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__________________________________________________________

Supervising Undergraduate Projects __________________________________________________________

Professional Development Unit Educational Technology Centre

Workshop Series No. 2 Mavis Kelly July 1990

Introduction The Project, which is usually undertaken in the final year(s) of undergraduate study, is an important learning activity. It has several educational functions regardless of the kind of work that students will enter into after graduation. 1. It provides students with an opportunity to integrate their coursework knowledge with

professional applications. 2. It provides preliminary research training for those students who intend to pursue higher

degrees. This involves not only the implementation of research methods but the ability to learn to manage a research Project in an independent manner.

3. If the student does not intend to pursue a research career, the skills acquired in Project

work will be valuable in all kinds of independent investigation and report writing in the workplace.

The success of Project work depends very much on the quality of supervision that students receive, as well as on the hard work and initiative of the students themselves. Both students and supervisors can benefit from assistance in carrying out tasks associated with Project work since it departs somewhat from the usual pattern of undergraduate teaching. It is the aim of this booklet to provide assistance to Project supervisors who may be approaching the task for the first time or who wish to enhance their supervisory skills. The advice given is of a practical kind, and, of course, not all of it will be new to all supervisors. However, the topics discussed are derived, at least in part, from the expressed concerns of supervisors. Problems which occur frequently in Project work are discussed throughout, together with suggestions for ways in which supervisors can prevent, solve or at least alleviate these problems.

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Two themes are stressed repeatedly: 1. the independent nature of Project work, and 2. the need for an organised approach to management of the Project on the part of both

students and supervisors. Within this framework, it is hoped that both students and supervisors will discover that Project work, though perhaps more demanding than other kinds of teaching and learning, has its rewards in terms of increased confidence as well as the development of skills associated with researching and writing. The important topic of Assessment of Project Work is not included here. Instead it will be treated separately in a subsequent booklet along with methods of assessment appropriate for this and other non-traditional aspects of student work. Types of research Projects

What is research? Most people associate the word research with activities which are substantially removed

from day-to-day life and which are pursued by outstandingly gifted persons with an unusual level of commitment. There is of course a good deal of truth in this viewpoint, but we would argue that the pursuit is not restricted to this type of person and indeed can prove to be a stimulating experience for many people with a trained and enquiring mind.

. . . Thus if it is accepted that lower level work and training are prerequisites for the expansion of

knowledge it would seem that research is an activity which can be undertaken at any time in an individuals life when reasoned thinking is possible.

We define research as:

seeking through methodological processes to add to ones own body of knowledge and, hopefully, to that of others, by the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights.

Sources: Howard, K. and Sharp, J.A. (1983) The Management of a Student Research

Project, Gower Publishing Company Limited, Great Britain, p. 6.

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First degree and diploma Projects are part of a family of research-oriented activities which also includes Masters degrees by coursework and dissertation, Masters degrees by research and Doctoral theses. Requirements of these research activities differ from each other in several ways and may be placed along a continuum ranging from an apprenticeship in research methodology to contributing to new knowledge in a discipline. First degree and diploma Projects At this level, independent inquiry, exercise of judgment, and a reasonable standard of presentation of results are required. The written account of the Project should be well-structured and convincing, but the Project research is not expected to make a significant contribution to new knowledge. The Project may be completed either by review of the literature or by practical investigation, for example by case study, field work or experimental study. Where practical research is undertaken, it will usually be quite limited in scope, given the relatively short time allocated to Project work within the curriculum. Masters degrees by coursework and dissertation In most cases the Project will form a relatively small part of the overall assessment, similar perhaps to the time allocated to final year undergraduate Projects. In writing the dissertation students will be required to demonstrate awareness of the relevant literature and to provide a reasoned exposition of the chosen topic or additional knowledge gained by fairly small-scale research work. Masters degrees by research The contribution to knowledge would be expected to have significance and the written report might well serve as a reference work. Thoroughness of the research and standard of presentation will be important criteria for success. Doctoral theses Both research competence and originality need to be clearly demonstrated and the thesis is usually expected to have potential for publication.

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Howard and Sharp (1983) describe the difference between the various types of Project work as shown in Table 1.

Level

Description

Criteria

First degrees and Masters degrees which require the completion of a Project

Project report

1. A well structured and convincing account of a study, the resolution of a problem or the outcome of an experiment

Masters degree by study and dissertation

Dissertation

1. An ordered, critical and reasoned exposition of knowledge gained through the students efforts 2. Evidence of awareness of the literature

Masters degree by research

Thesis

1. Evidence of an original investigation or the testing of ideas 2. Competence in independent work or experimentation 3. An understanding of appropriate techniques 4. Ability to make critical use of published work and source materials 5. Appreciation of the relationship of the special theme to the wider field of knowledge 6. Worthy, in part, of publication

Doctoral degree

Thesis

1. to 6. as for the Masters degree by research 7. Originality as shown by the topic researched or the methodology employed 8. Distinct contribution to knowledge

Table 1: Criteria to be satisfied by research reports Source: Howard, K. and Sharp, J.A. (1983) The Management of a Student Research Project, Gower Publishing Company Limited, Great Britain, p. 177.

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Level of work required for the undergraduate Project Students may well either underestimate or overestimate the level of work required for their particular type of Project. Hence in discussion of the aims of the Project it is important to point out both what is required and what is not required. For instance with an undergraduate Project independent inquiry, competence in literature review and methods of investigation, and writing a well-structured report are required: a highly original investigation is not. If the student fails to appreciate the level of work required, and particularly as often happens they overestimate the level then they run several risks: 1. A Project may be proposed which cannot possibly be completed in the time available.

The undergraduate Project is limited in scope, and the time available for Project completion is also limited and this in turn influences choice of research topic and decisions about aims of the Project. The supervisor needs to make sure that no student proceeds with the Project work without first presenting and discussing fully a statement of Project topic and aims.

2. Students may be intimidated by their perception of what is expected of them. The Project

becomes less intimidating for the student if the level required is clearly understood and the Project goal is broken down into a series of manageable subgoals. Supervisors can fulfil a valuable role is assisting the student to set subgoals for various aspects of Project work.

On some occasions departments may fail to clarify what is expected of students undertaking undergraduate Projects and unless the goals of Project work and assessment criteria are stated clearly, both students and supervisors will have difficulty in deciding what path to take for particular Projects. Supervisors have a responsibility to request clarification in situations such as this. Your notes:

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The research process The Process of Research Deeper understanding of research will come from consideration of the process by which it is

conducted and of course from embarking upon an actual study. We would argue that despite the wide variety of field, purpose, and approach some common

features of the research process can be identified; and that if a student departs significantly from a general systematic approach the research will be inefficient and quite possibly ineffectual.

. . . Each step should in fact be viewed as being less reversible as progress is made from the

beginning of the project to the end. A research project, however, always involves novelty - at least for the student - and the researcher will frequently find a need to return to an earlier step because later experience has shown how the project can be more closely defined. It will be appreciated that such a return, though it might expedite future work, does not constitute progress. Too frequent reversion to earlier steps is a sure sign that the initial steps of the planning phase have been inadequately carried out.

Source: Howard, K. and Sharp, J.A. (1983) The Management of a Student Research

Project, Gower Publishing Company Limited, Great Britain, pp. 14-5.

A process model In spite of differences implied by research Projects in different disciplines, the processes which constitute successful completion of a Project remain very much the same. These processes reflect a systematic approach to investigation. They are described by Howard and Sharp (1983) and shown in Table 2. 1. Identify a broad area of study

2. Select the research topic 3. Decide the approach 4. Formulate the plan 5. Collect data/information 6. Analyze and interpret data 7. Present the findings

} } } } } } } } } } }

Planning phase Implementation phase Presentation phase

Table 2: A systematic approach to research - a process model

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Source: Howard, K. and Sharp, J.A. (1983) The Management of a Student Research Project, Gower Publishing Company Limited, Great Britain, p. 14. While it may seem obvious that ability to implement the research is a fundamental skill which requires relevant background knowledge of all stages of the research process, it is not always clear that further skills are required in order to complete a Project successfully. For instance, the ability to plan and manage the Project as a whole is very important for successful completion of the Project within the time available. Because research activities are open-ended to an extent, there are numerous opportunities for students to become side-tracked in activities which are irrelevant or peripheral to the aims of the Project. A research plan which is based on the above process will assist students and supervisors to make sure that the student is moving forward and minimise the need to backtrack caused by losing sight of the Project aims. Without a clear of idea of stages in the research process problems may arise. For instance: 1. Students may collect a large amount of literature but have only a vague idea of what to do

with it. It is tempting to begin to review the literature in the hope that a research topic will emerge. More often than not this results in confusion rather than clarification. If this happens supervisors need to direct the student back to the research topic and to reformulate the aims of the Project more precisely. It may often emerge that much of the literature needs to be discarded, while there are gaps in the review. When backtracking is necessary much time is wasted but it is unavoidable if the student has been allowed to proceed without reference to the stages of the research process.

2. Students may collect data which they have no idea how to analyze or which cannot be

analyzed or interpreted. The question of how the data will be analyzed needs to be answered in detail before data collection begins. This includes reference to the type of statistical techniques that will be used and the applicability of these techniques to the type of data collected, given the assumptions of which they are based. If there is any doubt about this, supervisor and student may need to consult with another person who has a knowledge of the statistical techniques in question before data collection begins.

3. Some students may find that they have a very short time left to write up the research

report. Only initial planning of the research Project before data collection, analysis and writing and an appreciation of the time taken to complete the various stages, including report writing, will alleviate this problem.

Your notes:

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Planning issues Common causes of delay in completing research Projects are: * over-commitment in terms of time and competing activities; * a slow start; * departing from the main line of inquiry; * inadequate collection of data due to inadequate planning; * perfectionism on the part of the student leading to an inability to produce written work. Some of these problems can be alleviated to a large extent if detailed attention is given to planning and scheduling issues at the outset. In the planning stage a number of decisions need to be made which will affect the progress of the Project investigation. If these decisions are addressed early the supervisor will be able to form an opinion as to whether the student has adequate background knowledge and skills to undertake and complete the Project within the allotted time frame. Planning issues revolve around the following research processes: * identifying a broad area of study; * selecting a research topic; * deciding on an approach to the research, including how the research will be carried out and how the data will be collected and analyzed; * formulating a Project schedule. The advantage of such a planning exercise is that it breaks down the Project goals into smaller subgoals and makes explicit when and how these subgoals will be achieved. In this section the planning issues identified above will be treated in some depth along with a guide to the processes involved in each of these research stages. A checklist of questions to be asked at each stage is included to assist supervisors to review their students progress in a systematic way. Identifying a broad area of study and selecting a research topic In some departments students will be expected to identify a broad area of study and to arrive at a research topic of their own choosing with guidance from their supervisor. In other cases, students will be presented with a research topic or a list of topics from which to choose. The second

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alternative will mean that supervisors do not need to spend time with their students in the (often difficult) process at arriving at a suitable research topic. However, the process of selecting a research topic or topics on behalf of students places considerable demands on supervisors themselves who need to consider the issues of scope and feasibility in the same way that students would do. This will involve supervisors in a good deal of work, since they need to consider all the issues carefully for each topic suggested. In this section we will assume that it is the students responsibility to arrive at a suitable research topic, while recognising that this will not always be the case with undergraduate Projects. Identifying a broad area of study Before arriving at a research topic, some time should be spent by the student exploring the field in order to arrive at a general area of interest. This will involve reading in the discipline to get ideas, and talking with the supervisor and with peers. A preliminary literature search might be carried out at this stage in order to obtain an overview of published work. However, a shot-gun approach should not be adopted: the literature search should be carried out with a few key areas in mind. Review articles are also a good source of ideas and information. Recent Project reports, articles in journals and recent books should all provide sources of stimulation and interest. In some cases a knowledge of contemporary events, policies or legal changes may raise interesting questions. For students who are already in employment, there may be areas of interest or concern within their organisation which need to be addressed. The supervisors role in this process is to act as a sounding board for the student and to provide leads which will enable the student to get started with the literature search. In addition this initial stage of identifying a broad area of study needs to be monitored carefully by the supervisor lest students become so overwhelmed by the possibilities for research that they fail to settle on a topic. Other students may focus narrowly on a particular topic and refuse to consider alternatives. Howard and Sharp (1983) suggest some techniques for generating topics. They also point to the different approaches taken by students mentioned above: those who are underfocused and who cannot narrow down their thinking sufficiently well to arrive at a topic, and those who are overfocused who take an excessively narrow view by settling too quickly on one topic without exploring alternatives. Basically the techniques which they advocate involve: Using Analogy, Constructing Relevance Trees; and Morphological Analysis. The examples given below are adapted from their description (pp. 28-33).

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The Use of Analogy As an example of this process take the case of the researcher with an interest in small business innovation who notes that many experts have suggested that the advanced equipment used in the West is inappropriate in developing countries and that the latter need intermediate technology better suited to their less developed technical infrastructure. On reflection he perceives that the gap between the most advanced small business and the least is by no means dissimilar to that between the West and certain of the developing nations. Form there it is a short step to speculate about intermediate technology in the small business and the forms it might take (for example, in methods of information processing). Relevance Trees Starting from the board area of Demand for transport the researcher first identifies two major factors affecting it, Need to Travel and Individuals ability to afford travel, which in turn can be related to Incomes and Cost of travel. The first factor he splits again into Leisure journeys (also affected by the ability to afford travel) and into Work journeys. Determinants of the latter factor are seen to be Location of work (where it is carried out), Location of people (where they live) and Work activities. This last set of variables might suggest to the researcher a possible topic, namely the extent to which changes in the forms of work activity will affect in the longer term where people live and how far and how frequently they travel to work. Morphological Analysis Basically its relies on a threefold process of: a. defining the key factors or dimensions of a particular subject; b. listing the various attributes of the factor or ways they occur; c. defining all feasible combinations of the attributes. For example, a management researcher has selected three major factors defining type of management research: Aim: What is it for (e.g. delineation, explanation, measurement, classification etc.); Design: Which methodology is employed (e.g. historical analysis, case study, testing of hypothesis, comparative analysis, etc.); Focus: The group activity which is to be researched (e.g. issue/activity, profession/interest group, several organisations, single organisation, etc.). Various possible attributes of each factor are listed. Different types of research Project can then be generated by taking one attribute from each of the three factors, for example: Explanation Comparative analysis Several organisations. Clearly, these would involve the researcher in attempting to explain some phenomenon by comparative analysis of data drawn from several organisations.

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Selecting a research topic The process of arriving at a suitable research topic should be a natural outcome of a preliminary survey of the literature in search of an area of interest. At the end of the initial review the student should be able to present the supervisor with a clear statement of the area of interest, and a short list of possible topics within this general area. The processes involved are those of exploring a few alternative topics and ultimately narrowing down the topic definition until it begins to look like a manageable Project topic. Some students will choose topics that are trivial, but in many cases the first suggested topic will be far too large to be completed in the time available. The supervisor needs to be aware of this and to encourage the student to narrow his or her scope even further since there is no point in exploring a suggested topic in depth unless it is feasible for the type of research activity and the time available to complete the Project. In spite of all efforts on the part of supervisors, it may still be difficult to convince some students that the topic they have chosen is too ambitious for the level of Project work in which they are engaged. If there are problems associated with convincing the student that the topic should be of suitable scope, it is advisable to go back to the stated aims and objectives and the assessment criteria for the Project and to discuss just what the expectations are. Reference to your Project schedule will also help students to see that their choice of topic needs to be realistic if they are to succeed in the Project work. The availability of successful previous Project reports will assist students to understand the scope of topics that have been appropriate in the past and reinforce the idea that investigation of a major topic cannot be accomplished in the time available. Some basic questions to ask of each suggested topic would be: * Is the topic new in some sense? * Is the topic well-defined? * Is the topic either too limited or too broad? * Does it build on a sufficient body of previous research or writing to make progress possible and is such documentation readily available? * Is the student sufficiently well-prepared to research this particular topic in terms of his or her background knowledge and technical skills? * Are the appropriate data, information and human resources available to research the topic? * Will the student be able to access equipment, participants or records etc. implied by the research topic?

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* Does the student have the time to research this topic? * Are there ethical issues involved in researching the topic? * Is this topic sufficiently valuable or interesting to enable the student to demonstrate that he or she has met the assessment criteria? Developing a research proposal As part of the planning process and in order to encourage students to begin writing early, they should be encouraged to write a brief research proposal which incorporates the following: a. statement of the topic and research aims; b. procedures for carrying out the literature review; c. methods of data collection; d. methods of data analysis. a. Statement of the topic and research aims At the end of the topic selection phase the student should be able to put the following in writing for the supervisor s consideration and for discussion: * statement of the topic, its importance, relevance, scope; * statement of the aims of the research; the research question; * statement of secondary questions if any. b. Procedures for carrying out the literature review Discussion of how the literature review will be carried out includes whether the student will use the facilities in the library and whether the student knows how to use these facilities competently? When they are carrying out the preliminary literature search, it may become clear that some students do not have adequate library search skills. Prompt action is need to ensure that students learn how to use the library effectively at the more complex level required for independent Project work. Adequate library skills would include the following: * use of the library catalogue; * CD-ROM searches; * location of review journals;

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* location of annotated bibliographies; * requesting inter-library loans; * use of documents in the reserve section; * use of documents in other library collections. Library staff may need to be asked to provide an orientation for students in these areas. c. Methods of data collection The student needs to consider the following issues with regard to data collection? * What kind of data are relevant to the Project? * Where will the data be collected? * Are there likely to be any practical difficulties in collecting the data? * What clearances are required to collect data, for example, of company records? * How long will it take to collect the data? * Are there issues of confidentiality to consider? * How much data is needed to satisfy the aims of the Project? Students may not realise that specific skills are needed to carry out this stage of the Project, for example, dealing with company managers in soliciting assistance, time management, and so on. d. Methods of data analysis The question of how the data will be analyzed needs to be decided in advance of data collection, and indeed, at the planning stage before the student goes too far into the research topic. From the research proposal it should be apparent whether the student has the necessary background skills to analyze the data and whether he or she understands which methods of analysis are appropriate to the research in question. The supervisor should also be aware of, and alert the student to, practical difficulties which may impede progress of otherwise suitable Project topics. For instance, opportunities for data gathering or access to key documents may not be available locally and too much time would be wasted in arranging access elsewhere and waiting for documents to arrive. Or the student may want to use computer software that is not readily available and cannot be acquired within a reasonable time.

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An example of a brief research proposal from the Social Sciences area which incorporates the above elements follows. Topic Effect of Contextual Variables on Changes in Students Approaches to Study over the First Year of Undergraduate Study. Background A review of appropriate literature suggests that a number of variables, including personal and contextual factors, will affect approaches to study displayed by tertiary students. Personal variables include those brought by the student to the institution (e.g. motivation, secondary courses studied, skills developed). Contextual variables, which may be course or module specific, include factors such as discipline studied, teaching style, assessment techniques and workload. A number of researchers have investigated approaches to study. The majority have taken snapshot approaches of students during their studies or have extended, on occasions, to cross-sectional investigations of students in different years of study. However, few longitudinal investigations have been reported. Some research studies which focus on medical students are the exception. Furthermore, few studies have attempted to investigate contextual variables such as teaching or course characteristics which may contribute to approaches to study. Aims This research seeks to examine the impact of contextual variables (discipline studied, teaching styles and assessment techniques) on students approaches to study as defined by the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) over the period of their first year of study. By attempting to determine the relationships between specific contextual variables and approaches to study over time, the investigator plans to address not only a significant gap in the literature but provide direction for future in-service training programs on effective teaching. Literature review The in-depth literature review will focus on four main areas of research: 1. longitudinal research on approaches to study and student learning styles; 2. effect of institutional contextual variables on approaches to study; 3. literature on approaches to study in the context of Hong Kong; 4. methods of classifying contextual variables such as teaching styles and assessment techniques.

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The review will be based on a search on the ERIC database as well as on known literature derived from existing articles in possession of the author. Data collection The collection of two categories of information is fundamental to this Project: 1. Information on approaches to study derived from the Study Process Questionnaire which has been translated into Chinese and has already been trailed within this institution. 2. Information on contextual variables:

a. teaching style (method to be determined but probably gathered using classroom observation techniques with the co-operation of teaching staff).

b. assessment techniques (classified according to type, for example, continuous assessment

versus final assessment versus mixed continuous/final assessment) The SPQ will be administered twice: once at the beginning of term one and once at the end of term three. Students in three disciplines will be included in the sample: English Language, Applied Science and Public and Social Administration. Analysis The SPQ will be analyzed for mean subscale scores and factor analyzed using the SAS statistical package. Mean scores for first and second administration for each of its four subscales will be compared. Factor analytic scores will be used as a means of comparison with results of previous use of the questionnaire with tertiary students in Hong Kong.

Formulating a Project schedule Supervisors and students need to spend time together scheduling the various activities of the Project. An initial schedule should be decided on early and this can be revised and modified as the Project work proceeds. The idea of planning and scheduling at this level of detail may be unfamiliar to some students and they may need to be convinced of the necessity of this activity. For instance, students may need to be convinced that the assessment criteria rely, at least in part, on their ability to actually manage the Project activities in an independent manner and that this involves planning, scheduling and organising their own work. The schedule should be written down and agreed to by both parties. Preferably it should be displayed in a prominent place when meetings between supervisor and students occur. Both the sequence of activities and estimates of time taken to perform each activity need to be included in the schedule. In many ways it is best to start with the due date and work backwards so that enough time is left for the writing phase and associated activities.

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In the initial schedule the following items should be included: * literature overview/on-line search to determine a general area of interest; * selection of a topic; * determination of aims of the Project; * literature review; * experimental/field research (if appropriate) or literature review continued; * analysis of results (if appropriate) or literature review continued; * interpretation of results (if appropriate) or literature review continued; * completion of first draft of report; * revision of first draft; * proofreading and final check; * submission of report. A timetable should be set up to take account of the time needed to complete each of the scheduled activities working backwards from the due date for submission of the Project report. This is the best way to bring to the attention of students that an early start is necessary and regular work on the Project is essential in order to meet the deadline. It also has the effect of breaking down the broad Project goals into subgoals which are more readily achievable. At each stage, some written material should be produced by the student. Likewise it should be possible to arrange meetings to co-incide with successful completion of important phases in the schedule, for example: selection of a topic; literature review; data collection; analysis of results; completion of the first and final drafts. Part-time students in particular need to give attention to planning issues because of the many competing demands on their time and because in some sense their study may be perceived by themselves and others such as colleagues and family as having a lower priority than other activities. The work content will be expected to be the same as for full-time students, but unexpected contingencies are likely to arise more often.

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In the case of unexpected disruptions it is vital for the part-time student to be able to assess what work can be completed in the time remaining. Your notes:

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Network Planning techniques An alternative approach to scheduling is Network Planning (or Project Management) which is used in industrial research Projects of varying degrees of complexity. Particularly where supervisors have more than one student to supervise these methods may be applicable to planning student research Projects. Manual planning can be coupled with Project Management software of which several packages are now available. Howard and Sharp (1983, pp. 48 ff.) offer a description of Network Planning techniques from which the following is adapted.

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Advantages of Network Planning 1. Emphasis is on rigorous planning and scheduling and establishing milestones. Student with

limited time at their disposal need to become accustomed to these concepts. 2. Significant activities will not be overlooked. 3. It will ensure that the student is not scheduled to undertake an impossible number of

activities at the same time: peak periods will be highlighted. 4. The likelihood of the Project being completed on time will be known. 5. By setting milestones the task may be effectively broken down into more manageable

subgoals. 6. Visual representation of the research process may increase motivation and make the process

seem more concrete to the student. 7. The student will more easily be able to explain to others the progress that he or she is making

and the student and supervisor have a common point of reference for the Project. The stages are:

1. Determine the students aims and objectives in wishing to undertake this kind of Project work on this topic. In the future, for example, a student may have the goal of studying for a higher degree and his or her chosen topic has considerable further research potential. The student may also be aware of the need to acquire additional skills in research design and analysis in relation to this objective. One important imposed objective is the elapsed time available for completion of the Project, say 30 weeks for an undergraduate Project.

2. Identify and list (in any order) the activities that need to be carried out. It should not be

difficult for students undertaking Projects at the undergraduate level to list the activities involved. An example of activities derived from a practical Project in Social Science is given below.

Activity Description Number 1. Preliminary literature search 2. Decide on topic and aims of Project 3. Select participants for study 4. Decide on topics to include in questionnaire 5. Decide likely method of analyzing responses to questionnaire 6. Write research proposal

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7. Review statistical skills if necessary 8. Literature review 9. First draft of questionnaire 10. Write drafts of introduction and literature review chapters 11. Write methodology chapter 12. Administer questionnaire 13. Process data for computer 14. Interpret computer output 15. Evaluate nature and extent of response to questionnaire 16. Prepare seminar presentation for self help group 17. Relate findings to previous research and Project hypotheses 18. Carry out any further analysis necessary 19. Complete writing of draft chapters 20. Revise first draft 21. Make final corrections and make copies of Project report 22. Allowance for holidays, job interviews, illness and general contingencies. Note that these activities are a mixture of preparatory activities, motivational activities, activities specific to the research Project and those not directly related to the work but required for reasons of sanity and health. Ordering the activities The next step is to order the activities in terms of what must take precedence in time, which activities must be completed before the next activity can start, and which activities may start together. This can then be represented in graphic form for ease of reference. A computer Project Management programme will facilitate this process. Then the interrelationships between the activities can be clearly seen. For example: Activity A precedes Activity B; Activity A must be completed before Activity B can start; Activity C must be completed before Activity D can start; Activity B must be completed before Activity D can start and Activities A and C can start at the same time. (Circles indicate the start/end of activities and are referred to as events.)

C

A B D

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Estimate activity times At the next step, time estimates can be attached to activities and built into the diagram. The task of estimating time for task completion may be unfamiliar to students but students and supervisor can work together on the task to ensure that estimates are realistic. The experience of other students or lecturers on similar activities should be sought when in doubt as to how long an activity will take Scheduling will depend on the estimate of how many effective working hours on average the student can allocate to the Project in each given week. Other work and study commitments need to be taken into account to arrive at a schedule. In the case of the undergraduate Project the schedule will also be constrained by the time that has been allocated to complete the Project: say 30 weeks elapsed time. Establishing milestones Next it is important to establish which activities when completed will represent milestones and to schedule meetings with students at appropriate points in time to co-incide with these end points or to co-incide with starting milestone activities Redrawing the network As the work proceeds the network will need to be readjusted to take account of gains or losses in time and expected events which may delay or bring forward the starting time for some activities and hence affect associated activities as well. Your notes:

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Implementation issues If sufficient attention has been given to planning issues in the early stages of the Project, then implementing the Project plan should be a relatively straightforward process. Nevertheless, there are several skills to be practised or learned during this stage which will facilitate the process. In particular, the student will need to be able to: * carry out an effective search of the literature; * integrate reference material to produce a review of the literature; * collect data; * analyze and interpret the data. Each of these phases will be discussed briefly below. Literature search There are two main reasons for carrying out a survey of the literature: 1. in order to select a topic; and 2. to set up the literature review for the Project. The literature search will, in many cases, include not only literature relevant to the topic but literature concerned with the proposed methodology. Often the most difficult part of the literature search is deciding which subjects to abandon and hence a mechanism is needed to decide which topics not to pursue as well as which are worth searching for, in order to contain the search. As a general rule the search should always start with a specific definition of the topic. If few hours of preliminary searching does not yield results, the topic will need to be redefined and expanded slightly. Where there are many references emerging, the topic many need to be restricted further. The literature search is an important prerequisite to organising and writing the literature review and an effective search depends on the students ability to make full use of available library resources. This includes: 1. knowing how to use the library cataloguing system;

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2. knowing what kind of material the library contains; 3. accessing specific information about the library collection; 4. locating the relevant items in the library; 5. requesting material from other libraries where necessary. Two common problems with carrying out a literature search are: 1. knowing where to begin; and 2. knowing when to finish. If the Project topic has been sufficiently well-defined then this should provide a number of keywords on which a literature search can be based. In addition the student may know some key authors of works which will guide the search process. Very often the supervisor will know of key articles or books which can help students to begin the search process. However, supervisors should not attempt to undertake the search on behalf of students. Carrying out the search is an important component of the process of doing Project work in an independent manner. Computer searches If a computer search of a bibliographic database is planned, then the definition of appropriate keywords is vital to success of the search. Otherwise the student may end up with either too little or too much material. Needless to say attention should be given to selecting the correct database on which to begin the search and library staff will be able to assist in this choice as well as in understanding the search procedures. The other common problem in carrying out a literature search is knowing when to stop reading and start writing. The field of interest can expand rapidly and often seems too large to be contained within the Project time frame. This is why regular meetings are vital so that the supervisor can determine whether the student is dealing with the literature effectively or whether he or she is becoming bogged down in irrelevant details. The student should be discouraged from thinking that all material related to the topic needs to be found - only major relevant works are necessary to carry out a satisfactory search. The search should be terminated when no new material is being uncovered using the selected keywords or when the material being found is peripheral to the research topic. Although computer searches can be an efficient means of looking for relevant material, students should also be encouraged to spend some time in the library browsing through the literature and in particular through new issues of relevant journals or books. Not only can recent material be found in this way, but it will assist students to develop a general overview of their field of study and to gain an idea of current trends in the literature.

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To obtain maximum benefit from the literature search, students should be encouraged to devise a system for recording bibliographic information and for note taking as each new item of material is retrieved. A card system or use of a simple database on computer are both suitable means of organising the information and ensuring that everything necessary has been recorded. Writing the literature review By writing the literature review the student has the opportunity to show that he or she can make good use of the reference material that has been collected. An impressive bibliography is useless unless it has been put to good use in relation to the research topic and aims. This is why I have made a distinction between literature searching and the process of reviewing the literature. Skills in reading effectively will greatly facilitate the process of carrying out the literature review. Some students may have developed habits of reading to memorise material in order to satisfy examination requirements, but reliance on this method will be of little value in reviewing the literature for the Project report. In this kind of work it is much more important to be able to: * preview the material which is contained in books, journals or articles in order to decide its relevance to the topic; * skim read quickly in the first instance to determine whether it is worthwhile continuing to read a particular book or article; * read with the aim of extracting information and ideas relevant to the Project topic; * ignore material which is of little or no relevance to the Project; * make connections between ideas already read and ideas currently being read in order to build up an argument for the literature review; * question what is being read and make notes of doubts or queries to be expanded later; * read for specific items of information, for example, statistical data, to support an argument. In the first instance, the material collected should be reread in order to determine whether there is irrelevant material which can be discarded at this stage. Then a decision has to be made as to whether the remaining material is sufficient to begin to address the research question. It is useful for the student to develop a list of headings for the literature review and to record which materials are relevant to each section. If notes have been made on each article or book these can be organised at this stage. In this way gaps can be identified fairly easily and any imbalance in the amount of material collected can be seen clearly. For instance, in arguing the case for and against an issue, it may be that the bulk of the material collected argues for the issue with little to say about the opposing case. Or in doing an historical analysis certain periods may have been overlooked in the search.

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The search and review processes are not completely independent and this will become clear to students when the material is organised and classified according to the topic and the sections of the review. At this stage it may be decided to continue searching in certain specific areas or to discontinue the search and concentrate on the review writing process. If the Project consists mainly of an extended literature review, then the processes of searching, reading, organising and searching again will occupy most of the students time between deciding on a research topic and writing the first draft of the report. If a practical Project has been planned, then clearly the literature search and review processes will need to be concluded much sooner so that data collection and analysis can begin. Data collection If the data collection phase has been planned in advance, then supervisors can expect less contact with students than in the phases of selecting a topic or writing the Project report. Data collection must proceed according to the agreed methodology which should have already been written up by the student. It cannot be a haphazard process and hence the need for careful pre-planning. Effective data collection depends on: * students possessing the necessary data collection skills; and * students keeping systematic and accurate records of all work done in connection with data collection. It is particularly important for the student to be writing up during the data collection phase so that precise details of methods used and results obtained can be recorded. The most important issue that is likely to arise is knowing when enough data has been collected to satisfy the Project requirements. In order to decide this, it is advisable to refocus on the aims of the research proposal and the questions which the student set out to answer by data collection. Activities involved in data collection 1. gaining access The data for a short-term research Project such as an undergraduate Project need to be readily accessible in order to contain the Project and ensure successful completion. So if too much effort is needed just to organise data gathering, the data collection phase may be unnecessarily prolonged. It is preferable to spend the time and effort on the actual data gathering. Delays in access to individuals, or groups, or company records, for example, can prolong this phase.

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Some of these problems can be overcome by approaching people whose co-operation is required well in advance and setting up a specific time and location for data collection. Students should be made aware that access may be denied at times for reasons of confidentiality or lack of time on the part of participants whose co-operation is requested. Very often co-operating people or institutions will expect something in return for their co-operation, for example, a copy of the completed report and appropriate arrangements should be made to fulfil these obligations. 2. recording accurately Time spent gathering data is wasted if measures are not taken to ensure accurate recording of data. For example, accurate transcripts of interviews, accurate recording of numerical data, ensuring that data collected is not subject to bias, and so on. 3. organising data Where very large amounts of data are involved, considerable organisational skills are necessary to ensure that the data collection process does not get out of hand. Of course, retrieving and analyzing the data depends on an efficient system of organisation. The student should be encouraged to keep a system of folders and to use computer files that are set up to ensure easy data retrieval. 4. storing data Where data is to be subject to computer analysis or further interpretation, it should be entered into the computer in an appropriate form and a backup of all files kept. Very often the student needs to have developed skills of effective note taking and organisation of material in order to make sure that the data can be transposed to computer files easily. Whatever the storage method used, appropriate arrangements should be made for duplicate copies of the data to be kept in a separate place, in case of accidental loss or damage of the stored data. Data analysis and interpretation It goes without saying that the data collected should lend itself to analysis and hence the need to ask questions about methods of analysis before the data collection stage. The supervisor will need to guide students through the stages of analysis and can expect some intensive sessions with students before the data is finally analyzed. Some students may under-analyze data and hence not extract the most from it. Others might over-analyze, especially if using a computer, and end up extracting a good deal of trivial or irrelevant information. It is also easy for students to get sidetracked during analysis and to forget the central aims of the Project.

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The questions in Table 3 will prove useful in this regard: * Have all aspects of the data relevant to the research questions or topic been analyzed? * Have the data been analyzed in sufficient depth? * Are conclusions supported by evidence? * Are the interpretations logical in light of the data gathering procedures and theoretical perspective? * What are the implications of the analysis? * Are the results valuable enough for a Project at this level? * Are alternative explanations possible?

Table 3: Data analysis and interpretation Adapted from: Moses, M. (1985) Supervising Postgraduates, Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia, New South Wales, p. 19. Presentation issues In this section we will deal with the several issues which need to be considered when the student is ready to produce a complete first draft of the report and subsequently the final draft for submission. For a more comprehensive account of how to go about writing a Project report, students could be advised to read Kelly (1990) Writing Your Project Report which deals with matters such as structuring the Project report, the writing process, expressing ideas in writing and the physical qualities of manuscript presentation. In addition, students can be directed to books on writing, style and presentation which are readily available in institutional libraries. Students should of course be made aware of specific departmental requirements for presentation of the final report. Here we will deal with the supervisors role in advising the student on production of the first draft of the report, providing effective feedback on the first and subsequent drafts, and ensuring that the report is in a form which is suitable for final submission.

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First draft It should be clear from what has been said already that the writing phase needs to extend over the whole Project period, not just the final days or weeks. Writing should not be seen by supervisors or students as an end-on process which begins only after all else has been completed. If it is construed as an end-on process, writing can become quite traumatic for many students. The supervisors role is to convince students that they should begin writing as soon as the Project begins and to continue writing all the way through. Requirements that written presentations be produced at all meetings should reinforce this point. However, there may well be a number of problems associated with writing the report and the supervisor needs to be prepared for them. Problems that are often encountered include: * either too much or too little material for the report; * mental blocks of various kinds inhibiting writing; * being unsure of the standard or level of writing required; and * difficulties with written English expression. Conscientious students may well end up with too much material rather than too little and the supervisor will need to guide students in the process of selecting relevant material and excluding irrelevant material from the final report. A firm length limit for the report will facilitate this process but supervisors need to be aware that it is not easy for students to discard written material or analyses on which they have worked hard. The situation where the student has too little material to produce a final report is one that can be avoided by planning and requiring regular writing throughout the Project. The difficult problem of writers block will also be alleviated if the student does not need to produce a large amount of written material in a very short space of time. Very often students may be unsure as to what level of writing is required of them for an undergraduate Project report. For instance: * How deeply should specific issues be addressed? * What level of language should be used? * How academic does the report need to be? One way to develop an idea of the level required is for students to read recent reports of former students which have received good grades, either in their own discipline or related disciplines.

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While informal language and slang should be avoided in a report of this kind, the best advice to students is to write at a level with which they feel comfortable and to keep language as simple and direct as possible. Attempts to emulate academic jargon which is not part of their vocabulary will detract rather than add to the quality of the final report. Regardless of the problems that arise and the pressures that exist, the supervisor should not do any writing and should not take responsibility for written components of the report. But it is essential that students get constructive feedback on what they have produced and this will be addressed in the next section. Providing feedback to students The supervisors ability to provide effective feedback on the first draft of the Project report is crucial to the final success of the report. The main aim for the student in writing the report is to provide a well-structured and convincing account of the Project work together with some resolution of the problem initially posed. Hence the feedback should: 1. encourage the student to keep going with the writing; and 2. point out shortcomings and omissions, irrelevancies and redundancies. Of particular importance is attention to the structure of the report, to clarity of expression, logical argument and overall standard of presentation. It is not sufficient to read the first draft for typographical errors and grammatical mistakes. It is the wider picture that counts at this first draft stage. Hence if the report is poorly structured, contains logical flaws, is vaguely written and is incomplete in some way, the student needs to be told as clearly as possible at the first draft stage just what problems exist and suggestions made as to how they might be rectified. However, it is vitally important that this information be conveyed to the student in an encouraging way. This can be difficult if the report has a number of serious flaws. One way to overcome the problem may be to schedule more than one session with students of this kind to discuss improvements to the first draft, rather than loading the student with too much negative feedback in a single session. Over time, supervisors will develop their own criteria for commenting on the first draft. Meanwhile the checklist shown in Table 4 may assist in reading and providing feedback on drafts:

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1. Is there evidence of an original investigation or testing of ideas?

* Are the aims of the Project clearly described?

* Are the hypotheses to be tested stated clearly?

* Is the relationship between the topic, aims, hypotheses and the existing literature clearly

established?

* Does the Project investigate a topic that has not been investigated before?

2. Does the report demonstrate competence in independent work?

* Was an appropriate methodology used?

* Were all relevant variables controlled or properly measured?

* Were valid and reliable instruments used to collect the data?

* Were relevant data sources used?

* Were the limitations of the study recognised by the student?

* Were justifiable conclusions reached?

3. Does the report demonstrate an ability to make critical use of published work?

* Is the literature referenced pertinent to the Project topic?

* Is too much or too little literature included in the literature review?

* Is the literature search systematic or does it appear haphazard?

* Is appropriate credit given to published authors for ideas used?

Table 4: First draft checklist Adapted from: Moses, M. (1985) Supervising Postgraduates, Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia, New South Wales, pp. 32-34. Final draft Students will need to allow enough time to respond to comments on the first draft and to attempt to rectify any serious flaws in the Project report. In some cases reorganisation of material will

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help overcome problems with the logic of the argument of the report but in other cases rewriting of sections will be necessary. If they are asked to rewrite, students should be told why they are being asked to do this and what improvements rewriting should being about. If the text is stored on computer and a word processing package used, then the process of redrafting the report will be simplified in the technical sense. However, it is clear that the student needs to be encouraged to think carefully about the overall impact of the written report at this stage. Only after redrafting to make sure that the meaning of the report is clear and that arguments flow logically should attention be given to the final technical details of report presentation. The Project submission checklist shown in Table 5 should assist students to review their own reports before submitting the final draft to the supervisor for approval. It is preferable that students review their own work critically at this stage and the final meeting session might well consist of a discussion of main points drawn from the checklist. Project submission checklist Content * Have you stated your theoretical position clearly? * Have you stated why the research question is significant? * If you made a strong claim or statement have you supported it with arguments? * Have you shown why the research method is suitable for your topic? * Have you fully acknowledged all sources of quotes and ideas? * If you used examples are they relevant to the point you are making? * Have you eliminated all irrelevant arguments and comments? * Does the content of each section belong in that section? * Do you have a second theme which doesnt really belong in this Report? Writing * Do you use a type of English that is appropriate to academic writing? For example have slang and jargon been eliminated? * Is your expression clear? * Have you used simple words rather than complex words?

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* Have you kept your sentence structure simple and short? * Do you use the active rather than the passive voice as much as possible? * Is the meaning of all words and terms clear and correct? * Does the Report really say what you want it to say? * Is it clear from reading the Introduction what the Report is about? * Have you eliminated all sexist language? Presentation * Is the Report the correct length? * Have references been checked for accuracy? * Have references in the text been checked against the Notes or Bibliography? * Have all tables and figures been labelled and numbered? * Are the titles of tables and figures consistent with those in the Lists of Tables and Figures? * Has the Report been proofread thoroughly? * Is the spelling consistent? Table 5: Project submission checklist Your notes:

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Responsibilities of the supervisor Because Project work represents a significant departure from most other kinds of undergraduate teaching, it is worth spending some time thinking about what kinds of responsibilities the supervisor has towards students. Questions such as the following often arise and need to be considered: * How does the role differ from the usual methods of teaching undergraduate classes? * How much direction should be given to students? * How much supervision time is appropriate? * What kind of knowledge and skills does the supervisor need? How does the role differ from the usual methods of teaching undergraduate classes? In the early years of undergraduate study, there is a clear expectation that the teacher will be the expert in the subject matter and the student will attempt to learn from the teachers superior knowledge. By the time students are engaging in an undergraduate Project the balance is beginning to shift so that the teacher is becoming more like a mentor and the relationship between teacher and student is more symmetrical. Supervision of a doctoral research degree is the ultimate example of a symmetrical type of teaching-learning relationship. At the level of the undergraduate Project, the beginnings of this shift can be expected in that students will be required to find out things for themselves and to take a more active role in managing their own time and learning activities. Thus students could be expected to turn to the supervisor for regular guidance rather than exposition of the subject or for explicit instructions on how to proceed. How much direction should be given to students? At the outset students and their teachers may both experience problems with adjusting to the different roles that Project work demands of them. The supervisor should resist demands by students to assume the role of lecturer, or to accept responsibility for the details of planning and organising the Project. In short they should resist pressures from students to tell them what to do! Unless departmental policy suggests explicit direction to students in certain areas of Project work, for example, in selecting a topic, it can be assumed that such directions to students on what to do will be minimal. The supervisor will, however, be expected to offer guidance on matters such as: * the intellectual standard required for a Project of a particular kind;

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* selecting a topic which is appropriate to the scope and level of the Project; * scheduling activities so that the Project is completed on time; * writing the Project report, and, in particular, providing detailed feedback on the first draft; * remedial action which should be taken if the students background is deficient in some areas, for example, statistical techniques or effective use of library facilities. Students may sometimes seem to be working too slowly to complete the Project in time. A clear plan of action needs to be developed early and student progress monitored to ensure that students are working according to the agreed schedule. How much supervision time is appropriate? The supervisor may find that the time spent on supervision far exceeds the official time allocation. Usually each supervisor will have an official allocation of teaching time for each student over the life of the Project, for example, 20 minutes per student per week. This may prove to be adequate for some students and totally inadequate for others. At some stages less time will be needed and at other stages, notably in selecting a topic and writing the Project report, much more time needs to be allowed for supervision. The problem of workload may be due in part to the supervisor s inexperience with Project supervision. At some stage the supervisor may need to re-negotiate with students the kind of assistance that can be expected or a more organised approach to supervision may be needed in order to reduce the time spent on unnecessary tasks. However, the official time allocation is a clue to the kind of input that can reasonably be expected from supervisors in this type of teaching. It points to the need to be well-organised and to arrive at a clear agreement with students at the outset as to what they can and cannot expect of their supervisor. What kind of knowledge and skills does the supervisor need? In addition to knowledge of the content and methods of the discipline in which both student and supervisor are working, the supervisor needs additional knowledge and skills in order to offer effective advice to students: * one-to-one communication skills; * organisational skills; * planning skills;

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* ability to provide effective feedback on written work quickly; * advanced library skills particularly in the areas of information searching; * a practical approach to scheduling. While it is true that these skills are inherent in many other teaching and research activities, it is in the area of Project supervision that they become crucial if the Project is to be managed successfully.

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Responsibilities of the student

Independent Study The basic questions of why, what, and how and when you learn apply to any independent learning, and can be applied to an individual assignment or to your formal tertiary education as a whole. Studying independently requires thinking about and formulating your objectives. It involves studying a subject of your own choosing, on your own initiative, and making your own decisions about how and when you study it and with whom. Studying independently involves asking yourself the following questions: * What do I want to study, and in what depth and breadth? * Why do I want to study this particular topic? You might explore an interest more fully, acquire specific skills, or examine previous work in a new context. * How will I study the topic? Perhaps you want to conduct library research, interviews, or laboratory experiments, or to undertake field work, or read extensively. * How much time will I spend on this study? * With whom will I discuss my work? If you usually rely on text books and lecture notes for the right answers without questioning their information or assumptions, you may find it frightening to ask your own questions. Perhaps youve become so accustomed to teachers asking you questions that youve largely forgotten how to ask your own, or have lost the confidence to ask them. Even if a teacher encourages you to approach a topic in your own way, you might be so unaccustomed to this that you retreat into the safety of looking to the experts for answers. In this case youre probably assuming that your task at university or college is to meet the requirements of courses and teachers, rather than seeing them as resources enabling you to move towards your objectives and to think about your questions. Marshall, L. A. and Rowland, F. (1983) A Guide to Learning Independently, The Open University Press, Milton Keynes, p. 42.

Clearly students need to become aware that Project work is different in many ways from the usual pattern of undergraduate study in that it involves a much more independent approach. They cannot expect lectures and tutorials, and, to a large extent, the work is carried out independently of their peers. The student is the one who has to take the initiative and actually do the Project work and write up the Project report. This includes searching the library for appropriate material,

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deciding on a topic, carrying out the literature review and/or experimental work, writing up the Project report and submitting it by the due date. According to the Project description of the Department of Accountancy, for example:

Students are expected to study independently, although study groups are to be actively encouraged. An essential feature of the Project is that it is driven by the individual student and not led by the lecturing and supervising staff. The Project Report is a comprehensive report which assess the students investigative, analytical and evaluative abilities. It is to meet the style for publishable papers and it is to include process details and data. The Project Presentation is an assessment of the students ability to present complex data and concepts in a meaningful way, in a short time, so as to prompt new insights into accounting-oriented issues and practices.

In order to complete these tasks successfully, skills in self-management will need to be developed and the student needs to be aware that this is the case. The student also has a responsibility to maintain contact with the supervisor according to a regular meeting schedule, while at the same time respecting the supervisors other time commitments and privacy. Students may find their new role unfamiliar and difficult to deal with at first. Naturally they will differ in the amount of dependence they display. One may need more detailed guidance than another and inevitably some students will express resentment if they are not provided with as much teaching as they think is necessary. This will also differ depending on what stage of the Project has been reached. Supervisors should resist all attempts by students to persuade them to move away from the role of guide and advisor to the role of instructor. Likewise the notion of regular consultation may not be familiar to students. Some may consult too often and some too little. On the matter of consultation, the supervisor should insist on regular meetings and also, together with the student, set goals for each meeting which need to be adhered to. Students should be discouraged from frequent visits or calls in the interim on matters which are trivial or which they could solve for themselves. Students who fail to attend scheduled meetings should be reminded and an alternative meeting time arranged if possible.

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Failure to attend meetings could be the result of: * personal problems; * failure to come to grips with the Project; * uncertainty as to how to proceed; * loss of motivation or lack of confidence. If communications break down and the student has not been in touch with the supervisor for some time, say more than three weeks, it is the supervisors responsibility to contact the student and arrange a time when progress may be discussed. It may be that the student is working well independently but on the other hand the student may be having problems and genuinely need assistance.

Your notes:

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Making the most of meetings with students Guidance and advice to students should occur within the framework of regular meetings. The supervisor will need to take the initiative in setting up a schedule of meetings and making it clear to students that they are expected to attend. To optimise these meetings with students, it is inadvisable to leave the content of discussion or the structure of the meeting to chance. Omissions may mean that the student is left without a clear knowledge of where to go next and the supervisor is uncertain about how the Project work is proceeding. Preferable is a structured meeting which contains the following elements: * agreements of the previous meeting are reviewed and a progress report given by the student on what has been achieved to date; * incomplete work is noted and a further commitment obtained from the student; * the student submits some written work for discussion with the supervisor; * technical and administrative problems are discussed and a record made of discussion and proposed solutions; * the plan for next phase of the Project is reviewed; * topics for discussion and deadlines to be met before the next meeting are noted by both student and supervisor. To facilitate meetings the supervisor should draw up a schedule of activities for each meeting and make notes on each point. This not only reinforces to students that meetings are to be taken seriously but it enables supervisors to review the students progress quickly before each subsequent meeting. Hence time is not wasted by long explanations by the student on issues that have already been talked about and resolved.

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An example of a meeting schedule might be as follows: Course code: Meeting No.: Students Name: Students background details: Project Topic: Purpose of meeting: Progress review: Outstanding commitments: Problems with Project: Action plan for next phase of Projects:

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Conclusion Development of supervisory skills is an ongoing process, which often places complex and unexpected demands on lecturing staff. In this booklet the management aspects of Project supervision have been stressed because good management provides a framework within which successful Project work can take place. Likewise the approach taken is oriented towards the development of specific skills ranging from library use to planning and scheduling. Without these skills the Project will not be completed successfully. However, it is expected that others aspects of skilled supervision and student Project work will also demand attention as Project supervision proceeds. For example: one-to-one communication skills; maintaining student motivation and interest in the Project; working to deadlines; dealing with open-ended situations; negotiating data collection; and problem solving. Inevitably supervisors and students will develop a different kind of relationship from that which might develop in a lecturing or tutoring situation. The fact that Project work involves both in a shared goal and shared interest in outcomes is a starting point for this changed relationship. It is furthermore, a relationship which needs to be continually re-negotiated in order to maintain a balanced approach. In times of stress it may be tempting to for both lecturers and students to want to resort to the more familiar and more formal teacher-pupil relationship. To do so will defeat the purpose of Project work as a means of fostering an independent approach to learning. In order for supervisors and students to function successfully within the Project environment, departments have a responsibility to provide clear aims for the undergraduate level Project as well as assessment guidelines which are in accord with these aims. For instance, if personal growth and independence are aims of the Project experience there needs to be some provision for assessing whether these goals have indeed been met. Otherwise it will not be surprising that supervisors and students do not take them seriously. Support for students to achieve other Project-related goals like writing a lengthy report, upgrading data analysis skills and enhancing library skills also needs to be available within the institution. Understood in this way, Project work is seen as an institutional responsibility involving students and their supervisors as key participants but also making demands on departments and the institution in order to provide the framework within which successful Project work can take place.

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References Howard, K. and Sharp, J. A. (1983) The Management of a Student Research Project, Gower Publishing Company Limited, Great Britain. Kelly M. E. (1990) Writing Your Project Report, Workshop Series No. 1, Professional Development Unit, Educational Technology Centre, City Polytechnic of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Marshall, L. A. and Rowland, F. (1983) A Guide to Learning Independently, The Open University Press, Milton Keynes. Moses, M. (1985) Supervising Postgraduates, Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia, New South Wales. TEHE Ref.: R25/t4f3 Kelly, M. (1990) Supervising Undergraduate Projects (Workshop Series No. 2). City Polytechnic of Hong Kong, Professional Development Unit (now City University of Hong Kong, Centre for the Enchancement of Learning and Teaching). Reprinted with permission from the author.