supply, demand and government policies chapter 6 copyright © 2004 by south-western,a division of...
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Supply, Demand and Government Policies
Chapter 6
Copyright © 2004 by South-Western,a division of Thomson Learning.
Chapter 6 supply,demand,and government policies
Examine the effects of government policies that place a ceiling on prices
Examine the effects of government policies that put a floor under prices
consider how a tax on a good affects the price of the good and the quantity sold
•Learn that taxes levied on buyers and taxes levies on sellers are equivalent
•See how the burden of a tax is split between buyers and sellers
Key concepts
Price ceiling Price floor Tax incidence
Supply, Demand, and Government Policies
In a free, unregulated market system, market forces establish equilibrium prices and exchange quantities.
While equilibrium conditions may be efficient, it may be true that not everyone is satisfied.
One of the roles of economists is to use their theories to assist in the development of policies.
Price Controls...
Are usually enacted when policymakers believe the market price is unfair to buyers or sellers.
Result in government-created price ceilings and floors.
Price Ceilings & Price Floors
Price Ceiling A legally established maximum price at whic
h a good can be sold.
Price Floor A legally established minimum price at whic
h a good can be sold.
Price Ceilings
Two outcomes are possible when the government imposes a price ceiling:
The price ceiling is not binding if set above the equilibrium price.
The price ceiling is binding if set below the equilibrium price, leading to a shortage.
A Price Ceiling That Is Not Binding...
$4
3
Quantity ofIce-Cream
Cones0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
Demand
Supply
Priceceiling
Equilibriumprice
100Equilibrium
quantity
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
A Price Ceiling That Is Binding...
$3
Quantity ofIce-Cream
Cones
0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
2
Demand
Supply
Equilibriumprice
Priceceiling
Shortage
125Quantity
demanded
75Quantitysupplied
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Effects of Price Ceilings
A binding price ceiling creates ... shortages because QD > QS.
Example: Gasoline shortage of the 1970s
nonprice rationing Examples: Long lines, Discrimination
by sellers
Lines at the Gas PumpIn 1973 OPEC raised the price of crude oil in world markets. Because crude oil is the major input used to make gasoline, the higher oil prices reduced
the supply of gasoline.
What was responsible for the long gas lines?
Economists blame government regulations that limited the price oil companies co
uld charge for gasoline.
The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Not Binding...
$4
P1
Quantity ofGasoline
0
Price ofGasoline
Q1
Demand
Supply
Priceceiling
1. Initially, the price ceiling is not binding...
The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Binding...
P1
Quantity ofGasoline
0
Price ofGasoline
Q1
Demand
S1
Priceceiling
S2 2. …but when supply falls...
P2
3. …the price ceiling becomes binding...4. …resulting i
n a shortage.
Rent Control Rent controls are ceilings placed on the
rents that landlords may charge their tenants.
The goal of rent control policy is to help the poor by making housing more affordable.
One economist called rent control “the best way to destroy a city, other than bombing.”
Rent Control in the Short Run...
Quantity ofApartments
0
Rental Price of
Apartment
Demand
Supply
Controlled rent
Shortage
Supply and demand for apartments are relatively inelastic
Rent Control in the Long Run...
Quantity ofApartments
0
Rental Price of
Apartment
Demand
Supply
Controlled rent
Shortage
Because the supply and demand for apartments are m
ore elastic...
…rent control causes a large sh
ortage
Price Floors
When the government imposes a price floor, two outcomes are possible.
The price floor is not binding if set below the equilibrium price.
The price floor is binding if set above the equilibrium price, leading to a surplus.
A Price Floor That Is Not Binding...
$3
Quantity ofIce-Cream
Cones
0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
100Equilibrium
quantity
Equilibriumprice
Demand
Supply
Pricefloor2
A Price Floor That Is Binding...
$3
Quantity ofIce-Cream
Cones
0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
Equilibriumprice
Demand
Supply
Price floor$4
120Quantitysupplied
80Quantity
demanded
Surplus
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Effects of a Price Floor
A price floor prevents supply and demand from moving toward the equilibrium price and quantity.When the market price hits the floor, it can fall no further, and the market price equals the floor price.
Effects of a Price Floor
A binding price floor causes . . . a surplus because QS >QD. nonprice rationing is an alternative mechanism for rationing the good, using discrimination criteria.
Examples: The minimum wage, Agricultural price supports
The Minimum Wage
An important example of a price floor is the minimum wage. Minimum wage laws dictate the lowest price possible for labor that any employer m
ay pay.
The Minimum Wage
Quantity ofLabor
0
Wage
Equilibriumwage
Labor demand
Labor supply
A Free Labor Market
Equilibriumemployment
Minimumwage
The Minimum Wage
Quantity ofLabor
0
Wage
Labor demand
Labor supply
Quantitysupplied
Quantitydemanded
Labor surplus(unemployment)
A Labor Market with a Minimum Wage
Taxes
Governments levy taxes to raise revenue for public pro
jects.
What are some potential impacts of taxes?
Taxes discourage market activity.
When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller.
Buyers and sellers share the tax burden.
Taxes
Tax incidence is the study of who bears the burden of a tax.
Taxes result in a change in market equilibrium.
Buyers pay more and sellers receive less, regardless of whom the tax is levied on.
Impact of a 50¢ Tax Levied on Buyers...
3.00
Quantity ofIce-Cream Cones0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
100
D1
Supply, S1
A tax on buyersshifts the demandcurve downwardby the size ofthe tax ($0.50).
D2
Copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved
3.00
Quantity ofIce-Cream Cones0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
10090
$3.30
Pricebuyers
pay
D1
D2
Equilibriumwith tax
Supply, S1
Equilibrium without tax
Impact of a 50¢ Tax Levied on Buyers...
2.80
Pricesellersreceive
Copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved
Pricewithout
tax
Tax ($0.50)
What was the impact of tax?
Taxes discourage market activity.
When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller.
Buyers and sellers share the tax burden.
3.00
Quantity ofIce-Cream Cones
0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
10090
S1
S2
Demand, D1
Impact of a 50¢ Tax on Sellers...
Price without tax 2.80
Price sellers receive
$3.30
Price buyers pa
y
Equilibrium without tax
Copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc. All rights reserved
A tax on sellers shifts the supply curve upward by the amount of the tax ($0.50). Tax ($0.50)
Equilibriumwith tax
A Payroll Tax
Quantity ofLabor
0
Wage
Wage without tax
Labor demand
Labor supply
Tax wedge
Wage firms pay
Wage workers receive
The Incidence of Tax
In what proportions is the burden of the tax divided?
How do the effects of taxes on sellers compare to those levied on buyers?
The answers to these questions depend on the elasticity of demand and the e
lasticity of supply.
Elastic Supply, Inelastic Demand...
Quantity0
Price
Demand
Supply
Tax
1. When supply is moreelastic than demand...
2. ...theincidence of thetax falls moreheavily onconsumers...
3. ...than onproducers.
Price without tax
Price buyers pay
Price sellers receive
Inelastic Supply, Elastic Demand...
Quantity0
Price
Demand
Supply
Price without tax
Tax
1. When demand is moreelastic than supply...
2. ...theincidence of the tax falls more heavily on producers...
3. ...than on consumers.
Price buyers pay
Price sellers receive
So, how is the burden of the tax divided?
The burden of a tax falls more heavily on the side of the market that is le
ss elastic.
Summary Price controls include price ceilings
and price floors. A price ceiling is a legal maximum o
n the price of a good or service. An example is rent control.
A price floor is a legal minimum on the price of a good or a service. An example is the minimum wage.
Summary Taxes are used to raise revenue for
public purposes. When the government levies a tax o
n a good, the equilibrium quantity of the good falls.
A tax on a good places a wedge between the price paid by buyers and the price received by sellers.
Summary The incidence of a tax refers to who
bears the burden of a tax. The incidence of a tax does not dep
end on whether the tax is levied on buyers or sellers.
The incidence of the tax depends on the price elasticities of supply and demand.
Graphical Review
A Price Ceiling That Is Not Binding...
$4
3
Quantity ofIce-Cream
Cones0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
Demand
Supply
Priceceiling
Equilibriumprice
100Equilibrium
quantity
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
A Price Ceiling That Is Binding...
$3
Quantity ofIce-Cream
Cones
0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
2
Demand
Supply
Equilibriumprice
Priceceiling
Shortage
125Quantity
demanded
75Quantitysupplied
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Not Binding...
$4
P1
Quantity ofGasoline
0
Price ofGasoline
Q1
Demand
Supply
Priceceiling
1. Initially, the price ceiling is not binding...
The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Binding...
P1
Quantity ofGasoline
0
Price ofGasoline
Q1
Demand
S1
Priceceiling
S2 2. …but when supply falls...
P2
3. …the price ceiling becomes binding...4. …resulting i
n a shortage.
Rent Control in the Short Run...
Quantity ofApartments
0
Rental Price of
Apartment
Demand
Supply
Controlled rent
Shortage
Supply and demand for apartments are relatively inelastic
Rent Control in the Long Run...
Quantity ofApartments
0
Rental Price of
Apartment
Demand
Supply
Controlled rent
Shortage
Because the supply and demand for apartments are m
ore elastic...
…rent control causes a large sh
ortage
A Price Floor That Is Not Binding...
$3
Quantity ofIce-Cream
Cones
0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
100Equilibrium
quantity
Equilibriumprice
Demand
Supply
Pricefloor2
A Price Floor That Is Binding...
$3
Quantity ofIce-Cream
Cones
0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
Equilibriumprice
Demand
Supply
Price floor$4
120Quantitysupplied
80Quantity
demanded
Surplus
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
The Minimum Wage
Quantity ofLabor
0
Wage
Equilibriumwage
Labor demand
Labor supply
A Free Labor Market
Equilibriumemployment
The Minimum Wage
Minimumwage
Quantity ofLabor
0
Wage
Labor demand
Labor supply
Quantitysupplied
Quantitydemanded
Labor surplus(unemployment)
A Labor Market with a Minimum Wage
Impact of a 50¢ Tax Levied on Buyers...
3.00
Quantity ofIce-Cream Cones0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
100
D1
Supply, S1
A tax on buyersshifts the demandcurve downwardby the size ofthe tax ($0.50).
D2
Impact of a 50¢ Tax Levied on Buyers...
3.00
Quantity ofIce-Cream Cones0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
10090
$3.30
Pricebuyers
pay
D1
D2
Equilibriumwith tax
Supply, S1
Equilibrium without tax
2.80
Pricesellersreceive
Pricewithout
tax
Tax ($0.50)
Impact of a 50¢ Tax on Sellers...
3.00
Quantity ofIce-Cream Cones
0
Price ofIce-Cream
Cone
10090
S1
S2
Demand, D1
Price without tax 2.80
Price sellers receive
$3.30
Price buyers pa
y
Equilibrium without tax
A tax on sellers shifts the supply curve upward by the amount of the tax ($0.50). Tax ($0.50)
Equilibriumwith tax
A Payroll Tax
Quantity ofLabor
0
Wage
Wage without tax
Labor demand
Labor supply
Tax wedge
Wage firms pay
Wage workers receive
Elastic Supply, Inelastic Demand...
Quantity0
Price
Demand
Supply
Tax
1. When supply is moreelastic than demand...
2. ...theincidence of thetax falls moreheavily onconsumers...
3. ...than onproducers.
Price without tax
Price buyers pay
Price sellers receive
Inelastic Supply, Elastic Demand...
Quantity0
Price
Demand
Supply
Price without tax
Tax
1. When demand is moreelastic than supply...
2. ...theincidence of the tax falls more heavily on producers...
3. ...than on consumers.
Price buyers pay
Price sellers receive