a Direct Object and a Prepositional Object? Book page 95.....................1610.4. What is the cognitive notion of frame? What relation is there with the notion of perspective andattention? Book page 96......................................................................................................................................1610.5. What difference is there between current and resulting attributes? Book page 97........................................16

MODULE 11: COMPLEMENTATION BY FINITE CLAUSES................................................................................. .17 11.1. What element determines clausal complements? Book page 100. ...............................................................1711.2. What types of finite clauses are there? What are the main differences between them? Book page 100.......1711.3. When is the complementary that omitted? Book page 103........................................................................1711.4. What is recursive embedding? Book page 105..............................................................................................1711.5. What is a nominal relative clause? Book page 106. .....................................................................................17

MODULE 12: COMPLEMENTATION BY NON-FINITE CLAUSES. .......................................................... ........ ....17 12.1. What are catenative verbs? Book page 108...................................................................................................1712.2. What meanings are expressed by the different types of non-finite clauses? Book page 109...................... ..1712.3. What is a verb of retrospection? What type of clause does it control? Book page 112................................1712.4. Name five major verb complementation patterns with examples. ................................................................17

UNIT 4: CONCEPTUALISING PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE...........................................................................19

MODULE 13. CONCEPTUALISING EXPERIENCES EXPRESSED AS SITUATION TYPES. .......................... .....1913.1. Why is the clause the most significant grammatical unit? Book page 123. .................................................1913.2. What is a process and how many types can be distinguished? Book page 123-125.....................................1913.3. Major types of processes: dynamic and stative / material, mental and relational. (See above)....................1913.4. What types of roles are involved in a situation? Book page 124...................................................................1913.5. Actualised vs. unactualised participants. Book page 126..............................................................................19

MODULE 14: MATERIAL PROCESSES OF DOING AND HAPPENING....................................................... ........1914.1. The roles of agent, affected, involuntary and involuntary processes: which syntactic functions do theyconflate with? Book page 128. ..............................................................................................................................19

MODULE 15: CAUSATIVE PROCESSES..................................................................................................................2015.1. What is an ergative pair? What conditions must it fulfill? Book page 134...................................................20

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15.2. What is an analytical causative with a resulting attribute? What syntactic realization does it have? Book page 134..................................................................................................................................................................2015.3. What does a pseudo-intransitive express? Book page 135......................................................................... ...20

MODULE 16. PROCESSES OF TRANSFER............................................................................................... ......... .....2016.1. Which are the participants in a process of transfer? Book page 137. ...........................................................2016.2. What is the difference between a Recipient and a Beneficiary? Book page 138..........................................2016.3. Summary of process types. Book page 138...................................................................................................20

MODULE 17. CONCEPTUALISING WHAT WE THINK, PERCEIVE AND FEEL..................................................2117.1. What participants are there in a mental process of perception, cognition, affection and desideration? Book

page 139..................................................................................................................................................................2117.2. Four major types of mental processes. Book page 139.................................................................................21

MODULE 18. RELATIONAL PROCESSES OF BEING AND BECOMING. ............................................................2118.1. What is a relational process and what patterns of being are there? Book page 145......................................2118.2. Key features of the attributive pattern and the identifying pattern. Book page 145..................................... .2118.3. What difference is there between a current attribute and a resulting attribute? And between a circumstantialrelational process and a possessive relational one? Book page 145.......................................................................21

MODULE 19. PROCESSES OF SAYING, BEHAVING AND EXISTING................................................................. .21

19.1. What are verbal, behavioural and existential processes and their main structures? Book page 151.............2219.2. What difference is there between a saying and a communicating verbal process? Book page 152..............22

MODULE 20. EXPRESSING ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES. ............................................................................2220.1. Major types of circumstantial elements. Book page 155...............................................................................2220.2. What is contingency? Book page 156...........................................................................................................2220.3. What difference is there between circumstance and range? Book page 158.................................................22

UNIT 5: INTERACTION BETWEEN SPEAKER AND HEARER: LINKING SPEECH ACTS ANDGRAMMAR....................................................................................................................................................................23

MODULE 22 SPEECH ACTS AND CLAUSE TYPES .............................................................................................2322.1. What is a speech act? Types of speech acts. Book page 177.........................................................................2322.2. Basic correspondences between clause types and speech acts. Book page 177...................................... ......2322.3. What difference is there between direct speech acts and indirect speech acts? Book page 177...................2322.4. What is illocutionary force? Book page 178.................................................................................................23

MODULE 23 THE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES ..............................................................2323.1. What is the order of the subject and the finite in the five basic clause types? Book page 181.....................2323.2. Differences between abbreviated clauses, question tags and echo questions. Book page 180......................2323.3. What is an alternative interrogative? Book page 185....................................................................................2323.4. What is a double interrogative? Book page 186............................................................................................2323.5. What are the functions of question tags? Book page 187..............................................................................24

MODULE 24 THE EXCLAMATIVE AND IMPERATIVE CLAUSE TYPES...................................................... .....2424.1. Structure of an exclamative clause. Book page 190......................................................................................2424.2. What is the relation between imperatives and vocatives? Book page 191-192.............................................2424.3. Structural features of the imperative, with attention to its verb. Book page 191-194...................................2424.4. Emphatic imperatives. Book page 194..........................................................................................................2424.5. The relation between verbless clauses and freestanding subordinate clauses. Book page 195.............. .......2424.6. What is the subjunctive? Is there subjunctive in English? Book page 196...................................................24

MODULE 25 INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS, CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS............................2425.1. The difference between clause types and speech act functions. Book page 197...........................................2425.2. The transferred negation of explicit performatives. Book page 199.............................................................2425.3. Different ways to form an exclamation. Book page 200...............................................................................25

MODULE 26 QUESTIONS, CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS....................................... ......... ..2526.1. The use of assertive/non assertive elements in biased questions. Book page 202-203 ..............................2526.2. What are queclaratives? Book page 203........................................................................................................25

MODULE 27 DIRECTIVES: GETTING PEOPLE TO CARRY OUT ACTIONS..................................... ........ .......2527.1. What ways are there to produce directives? Book page 205-212.................................................................2527.2. How does a speaker convey politeness to a directive? Book page 207.........................................................25

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27.3. The relation between indirectness, impoliteness and confrontation. Book page 209....................................25

UNIT 6: ORGANISING THE MESSAGE. THEMATIC AND INFORMATION STRUCTURES OF THECLAUSE..........................................................................................................................................................................27

MODULE 28: THEME. THE POINT OF DEPARTURE OF THE MESSAGE..........................................................27 28.1. What are the three main dimensions of textual meaning? Book page 222....................................................2728.2. What is the thematic structure of a clause? What are theme and Rheme? Book page 223...........................2728.3. What is marked/unmarked theme? Where are they in declarative and non-declarative clauses? Book page224-225...................................................................................................................................................................2728.4. What is topic (and both global topic and local topic)? Book page 225.........................................................2728.5. Give examples of common and less common Thematisations in declarative clauses. Book page 230.........27

MODULE 29: THE DISTRIBUTION AND FOCUS OF INFORMATION.................................................................2829.1. What is an information unit, how are they realised and represented in speech? Book page 238..................2829.2. What is focus of information? Book page 239..............................................................................................2829.3. Given and new information, what do they convey? Book page 240.............................................................2829.4. The difference between marked (end-) focus vs. unmarked (end-) focus. Book page 241........................ ...2829.5. What difference is there between textual and situational ellipsis? When do they occur? Book page 243... .28

MODULE 30: THE INTERPLAY OF THEME-RHEME AND GIVEN-NEW.............................................................2930.1. What is the interplay between the Theme-Rheme thematic structure and the Given-New informationstructure? The three basic types of thematic progression. Book page 246.............................................................2930.2. What does Thematisation and clefting consist of? What is the difference between them? Book page 246..2930.3. End-focus, end-weight and informativeness, and the connection between them. Book page 254............ ....2930.4. Extraposition and postponement of clauses. What do they involve and convey? Book page 260................29

INDEX.............................................................................................................................................................................30

summary - grammar basic points units 1-6

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