sun cream
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For suntan lotion that intensifies sun exposure, see Indoor tanning lotion. For the electronic music group,
see Sunblock (band). For the song, see Wear Sunscreen.
Sunscreen (also commonly known as sunblock, sun tan lotion, sun screen, sun cream or block out) [1] is
a lotion, spray, gel or other topical product that absorbs or reflects some of the sun'sultraviolet (UV)
radiation on the skin exposed to sunlight and thus helps protect against sunburn. Skin-lightening
products have sunscreen to protect lightened skin because light skin is more susceptible to sun damage
than darker skin. A number of sunscreens have tanning powder to help the skin to darken or tan, however
tanning powder does not provide protection from UV rays.
Sunscreens contain one or more of the following ingredients:
Organic chemical compounds that absorb ultraviolet light.
Inorganic particulates that reflect, scatter, and absorb UV light (such as titanium dioxide, zinc oxide,
or a combination of both).
Organic particulates that mostly absorb light like organic chemical compounds, but contain
multiple chromophores, may reflect and scatter a fraction of light like inorganic particulates, and
behave differently in formulations than organic chemical compounds. An example is Tinosorb M.
Since the UV-attenuating efficacy depends strongly on particle size, the material is micronised to
particle sizes below 200 nm. The mode of action of this photostable filter system is governed to about
90% by absorption and 10% by scattering of UV light.
Depending on the mode of action sunscreens can be classified into physical sunscreens (i.e., those that
reflect the sunlight) or chemical sunscreens (i.e., those that absorb the UV light).[2]
Medical organizations such as the American Cancer Society recommend the use of sunscreen because it
prevents the squamous cell carcinoma and the basal cell carcinoma.[3] However, the use of sunscreens is
controversial for various reasons. Many sunscreens do not block UVA radiation, which does not cause
sunburn but can increase the rate of melanoma, another kind of skin cancer, andphotodermatitis, so
people using sunscreens may be exposed to high UVA levels without realizing it.[citation needed] The use of
broad-spectrum (UVA/UVB) sunscreens can address this concern.
The first effective sunscreen may have been developed by chemist Franz Greiter in 1938. The product,
called Gletscher Crème (Glacier Cream), subsequently became the basis for the company Piz
Buin (named in honor of the place Greiter allegedly obtained the sunburn that inspired his concoction),
which is still today a marketer of sunscreen products.[4] It has been estimated that Gletscher Crème had a
sun protection factor of 2.
The first widely used sunscreen was produced by Benjamin Green, an airman and later a pharmacist, in
1944. The product, Red Vet Pet (for red veterinary petrolatum), had limited effectiveness, working as a
physical blocker of ultraviolet radiation. It was a disagreeable red, sticky substance similar to petroleum
jelly. This product was developed during the height of World War II, when it was likely that the hazards of
sun overexposure were becoming apparent to soldiers in the Pacific and to their families at home. Sales
of this product boomed when Coppertone acquired the patent and marketed the substance under
the Coppertone girl and Bain de Soleil branding in the early 1950s.
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Franz Greiter is credited with introducing the concept of sun protection factor (SPF) in 1962, which has
become a worldwide standard for measuring the effectiveness of sunscreen when applied at an even rate
of 2 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm2). Some controversy exists over the usefulness of SPF
measurements, especially whether the 2 mg/cm2 application rate is an accurate reflection of people’s
actual use.
Newer sunscreens have been developed with the ability to better withstand contact
with water, heat and sweat.
[edit]Measurements of sunscreen protection
Sunscreen helps prevent sunburn, such as this, which has blistered
[edit]Sun protection factor (SPF) and labeling requirements
Two photographs showing the effect of applying sunscreen in visible light and in UVA. The photograph on the right was
taken using ultraviolet photography shortly after application of sunscreen to half of the face.
The sun protection factor of a sunscreen is a laboratory measure of the effectiveness of sunscreen — the
higher the SPF, the more protection a sunscreen offers against UV-B (the ultraviolet radiation that
causes sunburn).[2]
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The SPF is the amount of UV radiation required to cause sunburn on skin with the sunscreen on, as a
multiple of the amount required without the sunscreen.[5] There is a popular oversimplification of how SPF
determines how long one can stay in the sun. For example, many users believe that, if they normally get
sunburn in one hour, then an SPF 15 sunscreen allows them to stay in the sun fifteen hours (i.e. fifteen
times longer) without getting sunburn. This would be true if the intensity of UV radiation were the same for
the whole fifteen hours as in the one hour, but this is not normally the case. Intensity of solar radiation
varies considerably with time of day. During early morning and late afternoon, the sun's radiation intensity
is diminished since it must pass through more of the Earth's atmosphere while it is near the horizon.
In practice, the protection from a particular sunscreen depends, besides on SPF, on factors such as:
The skin type of the user.
The amount applied and frequency of re-application.
Activities in which one engages (for example, swimming leads to a loss of sunscreen from the skin).
Amount of sunscreen the skin has absorbed.
The SPF is an imperfect measure of skin damage because invisible damage and skin aging are also
caused by ultraviolet type A (UVA, wavelength 320 to 400 nm), which does not cause reddening or pain.
Conventional sunscreen blocks very little UVA radiation relative to the nominal SPF; broad-spectrum
sunscreens are designed to protect against both UVB and UVA.[6][7][8] According to a 2004 study, UVA also
causes DNA damage to cells deep within the skin, increasing the risk of malignant melanomas.[9] Even
some products labeled "broad-spectrum UVA/UVB protection" do not provide good protection against
UVA rays.[10] The best UVA protection is provided by products that contain zinc oxide, avobenzone,
and ecamsule. Titanium dioxide probably gives good protection, but does not completely cover the entire
UV-A spectrum, as recent research suggests that zinc oxide is superior to titanium dioxide at wavelengths
between 340 and 380 nm.[11]
Owing to consumer confusion over the real degree and duration of protection offered, labeling restrictions
are in force in several countries. In theEU sunscreen labels can only go up to SPF 50+ (actually indicating
a SPF of 60 or higher)[12] while Australia's upper limit is 30+.[13] In the 2007 and 2011 draft rules, the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed a maximum SPF label of 50, to limit unrealistic claims.[14][15]
Others have proposed restricting the active ingredients to an SPF of no more than 50, due to lack of
evidence that higher dosages provide more meaningful protection (especially due to the logarithmic
nature of the scale).[16]
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UV-B sunlight spectrum (on a summer day in the Netherlands), along with the CIE Erythemal action spectrum. The effective
spectrum is the product of the former two.
The SPF can be measured by applying sunscreen to the skin of a volunteer and measuring how long it
takes before sunburn occurs when exposed to an artificial sunlight source. In the US, such an in vivo test
is required by the FDA. It can also be measured in vitro with the help of a specially
designed spectrometer. In this case, the actual transmittance of the sunscreen is measured, along with
the degradation of the product due to being exposed to sunlight. In this case, the transmittance of the
sunscreen must be measured over all wavelengths in the UV-B range (290–320 nm), along with a table of
how effective various wavelengths are in causing sunburn (the erythemal action spectrum) and the actual
intensity spectrum of sunlight (see the figure). Such in vitro measurements agree very well with in
vivo measurements.[17] Numerous methods have been devised for evaluation of UVA and UVB protection.
The most reliable spectrophotochemical methods eliminate the subjective nature of grading erythema.[18]
Mathematically, the SPF is calculated from measured data as
where is the solar irradiance spectrum, the erythemal action spectrum,
and the monochromatic protection factor, all functions of the wavelength . The MPF is
roughly the inverse of the transmittance at a given wavelength.
The above means that the SPF is not simply the inverse of the transmittance in the UV-B region. If
that were true, then applying two layers of SPF 5 sunscreen would be equivalent to SPF 25 (5 times
5). The actual combined SPF is always lower than the square of the single-layer SPF.
[edit]Measurements of UVA protection
[edit]Persistent pigment darkening (PPD)
The persistent pigment darkening (PPD) method is a method of measuring UVA protection, similar to
the SPF method of measuring UVB light protection. Originally developed in Japan, it is the preferred
method used by manufacturers such as L'Oréal.
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Instead of measuring erythema or reddening of the skin, the PPD method uses UVA radiation to
cause a persistent darkening or tanning of the skin. Theoretically, a sunscreen with a PPD rating of
10 should allow a person 10 times as much UVA exposure as would be without protection. The PPD
method is an in vivo test like SPF. In addition, Colipa has introduced a method that, it is claimed, can
measure this in vitro and provide parity with the PPD method.[19]
[edit]SPF equivalence
The UVA seal used in the EU
As part of revised guidelines for sunscreens in the EU, there is a requirement to provide the
consumer with a minimum level of UVA protection in relation to the SPF. This should be a UVA PF of
at least 1/3 of the SPF to carry the UVA seal. The implementation of this seal is in its phase-in period,[when?] so a sunscreen without it may already offer this protection.[20]
A set of final U.S. FDA rules going into effect for summer 2012 defines the phrase "broad spectrum"
as having a UVA SPF at least as high as the UVB SPF.[15]
[edit]Star rating system
In the UK and Ireland, the Boots star rating system is a proprietary in vitro method used to describe
the ratio of UVA to UVB protection offered by sunscreen creams and sprays. Based on original work
by Prof. Brian Diffey at Newcastle University, the Boots Company in Nottingham, UK, developed a
standard method that has been adopted by most companies marketing these products in the UK.
The logo and methodology of the test are licenced for a token fee to any manufacturer or brand of
sunscreens that are sold in the Boots retail chain, provided the products to which the logo is applied
perform to the standard claimed. Own Label products exclusively sold in other retailers are now
excluded from the terms of the licence. It should not be confused with SPF, which is measured with
reference to burning and UVB. One-star products provide the least ratio of UVA protection; five-star
products are best. The method has recently been revised in the light of the Colipa UVA PF test, and
with the new EU recommendations regarding UVA PF. The method still uses aspectrophotometer to
measure absorption of UVA vs UVB; the difference stems from a requirement to pre-irradiate
samples (where this was not previously required) to give a better indication of UVA protection, and of
photostability when the product is used. With the current methodology, the lowest rating is three
stars, the highest being five stars. In August 2007, the FDA put out for consultation the proposal that
a version of this protocol be used to inform users of American product of the protection that it gives
against UVA, [21] but after concern this would be too confusing this was not adopted.[16]
[edit]PA system
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Asian brands, particularly Japanese ones, tend to use the PA system as a measure of UVA
protection. There are four levels of protection: PA. PA+, PA++ and PA+++. It is recommended that
one uses a sunblock with at least PA++ protection.
[edit]Sunblock is a type of sunscreen
A tube of SPF 15 sun block lotion
Sunblock typically refers to opaque sunscreen that is effective at blocking both UVA and UVB rays
and uses a heavy carrier oil to resist being washed off. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are two of the
important ingredients in sunblock. Unlike the organic sun-blocking agents used in many sunscreens,
these metal oxides do not degrade with exposure to sunlight.
The use of the word "sunblock" in the marketing of sunscreens is controversial. The FDA has
considered banning such use because it can lead consumers to overestimate the effectiveness of
products so labeled.[22]
For total protection against damage from the sun, the skin needs to be protected from UVA, UVB and
IRA (infrared light). Roughly 35% of solar energy is IRA.[23]
[edit]Potential health risks
Main article: Sunscreen controversy
This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. Discussion of this
nomination can be found on the talk page. (January 2012)
This article needs attention from an expert on the subject. See the talk page for
details. WikiProject Medicine or the Medicine Portal may be able to help recruit an
expert. (February 2012)
As a defense against UV radiation, the amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin increases
when exposed to moderate (depending on skin type) levels of radiation; this is commonly known as
a sun tan. The purpose of melanin is to absorb UV radiation and dissipate the energy as harmless
heat, blocking the UV from damaging skin tissue. UVA gives a quick tan that lasts for days by
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oxidizing melanin that was already present and triggers the release of the melanin from melanocytes.
UVB on the other hand yields a tan that takes roughly two days to develop because it stimulates the
body to produce more melanin. The photochemical properties of melanin make it an
excellent photoprotectant.
Sunscreen chemicals on the other hand cannot dissipate the energy of the excited state as efficiently
as melanin and therefore the penetration of sunscreen ingredients into the lower layers of the skin
increases the amount of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS).[24]
Some sunscreen lotions now include compounds such as titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, inert fillers
which helps protect against UV rays via light scattering and physically blocking the light pathway into
the dermal layers. Other UVA blocking compounds found in sunscreen include Avobenzone. There
are also naturally occurring compounds found in rainforest plants that have been known to protect the
skin from UV radiation damage, such as the fern Phlebodium aureum .
Some sunscreen chemicals produce potentially harmful substances if they are illuminated while in
contact with living cells.[25][26][27] The amount of sunscreen that penetrates through the stratum
corneum may or may not be large enough to cause damage. In one study of sunscreens, the authors
write:
The question whether UV filters acts on or in the skin has so far not been fully answered.
Despite the fact that an answer would be a key to improve formulations of sun protection
products, many publications carefully avoid addressing this question.[28]
In an experiment by Hanson et al. that was published in 2006, the amount of harmful reactive oxygen
species was measured in untreated and in sunscreen-treated skin. In the first 20 minutes the film of
sunscreen had a protective effect and the number of ROS species was smaller. After 60 minutes,
however, the amount of absorbed sunscreen was so high that the amount of ROS was higher in the
sunscreen-treated skin than in the untreated skin.[24]
George Zachariadis and E Sahanidou of the Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, at Aristotle
University, in Thessaloniki, Greece, have now carried out an ICP-AES analysis of several
commercially available sunscreen creams and lotions. "The objective was the simultaneous
determination of titanium and several minor, trace or toxic elements (aluminum, zinc, magnesium,
iron, manganese, copper, chromium, lead, and bismuth) in the final products," the researchers say.
They concluded that "Most of the commercial preparations that were studied showed generally good
agreement to the ingredients listed on the product label." However, they also point out that the
quantitative composition of the products tested cannot be assessed because the product labels
usually do not provide a detailed break down of all ingredients and their concentrations. They also
point out that, worryingly, their tests consistently revealed the presence of elements not cited in the
product formulation, which emphasized the need for a standardized and official testing method for
multi-element quality control of these products.[29]
Some epidemiological studies indicate an increased risk of malignant melanoma for the sunscreen
user.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37] Despite these studies, no medical association has published
recommendations to not use sunblock. Different meta-analysis publications have concluded that the
evidence is not yet sufficient to claim a positive correlation between sunscreen use and malignant
melanoma.[38][39]
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Adverse health effects may be associated with some synthetic compounds in sunscreens.[40] In 2007
two studies by the CDC highlighted concerns about the sunscreen chemical oxybenzone
(benzophenone-3). They first detected the chemicals in greater than 95% of 2000 Americans tested,
while the second found that mothers with high levels of oxybenzone in their bodies were more likely
to give birth to underweight baby girls.[41]
Concerns have been raised regarding the use of nanoparticles in sunscreen.[42] Theoretically,
sunscreen nanoparticles could increase rates of certain cancers, or diseases similar to those caused
by asbestos.[43] In 2006 the Therapeutic Goods Administration of Australia concluded a study and
found:
"There is evidence from isolated cell experiments that zinc oxide and titanium dioxide can induce free
radical formation in the presence of light and that this may damage these cells (photo-mutagenicity
with zinc oxide). However, this would only be of concern in people using sunscreens if the zinc oxide
and titanium dioxide penetrated into viable skin cells. The weight of current evidence is that they
remain on the surface of the skin and in the outer dead layer (stratum corneum) of the skin." [42]
[edit]Vitamin D
Artificial sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light and prevents it from reaching the skin. It has been
reported that sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum can
decrease vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95 percent, whereas sunscreen with an SPF of 15 can
reduce synthetic capacity by 98 percent (Matsuoka et al., 1987).[44] Natural sunscreen has been
proved to improve pigmentation from sun tanning.
This was leading to deficiency in Australia after a government campaign to increase sunscreen use.[45] Doctors recommend spending small amounts of time in the sun without sun protection to ensure
adequate production of vitamin D.[46] When the UV index is greater than 3 (which occurs daily within
the tropics and daily during the spring and summer seasons in temperate regions) adequate amounts
of vitamin D3 can be made in the skin after only ten to fifteen minutes of sun exposure at least two
times per week to the face, arms, hands, or back without sunscreen. With longer exposure to UVB
rays, an equilibrium is achieved in the skin, and the vitamin simply degrades as fast as it is
generated.[47]
[edit]Active ingredients
The principal ingredients in sunscreens are
usually aromatic molecules conjugated with carbonyl groups. This general structure allows the
molecule to absorb high-energy ultraviolet rays and release the energy as lower-energy rays, thereby
preventing the skin-damaging ultraviolet rays from reaching the skin. So, upon exposure to UV light,
most of the ingredients (with the notable exception ofavobenzone) do not undergo significant
chemical change, allowing these ingredients to retain the UV-absorbing potency without
significant photodegradation.[48] A chemical stabilizer is included in some sunscreens containing
avobenzone to slow its breakdown - examples include formulations containing Helioplex [49] and
AvoTriplex.[50] The stability of avobenzone can also be improved bybemotrizinol,[51] octocrylene [52] and
various other photostabilisers.
[edit]FDA allowable ingredients
The following are the FDA allowable active ingredients in sunscreens:
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UV-filter Other namesMaximum
concentration
Permitted in
these
countries
Results of safety
testing
p-Aminobenzoic acid PABA
15% (EC-
banned from
sale to
consumers
from 8 October
2009)
USA, AUS
Protects against
skin tumors in mice.[53][54][55]Shown to
increase DNA
defects, however,
and is now less
commonly used.
Padimate OOD-PABA, octyldimethyl-
PABA, σ-PABA
8%
(EC,USA,AUS)
10% (JP)
(Not currently
supported in
EU and may
be delisted)
EC, USA,
AUS, JPNot tested
Phenylbenzimidazole
sulfonic acid
Ensulizole, Eusolex 232,
PBSA, Parsol HS
4% (US,AUS)
8% (EC) 3%
(JP)
EC,USA,
AUS, JP
Genotoxic in
bacteria[56]
Cinoxate2-Ethoxyethyl p-
methoxycinnamate
3% (US) 6%
(AUS)USA, AUS Not tested
Dioxybenzone Benzophenone-8 3% USA, AUS Not tested
Oxybenzone
Benzophenone-3,
Eusolex 4360, Escalol
567
6% (US) 10%
(AUS,EU) 5%
(JP)
EC, USA,
AUS, JPNot tested
HomosalateHomomethyl salicylate,
HMS
10% (EC, JP)
15% (US,AUS)
EC, USA,
AUS, JPNot tested
Menthyl anthranilate Meradimate 5% USA, AUS Not tested
Octocrylene
Eusolex OCR, 2-cyano-
3,3diphenyl acrylic acid,
2-ethylhexylester
10%EC,USA,
AUS, JPIncreases ROS[24]
Octyl
methoxycinnamate
Octinoxate, EMC, OMC,
Ethylmethoxycinnamate,
7.5% (US)
10%
EC,USA,
AUS, JP
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Escalol 557, 2-
ethylhexyl-
paramethoxycinnamate,
Parsol MCX
(EC,AUS)20%
(JP)
Octyl salicylateOctisalate, 2-Ethylhexyl
salicylate, Escalol 587,
5%
(EC,USA,AUS)
10% (JP)
EC,USA,
AUS, JPNot tested
Sulisobenzone
2-Hydroxy-4-
Methoxybenzophenone-
5-sulfonic acid,
3-benzoyl-4-hydroxy-6-
methoxybenzenesulfonic
acid, Benzophenone-4,
Escalol 577
5% (EC) 10%
(US, AUS, JP)
EC,USA,
AUS, JP
Trolamine salicylateTriethanolamine
salicylate12% USA, AUS Not tested
Avobenzone
1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-3-
(4-tert-butyl
phenyl)propane-1,3-
dione, Butyl methoxy
dibenzoylmethane,
BMDBM, Parsol 1789,
Eusolex 9020
3% (US) 5%
(EC,AUS)10%
(JP)
EC, USA,
AUS, JPNot available[57]
Ecamsule
Mexoryl SX,
Terephthalylidene
Dicamphor Sulfonic Acid
10%
EC,AUS
(US:Approved
in certain
formulations
up to 3% via
New Drug
Application
(NDA) Route)
Protects against
skin tumors in
mice[58][59][60]
Titanium dioxide CI7789125% (No limit
Japan)
EC,USA,
AUS, JPNot tested
Zinc oxide 25% (US) 20%
(AUS)
(EC-25%
provided
particle size
>100 nm)
EC,USA,
AUS, JP
Protects against
skin tumors in
mice[58]
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(Japan, No
Limit)
Other ingredients approved within the EU[61] and other parts of the world,[62] that have not been
included in the current FDA Monograph:
UV-filter Other namesMaximum
concentration
Permitted
in
4-Methylbenzylidene
camphor
Enzacamene, Parsol 5000, Eusolex 6300,
MBC4%* EC, AUS
Tinosorb MBisoctrizole, Methylene Bis-Benzotriazolyl
Tetramethylbutylphenol, MBBT10%* EC, AUS,
JP
Tinosorb SBis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenol
triazine, Bemotrizinol, BEMT, anisotriazine
10% (EC, AUS)
3% (JP)*
EC, AUS,
JP
Neo Heliopan AP
Bisdisulizole Disodium, Disodium phenyl
dibenzimidazole tetrasulfonate,
bisimidazylate, DPDT
10% EC, AUS
Mexoryl XL Drometrizole Trisiloxane 15% EC, AUS
Benzophenone-9
Uvinul DS 49, CAS 3121-60-6, Sodium
Dihydroxy Dimethoxy
Disulfobenzophenone [63]
10% JP
Uvinul T 150 Octyl triazone, ethylhexyl triazone, EHT5% (EC, AUS)
3% (JP)* EC, AUS
Uvinul A PlusDiethylamino Hydroxybenzoyl Hexyl
Benzoate10% (EC,JP) EC , JP
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Uvasorb HEBIscotrizinol, Diethylhexyl butamido triazone,
DBT
10% (EC) 5%
(JP) * EC, JP
Parsol SLXDimethico-diethylbenzalmalonate,
Polysilicone-1510%
EC, AUS,
JP
Isopentenyl-4-
methoxycinnamate
Isoamyl p-Methoxycinnamate, IMC, Neo
Heliopan E1000, Amiloxate10% * EC, AUS
Many of the ingredients not approved by the FDA are relatively new and developed to absorb UVA.[64]
* Time and Extent Application (TEA), Proposed Rule on FDA approval expected 2009
[edit]Application
This section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia
is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to
content or by moving it to Wikiversity or Wikibooks. (October 2009)
Protection of the skin through use of a beach umbrella
Excessive exposure to direct sunlight is potentially harmful. Excessive exposure can result
in sunburn if a person does not wear sun protective clothing or use suitable sunscreen. Products with
a higher SPF (Sun Protection Factor) level provide greater protection against ultraviolet radiation.
However, in 1998, the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science reported that some sunscreens advertising UVA and UVB protection do not provide
adequate safety from UVA radiation and could give sun tanners a false sense of protection. A
sunscreen should also be hypoallergenic and noncomedogenic so it does not cause a rash or clog
the pores, which can cause acne.
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For those choosing to tan, some dermatologists recommend the following preventative measures:
Sunscreens should block both UVA and UVB rays. These are called broad-spectrum sunscreens,
which should also be hypoallergenic and noncomedogenic so they do not cause a rash or clog
the pores, which can cause acne.
Sunscreens need to be applied thickly enough to get the full SPF protection.
Sunscreens should be applied 15 to 30 minutes before exposure, followed by one reapplication
15 to 30 minutes after the sun exposure begins. Further reapplication is necessary only after
activities such as swimming, sweating, and rubbing.[65]
Sun rays are strongest between 10 am and 4 pm.[66] Sun rays are stronger at
higher elevations (mountains) and latitudes near the equator.
Wearing a hat with a brim and anti-UV sunglasses can provide almost 100% protection against
ultraviolet radiation's entering the eyes.
Reflective surfaces like snow and water can greatly increase the amount of UV radiation to which
the skin is exposed.
Recent evidence indicates that caffeine and caffeine sodium benzoate increase UVB-
induced apoptosis both in topical and oral applications. In mice, UVB-inducedhyperplasia was greatly
reduced with administration of these substances. Although studies in humans remain untested,
caffeine and caffeine sodium benzoate may be novel inhibitors of skin cancer.[67]
[edit]Dosage
The dose used in FDA sunscreen testing is 2.2 mg/cm² of exposed skin.[48] Provided one assumes an
"average" adult build of height 5 ft 4 in (163 cm) and weight 150 lb (68 kg) with a 32 in (82 cm) waist,
that adult wearing a bathing suit covering the groin area should apply 29 g (approximately 1 oz)
evenly to the uncovered body area. Considering only the face, this translates to about 1/4 to 1/3 of a
teaspoon for the average adult face. Larger individuals should scale these quantities accordingly.
Contrary to the common advice that sunscreen should be reapplied every 2–3 hours, some research
has shown that the best protection is achieved by application 15–30 minutes before exposure,
followed by one reapplication 15–30 minutes after the sun exposure begins. Further reapplication is
only necessary after activities such as swimming, sweating, or rubbing/wiping.[68]
More recent research at the University of California, Riverside, indicates that sunscreen must be
reapplied within 2 hours in order to remain effective. Not reapplying could even cause more cell
damage than not using sunscreen at all, due to the release of extra free radicals from those
sunscreen chemicals that were absorbed into the skin.[24] Some studies have shown that people
commonly apply only 1/2 to 1/4 of the amount recommended to achieve the rated sun protection
factor (SPF), and in consequence the effective SPF should be downgraded to a square or 4th root of
the advertised value.[69]A later study found a significant exponential relation between SPF and the
amount of sunscreen applied and the results are closer to the linearity than expected by theory. [70]
[edit]Label regulations
Updated package labeling standards in the United States have been under development since 1978.
A set of final FDA rules going into effect for summer 2012 bans "waterproof" claims instead requiring
claims of 40 or 80 minutes "water-resistant" protection. It also required a standardized "Drug Facts"
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label and requires specific FDA approval for "sunblock" and "instant protection" labels. Claims of
protection over 2 hours are not allowed without specific approval.[