SURVEY OF INTERNAL PARASITES IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN

THE WHITE NILE STATE – SUDAN (APRIL – MAY 2009)

By

MOHAMMED ABAKAR YOUSIF

(B.V.M., University of Khartoum, 2002)

Supervisor

PROF. AHMED ABDEL RAHIM GAMEEL

Dissertation Submitted to the University of Khartoum in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Tropical

Animal Health, (M.T.A.H).

Department of Preventive Medicine and Veterinary Public Health,

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum.

February 2010

I

DEDICATION

To MY Parents

II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Prof. A.A.Gameel for

his help and best guidance.

Thanks and appreciation are extended to

Dr.Tariq Mohammed. of Rabak Veterinary Research Laboratory for

facilitating the laboratory works.

My colleagues and friends who offered great help to me, especially

Dr.Mortada Mohammed, Dr. Osama Ishaq, Dr.Hassan Ali, Dr.Atif

Ahmed, Dr.Amjad Mohammed, and Dr. Abd Algadir Al-fadil

The Staff of Rabak veterinary research laboratory for their help,

especially Abo bakar Abd Al-rahman who helped me in collection of

samples, Sedig Boshra, Ahmed Al-bashir and khadiga Hamid

The staff of Animal Resources Administration, Rabak for providing

data especially Dr Kamal Hassan

Great thanks to Salwa Osman for her technical help

The technical staff of the Department of Preventive Medicine and

Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University

of Khartoum especially Hamed Abd Alwahid and Hessin Abdel

Rahim.

III

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Subject ………………………………………………………….............Page

Dedication …………………………………………………………………...I

Acknowledge ……………………………………………………………….II

Table of contents …………………………………………………………..III

List of tables …………………………………………………………….....VI

List of figures ………………………………………………………..........VII

List of plates ……………………………………………………………..VIII

Abstract ……………………………………………………………………IX

Arabic abstract ……………………………………………………………XII

Introduction …………………………………………………………………1

CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………….............4

1.1. Helminthoses ………………………………………………………...…4

1.1.1. Nematodes …………………………………………………………....5

1.1.1.1. Life cycle …………………………………………………………...6

1.1.1.2 Factors affecting nematode abundance ….………………………….7

1.1.1.2.1. Climatic factors …………………………………………………..8

1.1.1.2.2. Management systems …………………………………………...10

1.1.1.2.3. Host factors …………….………………………………….........11

1.1.1.2.4. Parasite factors...…………………….…………………………..11

1.1.2. Trematodes ………………………………………………………….12

1.1.2.1. Life cycle ………………………………………………………….13

1.1.2 Cestodes …………………………………….……………………….15

1.1.2.1 Life cycle …………………………………………………………..15

1.2. Coccidia ……………………………………………………................15

1.2.1. Life cycle ……………………………………………………………16

IV

1.3. Diagnosis of parasites in small ruminants ……………………………17

1.4. Control ………………………………………………………………...17

1.5. Prevalence of helminths in the world …...............................................21

1.6. Prevalence of coccidia in the world …………………………………..22

1.7. Prevalence of helminths in Sudan …………………………………….23

1.8. Prevalence of coccidia in Sudan ………….…………………………...24

CHAPTER TWO: MATERIALS AND METHODS ……………………...25

2.1 STUDY AREA ………………………………………………………...25

2.1.1 Location ……………………………………………………………...25

2.1.2 Climatic conditions ………………………………………………….25

2.1.2 Animals populations …………………………………………………25

2.2 Study design …………………………………………………………...26

2.3 Sample size …………………………………………………………….26

2.4 Animals ………………………………………………………………..27

2.5 Data collection …………………………………………………………27

2.6 Faecal examination …………………………………………………….27

2.6.1 The Willis technique ………………………………………………...27

2.6.2 The Modified Mc Master Technique ………………………………...28

2.6.3 Sedimentation ………………………………………………………..29

CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS …………………………………………..30

3.1 Pasture status: ………………………………………………………….30

3.2 Microscopicall examination results ……………………………………30

3.2.1Prevalence of parasites ……………………………………………….30

3.2.2 Eggs and oocyst count………………………………………………..31

3.3Questionnaire results …………..……………………………………….47

3.3.1Parasites problem …………………………………………………….47

3.3.2Control of parasites …………………………………………………..47

V

3.3.3Veterinary care ……………………………………………………….47

CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION ………………………………………..50

RECOMMENDATIONS:………………………………………………….57

REFERENCES: ……………………………………………………….…...58

APPENDIX

VI

LIST OF TABLES

1. Table(3.1): Number Of Goats And Sheep Infected In All Regions ...32

2. Table (3.2): Number of goats and sheep infected with various internal

parasites in four regions in White Nile State ……………………….33

3. Table(3.3): Prevalence of internal parasites ………………………34

4. Table(3.4): Single and multiple parasitic infections in sheep and goats

……………………………………………………………………… 35

5. Table (3.5): range of Strongylids and coccidia eggs per gram ( EPG)

……..………………………………………………………………...42

6. Table (3.6): Results of Questionnaire Survey ………….……...........48

VII

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Figure 3.1 Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in all

region ……………………………………………………………….36

2. Figure 3.2 Prevalence of internal parasites in all animals ………....37

3. Figure 3.3 Prevalence of internal parasite in sheep and goat in

Aljazeera Aba ……………………………………………………….38

4. Figure 3.4 Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in

Kosti ………………………………………………………………...39

5. Figure 3.5 Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in

Rabak ……………………………………………………………….40

6. Figure 3.6 Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in

Omjar………………………………………………………………..41

7. Figure 3.7 Average eggs per animal of Strongylids and coccidia in

Algazeera Aba ………………………………………………………43

8. Figure 3.8 Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia

in Kosti ……………………………………………………………..44

9. Figure 3..9 Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia

in Rabak ………………………………………………….................45

10. Figure 3. 10 Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and

coccidia in Omjar …………………………………………………...46

VIII

LIST OF PLATES

1. Plate(1.1): The FAMACHA technique …………………………….20

IX

ABSTRACT

The present study was carried out in the White Nile State during the period

of April – May 2009 to determine the prevalence rate of internal parasites in

sheep and goats. A total of 409 animals were examined in four areas of

which 51, 53 and 50 animals from each species in Al gazeera Aba, Rabak

and Kosti areas, respectively. Besides, 51 sheep and 50 goats were examined

in Omjar area. For detecting the ova and ooysts, fecal samples were

collected directly from the rectum and examined using the floatation method

and the modified McMaster egg counting technique for counting nematode

eggs and coccidian oocysts. The sedimentation method was used for

trematode eggs. The results indicated that gastrointestinal parasites are

common in sheep and goats and that overall parasites egg counts were

higher in the goats.

The overall prevalence of infection in sheep and goats was 79%, and about

36% – 57% of sheep and 41% – 44% of goats had single infections. The

parasites detected were Coccidia (41.2% in sheep and 50.2% in goats),

Strongylids (24.5% in sheep and 31.2% in goats), Schistosoma (23.o% in

sheep and 26.8% in goats), Monezia(25.5% in sheep and 15.6% in goats),

Fasciola (5.9% in sheep and 6.8% in goats), Paramphistomum (2.0% in

sheep and 2.9% in goats), Trichuris (0.5% in sheep and 2.9% in goats), and

Strongyliodes (0.97% in goats). In general, the prevalence of parasitic

infections were higher in goats than in sheep (81.95% and 76.96%

respectively) and that Coccidia, Strongylids and Schistosoma infection were

the most obvious.

X

Data obtained from official records and from animal owners indicated that

the owners are aware of the importance of internal parasites on the health

and productivity of their animals. They treat their animals using

anthelmintics, but they do not usually abide by treatment protocol. In

general, sheep seem to be more attended than goats, and this may explain the

higher prevalence of parasitic infection in goats.

XI

لطفيليات الداخلية في الضأن و الماعز في والية النيل ل مسح

)2009مايو -ابريل (السودان -األبيض

:المستخلص

هذه الدراسة في والية النيل األبيض لتحديد معدل انتشار الطفيليات الداخلية في الضأن و ريتأج

كل نوع كان منحيوان 50 و 53 و 51حيوان في أربع مناطق و هي 409تم فحص .الماعز

لمعرفة .أم جر في ماعز 51و ضأن 50 بجانب. علي التوالي كوستيو ربك و أبا الجزيرة في

جري الفحص أنات الروث من المستقيم مباشرة وجمعت عي ‘و اكياس الكوكسيديا البيضوجود

الطفو و تقنية عد البيض المعدلة باستعمال شريحة الماكماستر , طرق باستعماللعينات الروث

طريقة الترسيب لفحص استعملتو، لفحص و عد بيض الديدان االسطوانية و أكياس الكوكسيديا

في الضأن و الماعز و ةالنتائج إلى إن الطفيليات الداخلية شائعأشارت .بيض الديدان المفلطحة

معدل انتشار الطفيليات العام كان .لية في الماعزاكانت علكن كمية البيض في الجرام من الروث

بنوع واحد ةمصاب تكان الماعزمن % 44 - % 41الضأن و من% 57 - % 36و حوالي % 79

,)ماعز% 50.2ضأن و% 41.2(الكوكسيديا كانت الطفيليات التي وجدت .من الطفيليات

,%)15.6و% 25.5( مونيزيا, %)26.8و% 23( بلهارسيا ,%)31.2و% 24.5( استرونجايليد

و %) 2.9و% 0.5(تراكيورس ,%)2.9و% 2( بارامفستوم ,%)6.8و% 5.9(فاشوال

). في الماعز% 1(استرونجايلويدس

علي %81.95و% 76.96(من الضأن في الماعز اعالي انتشار الطفيليات لمعد كان اعموم

. أكثر وضوحاً تكان البلهارسياو استرونقيليد و بالكوكسيديا اإلصابةو )التوالي

إن أصحاب إلى تأشارو أصحاب الحيوانات الرسميةسجالت الالتي استخلصت من تالبيانا

اإلنتاجيةو لصحية العامة الحالة ا علي تأثيرهاو لطفيليات الداخليةا بأهميةالحيوانات لديهم معرفة

بالنظام باستعمال مضادات الديدان و لكن عادة ال يلتزمون ميعالجون حيواناته و في الحيوان

.العالجي المحدد

XII

تحظي باهتمام اكبر من الماعز و ذلك قد يفسر ارتفاع معدل انتشار الضأنان بدوي عموما

.الطفيليات في الماعز

1

INTRODUCTION

Sheep and goats are important livestock species in developing countries,

because of their ability to convert forages, crops and household residues

into meat, fiber, skins and milk (FAO, 1985). 96% of the milk and meat

producing goats and sheep populations are found in developing

countries, and 4% are found in developed countries. The total milk

production for goats and sheep was 13.8 and 8.7 million tonnes

respectively while meat quantity was 8.6 million tonnes for sheep and 4.9

million tones for goat worldwide (FAO, 2008).

Goats play an important socioeconomic role in rural areas especially for

women who are among the most poor resource farmers in Africa. They are

prolific and require low inputs for a moderate level of production, reach

maturity early and are profitable to keep (Deyendrac and Burns, 1970).

Gastro-intestinal (GI) nematode and trematode (fluke) infections of

ruminant livestock cause major problems in the developing world. These

parasites are difficult to manage because in some cases they develop

resistance to all available commercial dewormers and resistance to

dewormers is now see worldwide (Zajac and Gipson, 2000;Kaplan, 2004).

Economic losses incurred by these parasites include reduced animal

performance and weight gain, condemnation of whole carcass or affected

organs at slaughter, cost of treatment, and mortality in severe cases

(Over et al., 1992; Nari et al., 1997; Gatongi et al., 1997; Perry and

Randolph, 1999; Perry et al., 2002). The main nematodes causing severe

losses to the livestock industry, are Trichostrongyles, Haemonchus

2

contortus, Oesophagostomum spp, Cooperia spp and Trichostrongylus spp

(Waller, 2006). Haemonchus contortus is a blood-sucking nematode of the

abomasum in small ruminants, It is responsible for extensive losses and

huge animal welfare problems globally and it is associated with

clinical and pathological manifestations that include hemorrhagic anemia,

hypoproteinemia, and parasitic gastroenteritis ( Ahmed and Ansari,

1989; Albers et al., 1990).

Infections by liver flukes (Fasciola spp) also result in major economic

losses in sheep and goats (Anonymous, 1994; Hansen and Perry, 1994;

Urquhart et al., 1996). The construction of dams and the establishment

of irrigation systems have further increased the distribution of these

parasites by creating favorable environments for their snail

intermediate hosts (Anonymous, 1994).Small liver flukes (Dicrocoelium

spp) and rumen flukes (Paramphistomum spp) are less important parasites,

but may cause sporadic losses in small ruminants (Anonymous, 1994;

Urquhart et al., 1996).

Coccidiosis in small ruminants is mainly caused by the Eimeria species

(Soulsby, 1982). Heavy infections will result in severe diarrhoea which

sometimes contains blood and diagnosis can be done through faecal

examination for oocyst identification (Urquhart et al., 1996).

3

Aims of the study

The present study is, therefore, aimed at surveying the parasitic infections

of goats and sheep grazing together at the same pasture in the white Nile

State of the Sudan during the dry season of the year in four areas.

Specific objectives:

survey the internal parasite affecting sheep and goats grazing at same

pasture.

determine the load of the parasites.

To compare the susceptibility of sheep and goats to parasite infection.

4

CHAPTER ONE

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Helminthoses:

Helminth infections, or helminthoses, refer to a complex of conditions

caused by the Nematod, Cestod and Trematod parasites. Although all

grazing sheep and goats may be infected with the above- mentioned

parasites, low worm burdens usually have little impact on animal health. But

as the worm numbers increase, effects in the form of reduced weight gain

and decreased appetite occur. With heavier worm burdens clinical signs such

as weight loss, diarrhoea, anaemia, or sub-mandibular oedema (bottle jaw)

may develop(Lughano and Dominic, 1996).

Parasitic helminths of small ruminants belong to the phyla Platyhelminthes

(flatworms) and Nemathelminthes (roundworms) (Soulsby, 1982; Urquhart

et al., 1996). The former phylum has two classes Cestode (tapeworms) and

Trematode (flukes). The most important cestode parasites of

ruminants, both in terms of public health and veterinary medicine, belong to

the family Taeniidae. adult cestode parasites of the genera Moniezia,

Avitellina, Thysanosoma and Stilesia are common parasites of small

ruminants in African countries (Urquhart et al., 1996).

All of the trematode species that are parasitic in small ruminants belong to

the subclass Digenea. The most important of these species in Africa

are the liver flukes, Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica and

Dicrocoelium spp., and rumen flukes (Paramphistomes),

5

Paramphistomum spp (Soulsby , 1982; Anon, 1994; Hansen & Perry, 1994;

Urquhart et al., 1996).

The causes of helminth parasitism in ruminant livestock are multiple and

often interactive, the vast majority of cases are due to any of the

following basic reasons.

(1) An increase in the number of infective stages on pasture

(2) An alteration in host susceptibility

(3) The introduction of susceptible stock into an infected environment

(4) The introduction of infections into an environment

(5) Ineffective parasite removal from the host animals due to the use of

sub-standard anthelmintic doses and/or the development of anthelmintic

resistance(Urquhart et al., 1996).

1.1.1. Nematode:

The Nemathelminthes (nematodes) include several superfamilies of

veterinary importance. These are Trichostrongyloidea, Strongyloidea,

Metastrongyloidea, Ancylostomatoidea, Rhabditoidea, Trichuroidea,

Filarioidea, Oxyuroidea, Ascaridoidea and Spiruroidea. The

Gastrointestinal nematodes of greatest importance in small ruminants are

members of the order Strongylida, which contains the first four

superfamilies, Trichostrongyloidea, Strongyloidea, Metostrongyloidea,

Ancylostomatoidea, but most belong to the superfamily

Trichostrongyloidea, All grazing sheep and goats are infected with a

community of these Strongylid nematodes, whose combined clinical effect is

the condition known as parasitic gastroenteritis (Zajac, 2006).

The most common species of nematodes associated with parasitic gastro-

enteritis in small ruminants in most sub-Saharan countries are Haemonchus

contortus, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Trichostrongylus

6

colubriformis, Trichostrongylus axei, Bunostomum trigonocephalum,

Cooperia curticei, Trichuris ovis, Trichuris globulosus, Strongyloides

papillosus, Gaigeria pachyscelis and Chabertia ovina . Lungworms such as

Dictyocaulus filaria, Muellerius capillaris and Protostrongylus rufescens

cause parasitic bronchitis particularly in young animals. Haemonchus

contortus, Teladorsagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus spp.(T. axei, T.

colubriformis and T. vitrinus)are the most important, (Hansen & Perry,

1994; Lughano&Dominic, 1996).

1.1.1.1. Life cycle:

The life cycles are direct, requiring no intermediate hosts, which applies to

all of the economically important Strongylid parasites of small ruminants

(Hansen &Perry, 1994; Urquhart et al., 1996). In these cycles, adult female

parasites in the GI tract produce eggs that are passed out with the faeces of

the animal Development occurs within the faecal mass, the eggs

embryonate and hatch into first-stage larvae (L1), which in turn moult into

second-stage larvae (L2), shedding their protective cuticle in the process.

During this time the larvae feed on bacteria. The L2 moult into third-stage

larvae (L3), but retain the cuticle from the previous moult. The L3 constitute

the infective stage, and these migrate onto surrounding vegetation where

they become available for ingestion by grazing sheep and goats.

Following ingestion, the L3 larvae pass to the abomasum or intestine, where

they ex-sheathe. The L3 of the Trichostrongyle worms penetrate the

epithelial layer of the mucus membrane (in the case of Haemonchus and

Trichostrongylus) or enter the gastric glands (Teladorsagia). In normal

development, the L3 moult within 2–3 days to become fourth-stage larvae

(L4), which remain in the mucous membrane or in the gastric glands for a

7

further 10 to 14 days. Finally, the L4 emerge and moult to become young

adult parasites. The time between ingestion of L3 and the parasite becoming

mature adults (refered to as the prepatent period) which varies between

parasite species, but generally is between 3 and 5 weeks. Nematodirus,

Trichuris, Bunostomum and Strongyloides species are exceptions to the life

cycle.

Nematodirus species, the larval stages develop inside the eggshell which is

extremely tough, resistant to drought and freezing.Larvae take a very long

time to develop and eggs dropped in early summer will have reached 3rd

stage infective larvae by autumn at the earliest. Trichuris adlult lives in large

intestine. Female lays eggs that pass through feces and infective larvae

develops in the eggs within few weeks. In moist surrounding Tirchuris eggs

remain viable for months or a year. Bunostomum eggs require few days after

passage in feces before infective larvae are produced. The larvae enter the

body via skin or mouth. Strongyloides lay embryonated eggs. The eggs

hatch quickly, and the larvae escape into the lumen of the small intestine.

Some pass out of the body with the faeces, others develop quickly and

penetrate the body through the side of the lower intestine, and migrate

through the tissues until they reach the small intestine where they also

become adults and reproduce. In this way Strongyloides multiply in the body

(Soulsby, 1982; Urquhart etal., 1996; Fritz etal., 2001).

1.1.1.2. Factors affecting nematode abundance:

The epidemiology of parasitic diseases depends on factors such as the

infection pressure in the environment and the susceptibility of the host

species (or individual). The infection pressure, in turn, depends on factors

that affect the free - living and intermediate stages, such as

8

temperature, rainfall and moisture. Furthermore, the availability of large

numbers of susceptible definitive and intermediate hosts will increase the

parasites’ ability to reproduce and result in high parasite abundance

(Torgerson & Claxton, 1999).

1.1.1.2.1. Climatic factors:

The development, survival and transmission of the free-living stages of

nematode parasites are influenced by micro-climatic factors within the faecal

pellets and herbage. These include sunlight, temperature, rainfall, humidity

and soil moisture (Lughano and Dominic, 1996). Under optimal conditions

(high humidity and warm temperature ), the development process takes 7 to

10 days (Soulsby, 1982; Hansen & Perry, 1994; Urquhart etal., 1996). In

most African countries, the temperatures are usually favourable for larval

development in the environment. Development of Trichostrongylid larvae

occurs in a temperature range of approximately 10 – 36 °C, No

development of Trichostrongylid larvae occurs below 5°C while

emperatures above 40°C are lethal (Lughano and Dominic, 1996).

The optimal humidity requirement for freeliving tage development of most

species is 85%. Although desiccation is lethal for the free-living stages of

parasite worms, the important nematode parasites can survive such

conditions either as embroynated eggs or as infective larvae (Donald, 1968;

Tembely, 1998;O'Connor etal., 2006). The L3 of Trichostrongylid

nematodes may survive for varying periods, depending on species and

particularly the prevailing weather conditions. In the desiccated state L3

can survive for several months, but once hydrated they become active and

rapidly exhaust their food reserves (Tembely, 1998; Torina etal., 2004;

O'Connor et al., 2006).

9

Higher worm burdens and outbreaks of parasitic gastroenteritis in goats and

sheep in sub-sahara regions are encountered during or immediately

after the end of the rainy season(Lughano and Dominic, 1996). In the arid

tropical climates of lowland areas of Ethiopia, parts of Somalia and Sudan,

there exists an environmental gradation which ranges from deserts, to

extensive pasturelands and browse plants, to intensive grazing areas around

permanent water courses (lakes and rivers) and irrigated land. Thus,

there exists a change of environments, which range from being hostile to

those that are most favourable for development and survival of free-living

stages of the parasites (Sissay, 2007).

Some Trichostrongylid larvae such as Trichostrongylus colubriformis and

Oesophagostomum columbianum are known to be resistant to desiccation

and this ability enables them to survive under extremely low or high

temperatures (Lughano and Dominic, 1996).

Gastrointestinal nematodes can survive harsh conditions by hypobiosis or

arrested development of larvae (usually L3 or early L4) within the host. In

the absence of hypobiosis nematodes survive in hosts during the hot and dry

season as adults. In general the humid tropical climate is favourable for the

survival, development and transmission of gastrointestinal nematodes

(Donald, 1968; Hansen and Perry, 1994; Urquhart etal., 1996). However, the

combined effects of these factors are responsible for the seasonal

fluctuations in the availability of L3 on pasture, and subsequently in the

prevalence of worm burdens in the hosts. This seasonal variation of

parasite population dynamics has been described in a number of studies in

many African countries (Assoku, 1981; Vercruysse, 1983; Van Wyk, 1985;

Fakae, 1990; Fritsche etal., 1993; Maingi etal., 1993; Pandey etal., 1994;

Tilahun, 1995; Tembely etal., 1997; Nginyi etal., 2001; Debela, 2002).

10

1.1.1.2.2. Management systems:

Management systems for the animals have a strong influence on the

epidemiology of gastrointestinal nematodes. High stocking density increases

the contamination of the environment with nematode eggs or larvae and thus

makes the infective stages to be more accessible to susceptible animals.

High stocking rates and intensive management with little or minimal

rotational grazing, are associated with high pasture contamination and

outbreaks of clinical helminthosis, On the other hand, low stocking rates

and extensive management systems in the traditional husbandry systems

preclude a built-up of high worm burdens. The concentration of animals at

watering points particularly during the dry season may also result in massive

contamination of pastures with eggs or larvae leading to outbreaks of

parasitic gastro-enteritis. In addition to contributing to pasture degradation

and soil erosion, this forces the animals to graze closer to faecal material,

which results in the uptake of higher numbers of infective larvae (Lughano

and Dominic, 1996).

Anthelmintic treatment reduces the prevalence and severity of

gastrointestinal nematode infections and may significantly influence their

epidemiology (Lughano and Dominic, 1996), but developed resistance to

one or more of the available anthelmintic groups has threatened the efforts

of control globally (Sangster, 1999; Jackson and Coop, 2000;Kaplan,

2004; Miller and Waller, 2004; Waller, 2006).

11

1.1.1.2.3. Host factors:

The incidence rate and severity of infection with gastrointestinal

nematodes can also be influenced by host factors such as age, breed,

nutrition, physiological state and presence or absence of intercurrent

infections, for instance , kids and lambs are known to be more susceptible

than adults and there is a tendency for the worm burdens in goats and sheep

to decrease with increasing age. Some breeds of goats and sheep are known

to be genetically resistant to gastrointestinal nematodes infections than

others (Lughano and Dominic, 1996). For example in sheep and goats,

adult female nematodes may increase their egg output around the time

of parturition. This phenomenon, known as the peri-parturient rise (PPR), is

of great importance in the epidemiology of nematodes of small

ruminants, and has been reported in different African countries (Connan,

1976; Agyei etal., 1991; Tembely, 1995; Ng'ang'a etal., 2006). A PPR in

nematode egg excretion has been observed as early as two weeks before

lambing and kidding, and persisted up to 8 weeks post - partum when

lambing and kidding took place during the wet seasons, Thus, pregnant, or

lactating, ewes become the major source of infection for the new-born

lambs and kids. (Zajac etal., 1988; Agyei etal., 1991; Tembely, 1995;

Ng'ang'a etal., 2006; Sissay, 2007).

1.1.1.2.4. Parasite factors:

The intrinsic multiplication rate of the nematode species determines the

rate of establishment and size of nematode burden in the host. The

multiplication rate is determined by the fecundity of the adult worms, the

prepatent period and the survival and development rate of the parasite in the

environment. For example, Haemonchus contortus is one of the most

12

prolific nematodes; a female Haemonchus contortus may produce thousands

of eggs each day, and larval numbers on pasture can rapidly increase

during the wet seasons (Soulsby, 1982; Hansen and Perry, 1994; Urquhart

etal., 1996).Oesophagostomum columbianum also have a high biotic

potential such that establishment of these nematodes occurs very rapidly as

long as environmental factors are favourable. Trichostrongylus spp has a

lower biotic potential and hence its establishment is slower (Lughano and

Dominic, 1996).

1.1.2. Trematodes:

The life-cycles of important trematode species (Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola

gigantica , schistosoma. Spp, Parampistomum .spp and Dicrocoelium .spp)

of small ruminants all involve intermediate hosts such as different species of

aquatic or terrestrial snails, and ants for Dicrocoelium species (Urquhart,

etal., 1996).

Fluke infections in small ruminants depends on many variables, including

the presence of suitable intermediate hosts as well as favourable climatic and

ecological conditions. Such environmental factors include temperature,

rainfall, humidity and moisture. The factors influencing the development and

survival of both the larval stages of the flukes and their intermediate hosts

are similar to those of the nematode parasites (Anon, 1994; Hansen and

Perry, 1994; Urquhart etal., 1996; Torgerson and Claxton, 1999).

In most parts of Africa, the temperatures and moisture are favourable for

embryonation and hatching of the fluke eggs, development and survival of

fluke larvae in the intermediate host, as well as for breeding of the snail host.

In those African countries with distinct wet and dry seasons, it appears that

optimal development of eggs to miracidia occurs at the beginning of the wet

13

season, and development within the snail is complete by the end of the rains.

Shedding of cercariae commences at the start of the dry season, when the

water level is still high, and continues as the water level drops. The animals

then ingest the metacercariae while grazing on these areas during the dry

season, and clinical problems, occur at the end of that season or at the

beginning of the next wet season, depending on the rate of infection

(Urquhart etal, 1996).

The most important intermediate host in the transmission for F.hepatica is

the aquatic snail, Lymnaea trucatula which is widespread. Lymnaea

auricularia being most important intermediate of Fasciola gigantica.

Lymnaea natalensis in Africa has also been found to serve as an

intermediate host of Fasciola gigantica. Snails such as Planorbis spp and

Bulinus spp serve as intermediate hosts of Paramphistomum spp. (Soulsby,

1982).

1.1.2.1. Life cycle:

Adult Fasciola spp lay eggs in the bile ducts and the eggs are transported to

the gall bladder through the bile. When the gall bladder contracts the eggs

enter the duodenum and then are expelled from the host with the faeces.

Under optimum conditions of temperature and moisture the eggs hatch into

miracidia. The latter actively penetrate snail hosts and develop through the

sporocyst, redial and cercarial stages. The cercariae leave the snail hosts,

encyst onto herbage just below the water level and become metacercariae,

which are the infective stage. The metacercariae are ingested by grazing

animals with infected herbage or water. They excyst in the duodenum,

penetrate the intestinal wall and pass through abdominal cavity to the liver

where they penetrate the liver capsule. The immature flukes migrate in the

14

liver parenchyma and then enter the bile ducts where they mature and start to

produce eggs, (Soulsby, 1982).

The transmission of Paramphistomum spp is similar to that of Fasciola spp.

However, after excystation and attachment in the duodenum, the immature

Paramphistomes migrate up the alimentary tract and finally attach to the

epithelium of the rumen and reticulum (Soulsby, 1982).The immature

Paramphistomes in duodenum and ileum are plug feeders and cause

haemorrhage which leads to bleeding and diarrhoea and bleeding for a

prolonged period may cause anaemia, which further weakens the host

(Soulsby, 1982).

Schistosomes have a complex life cycle, in which cercariae, free-living in

fresh water, can penetrate healthy human skin. The head of the cercaria

transforms into an endoparasitic larva, the schistomule. The schistomules

pass several days in the skin then enter the venous circulation and eventually

migrate to the lungs. They then travel through the circulatory system to the

hepatoportal circulation where they mature into adult worms and mate.

Depending on the species, the schistosomes migrate to their final infection

site either on the bladder or the intestine where the females begin egg

production. These eggs are attached to the wall of the lumen. The eggs

penetrate the wall of the lumen, this is assisted by lytic factors secreted from

the eggs and by forceful piercing of the tissues by the pointed end of the egg.

They are then expelled in the feces or urine. The miracidium, liberated

from the egg, seek out snail hosts where they enter a sporocyst stage that

eventually results in free-living cercariae that seek out hosts (Fritz etal,.

2001; Soulsby, 1982; Christensen etal., 1983; Semuguruka, 1992).

In Sudan there are two species of Bulinus, (intermediate host of

Schistosoma) found along the White Nile from Kosti to the Jabal Aulia Dam

15

(William and Hunter, 1968).Bulinus truncatus and Biomphalaria pfeifferi

snails has been reported by Sulaiman and Ibrahim(1985) in the same area.

1.1.2 cestodes

The cestodes have indirect life cycles and the intermediate host may be the

soil-inhabiting oribatid mites such as Oribatula spp, Galumna spp in case of

Moniezia (Soulsby, 1982).

1.1.2.1 Life cycle

The adult worms are found in the small intestine of goats and sheep.

Proglottids and eggs are passed out in the faeces of the infected animal. In

the environment, the eggs may be ingested by oribatid mites where they

develop into cysticercoids. The cysticercoids which are the infective forms

are produced in 4 months. Ruminants are infected by the ingestion of the

infected mites with herbage. The prepatent period is 37-40 days (Soulsby,

1982)

1.2. Coccidia:

These organisms are typical intracellular parasite. They occur chiefly in

vertebrates and the majority of those of medical or veterinary importance

belong to the families Eimeriidae and Sarcocystidae.

The organisms are, with a few exception, intracellular parasites of epithelial

cells. They have single host. Can multiply asexually and sexually (Soulsby,

1982).

16

1.2.1. Life cycle:

According to Soulsby(1982). The oocyst ,which contains a zygote is

extruded from host tissues and passed to the exterior in the faeces. This is

the resistant stage of the life-cycle ,and under appropriate conditions it forms

the mature infective oocyst. In the sporulated oocyst there are four

sporocysts in Eimeria and two Sporocysts in Isospora.

The parasite life-cycle of the coccidia is initiated when the infective oocyst

is ingested by the appropriate host .Excystation releases the contained

sporozoites .which enter the epithelial cell and become Rounded up, as

trophozoite. within a few days the nucleus of the trophozoite divides to

become schizont (the first generation of schizogony ). When the schizont is

mature the first generation merozoites are released and the number of

merozoites varies according to species. Merozoite enters other epithelial cell

in the area and continue the cycle of asexual development. In new host cell

the merozoite first round up to become trophozoite and then undergoes

multiple fission as before. The second generation merozoite may proceed to

a third or more generation of asexual reproduction or they differentiate into

sexual or gametogonous form. The factors responsible for the initiation of

the gametogonous cycle are not fully understood. Although it is generally

considered to be genetically determined. Host responses may play a role

,through phenotypic determination in termination of schizogony, and there

are two distinct types of schizont and merozoite of both the first and second

generation found in area of the intestine where microgamont or

macrogamont developed. The microgamont arises in the same way as the

macrogamont , but as it enlarges , the nucleus undergoes multiple division

with production of a large number of microgametes. Liberated the

microgametes will fertilize the macrogametes to form zygote. With a few

17

exception , sporulation does not occur until the oocyst is shed to the exterior

of the body. The time required for sporulation to the infective stage is

specific feature of each species of coccidia and used as a characteristic in

identification . oxygen and adequate moisture are necessary for the

sporulation. The optimum temperature for sporulation is about 30 C in

general.

1.3. Diagnosis of parasites in small ruminants:

The diagnosis of parasites of small ruminants is based on demonstrating the

presence of eggs or oocyst and larvae, in faecal samples, or the presence of

parasites recovered from the digestive tracts or other viscera of the

animals.Although a great variety of methods and modifications have been

described for such diagnosis, standardization of techniques, such as egg or

larval counts, worm counts, pasture larval counts, etc., does not exist.

Therefore, in practice, most diagnostic laboratories as well as teaching and

research establishments apply their own set and protocols of test procedures

(Kassai, 1999).

However diagnostic procedures as described by (soulsby, 1986;Thienpont

etal., 1986 and Margaret etal., 1989) are usually adopted.

1.4. Control:

Successful control of parasitic diseases is highly dependent on available

information on local conditions and the strength of the extension service

transferring this knowledge to the farmer, Therefore, we need

comprehensive information about the epidemiology of parasites of

ruminants, on a regional or national basis, and also information about

variables such as host resistance, climate, and management data which can

18

be used to adequately quantify the occurrence of disease (Niezen etal., 1996;

Waller, 1999).

The issue of controlling gastrointestinal parasites is of particular economic

importance in production systems worldwide (Rinaldi etal., 2007a&b).

Conventional methods of worm control involve treatment(s) of the whole

flock with synthetic anthelmintics. However, in this day the global problem

of anthelmintic resistance in small ruminants ensures that attention also

needs to be given to the sustainability of anthelmintic treatment regimes as

well as to their immediate economic benefit (Cringoli etal., 2007a&b and

Cringoli etal., 2008). There is currently a general agreement to replace the

practice of treating the whole flock with targeted selective treatments, where

only animals showing clinical symptoms or reduced productivity are given

drugs (Van Wyk etal., 2006).

FAMACHA is a technique developed in South Africa that is used to identify

anemic animals on a 1 to 5 scale. The system is based on examination of the

lower eyelid of sheep and goats in comparison with the FAMACHA© color

chart depicting varying degrees of anemia. This test is used to determine the

need for anthelmintic treatment. Administration of treatment should follow

only if anemia (a sign of parasitism) is present (Bath etal.,1996;van Wyk

and Bath, 2002).

To control liver flukes must use narrow spectrum anthelmintics (Flukicide).

Most broad spectrum anthelmintics (against most nematodes and cestodes)

have little or no effect on liver flukes. If possible, delay grazing on flooded

pasture until the area has been dry for at least eight weeks. Most fluke cysts

will have been killed by then. It is also possible to leave the grass until it

dries well and use it to make hay to feed the animals during the dry period.

19

Pastures that remain wet for long periods are ideal environments for the

survival of internal parasite larvae. Drainage of fields reduces the larvae

chances of survival and extend grazing periods. It is also important that

animal watering areas be situated in well drained places (ESGPIP, 2007).

20

Plate(1.1):The FAMACHA© technique (picture from. attra.ncat.org)

21

1.5. Prevalence of helminths in the world :

Worm populations in sheep and goats with greatest burdens are recorded

around the peaks of the rainy seasons (Donald, 1968; Hansen and Perry,

1994; Urquhart etal., 1996).

In Bangladesh Mazid etal.(2006) reported that six species of trematodes, two

species of cestodes and three species of nematodes were identified, and

(94.67%) of sheep were positive for one or more species of helminth

parasites. In Ethiopia the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites was 75.3%,

and 84.1% in Sheep and goats respectively , Strongyles and Eimeria were

the most prevalent parasites encountered in the area (Fikru etal,. 2006). An

other study revealed that the prevalence rate of Moneizia spp., were 27.65 %

in sheep and 24.20 % in goats (Abebe, 2001).

In Pakistan75.2% of Sheeps were positive for one or more nematodes

species of six genera and the most prevalent nematode recovered was

Heamonchus contortus (Muhammed etal., 1999). On the other hand 53.33%

Sheep were infected with gastrointestinal parasite while 66.45% of goats

were detected positive. Trichuris(40%), Haemonchus (28.88%),

Coccidia(27.77%) , Nematodirus (11.11%) and Fasciola (4.44 %) were in

sheep. In case of goats Haemonchus (64.19%), Coccidia (43.87%), Trichuris

(35.48%), Nematodirus (13%), Trichostrongylus (4.51%), Strongyloides

(3.22%) and Fasciola were (0.64 %) were reported (Gadahi etal., 2009). A

recent study reported that the Prevalence of Paramphistomum cervi in sheep

was 28.57% and 23.80% in goats (Raza etal., 2009).

22

1.6. Prevalence of coccidia in the world

The coccidia have world wide distribution, and of various species. Eimeria

is limited only by availability of the host, as no vector is needed for the

transmission of infective stage. Sheep coccidiosis seem to be world wide in

distribution and that it was reported in Europe, Americas, Australia, and

Africa.

In Eurrope five species of Eimeria were recorded in Italy by Battelli and

Poglayen (1980). These were E.ahsata, E.ovina, E.ovinoidalis, E.parva, and

E.intricata. In North West Germany, Barutzki etal (1990) reported ten

species and new five species were detected, those were :E.crandalis,

E.weybridgensis, E.faurei, E.granulosa and E.pallida.

In England and Wales, similar ten species were detected and

E.weybridgensis, was found to be the most frequent species (Catchpole etal.,

1975).

In the United State, 69% of apparently healthy sheep were found to have

coccidia oocyst in their faeces. E.ovina was the most prevalent species.

In Australia, O`Callaghan etal(1986) reported that 80% of sheep were

positive for coccidia and eleven species of Eimeria were identified, ten

species were similar to those previously detected. E.punctata was the new

species observed.

In Kenya, the prevalence of the disease in sheep was(42.7%)and (45.2%)

during dry seasons and wet seasons, respectively and eight species of

Eimeria were recognized (Maingi and Munyua,1994). A study was

conducted to determine the prevalence and types of coccidia in Tanzania,

revealed that, 91% of goats and 93% of sheep were infected with coccidia

(Kusiluka etal., 1996).

23

1.7. Prevalence of helminths in Sudan

Many attempts were performed to evaluate the occurrence of helminthes in

deferent regions of the Sudan. Most cases of gastrointestinal parasites were

more of a multiple infections than single endoparasites infections of

different genera (Gadahi etal., 2009). Elkhawad etal. (1976) performed a

survey of cattle, sheep and goots helminthes in Southern Sudan , and the

results indicated that parasitic helminth were widely spreading .In another

study on the incidence of helminthes parasites in ruminants slaughtered in

Western States of the Sudan, the prevalence of different species in sheep

was recorded: Haemonchus contortus, 45.5% ; Oesophagostomum

columbianum, 39.5%; Trichuris ovis, 20%; Moniezia expansa, 9% and

Avitellina spp, 3%. The following prevalence were obtained in goats :

Oesophagostomum columbianum, 49%; Haemonchus contortus. 39.4%;

Trichuris ovis, 25% (Elkhawad etal,. 1978).

In a study performed in Central Kordofan and White Nile State, results

indicated that infections with nematodes , cestodes as well as tremarodes are

common. Nematodes were the most prevalent and they belonged to the

genera Haemonchus, Trichostrogylus, Strongyloides, Oesophagostomum,

Coopria, Trichuris, and Skrjabinema. Paramphistomum spp. They showed

low frequency in sheep from both areas (Ghada, 2000).

Several authors reported the genera of nematode parasites, in rumenants.

Haemonchus contortus, Strongyloides papillosus, Oesophagostomum

columbianum and Trichuris ovis were the most common identified parasites

in Sudan (Gagoad and Eisia, 1968; Eisia and Ibrahim, 1970; El badawi etal.,

1978;Atta El Mannan, 1983; Ahmed and El Malik, 1997 ;Ghada, 2000 and

Gundi, 2004).

24

1.8. Prevalence of Coccidia in sudan

Different report of Eimeria infection of sheep and goat were documented in

the sudan from different localities.

Seven species of Eimeria infection were reported, for the first time

from clinical cases of sheep in Khartoum state (Osman etal., 1990).The

prevalence of these species was as follows: E.ovina (40%), E.intricata

(23%), E.ahsata(13%), E.parva (7%), E.crandalis(7%), and E.pallida(3%).

Later, Abakar (1996) conducted a wide survey in various part of Sudan and

reported the prevalence of eleven species in Sudanese sheep. In addition to

the above mentioned four new species namely E.faurei (28%),

E.marsica(13%), E.granulosa(8%) and E.punctata(0.03%). The overall

prevalence of infection was 59%.

Abakar etal. (2001) reported the prevalence of 67% of enteric coccidia in

sheep in South Darfur State and eight species were detected.

In the Red Sea State, cases of coccidiosis of sheep diagnosed at Port Sudan

Veterinary Laboratory were represented as 13% and 33% during years 2000

and 2001, respectively (Anon, 2000a&b; Anon, 2001).

25

CHAPTER TWO

MATERALS AND METHODS

2.1 STUDY AREA

2.1.1 Location:

White Nile State is located in medial section of Sudan between geographical

co-ordinates 12:00 and 15:15 North and 31:33 and 33:15 East.

It covers 39701 Kg; divided into eight localities , Kosti ,Tandalti ,Alsalam

,Aldiweam ,Omrimta ,Rabak ,Aljabalian ,and Algiteana its surround by

Khartoum, Algazeera, Sinar, Upper Nile, South Kordofan and North

Kordofan States .

2.1.2 Climatic conditions:

The State receives an average rainful of 150 – 700 mm annually, and is

covered by savannah grass. White Nile river the main source of water in this

state and it has many islands, these islands like Omjar island have big

number of animals. In dry season, most animals are found near the river .

Maximum day temperature was 41Ċ in April and minimum temperature was

24Ċ in January (Anon, 2003).

2.1.2 Animals populations:

The current cattle, sheep, goat and camel populations of state are

approximately 3,430,516 cattle, 2,414,697sheep, 2,341,120 goats and 28,919

camels.

26

Animal resource represents about 8% of the national herd. On the other hand

40% of people in the state are grazier and depend on livestock for living

(Anon, 2008). According to tradition owning livestock equals wealth and it

has not only economical but also a social value, including a role in religious

rituals (Cecilia, 2006).

2.2 Study design:

The study was conducted on sheep and goats originating from four zones of

White Nile State, particularly from Kosti, Rabak, Algazeera Aba and Omjar

areas.

Multi-stage random sampling procedure was used to select animals, and

from each district, about 50 sheep and 50 goats were randomly selected,

during April and May 2009.

2.3 Sample size:

Total of 409 fecal samples were collected directly from the rectum of sheep

and goats (about 10 gram per animal), which grazed together. Total of 204

sheep and 205 goats, were chosen randomly.20 animals about six month old

, 20 animals about one year old, 30 animals about two years and 30 animals

exceeded three years old were selected for each area. The collected feces

were preserved in 10% formalin and were put into a plastic container and the

data pertaining to the species, and feces consistency were recorded, and

dispatched to Rabak laboratory.

27

2.4 Animals:

Sheep is of a local breed (White Nile sheep) and goats are also of a local

breed. Type of management is traditional one. During the day the sheep and

goats flock are herded on grazing pasture together with cattle, camels and

equines.

Sample collection was carried out at the dry season when animals were

barks .

2.5 Data collection:

Data on the livestock management and health was collected from each

region, through interviews. The interviews were based on a questionnaire

(see Appendix) with main questions.

2.6 Faecal examination:

The faecal sample were examined during this study and the following

techniques were adopted.

2.6.1 The Willis technique:

This technique was described by soulsby (1986) as follows:

1. Two grams of faeces were transferred to a morter and mixed with

saturated sodium chloride solution .

2. The mixture stirred gently until the faeces were thoroughly suspended

it was then poured through a tea strainer into a container and gently

pressing the excess fluid from the debris remaining in the strainer.

3. The mixture was immediately poured into test tube until it produced a

convex meniscus.

28

4. A clean glass slide was then placed over the top of the tube and left

for 10 minutes after which the slide was removed quickly.

5. A cover glass was applied on the slide which was then examined

microscopically for parasite eggs.

The identification of eggs and oocysts was achieved according to( Soulsby ,

1986;Thienpont etal., 1986 and Margaret etal., 1989).

2.6.2 The Modified Mc Master Technique:

Number of nematode eggs, cestodes eggs and coccidia oocysts were counted

using the following technique, which is described by soulsby (1986):

1. Two grams of faeces were weighed and transferred to mortar

2. forty- two ml of tap water added, the faeces were rubbed using pestle.

3. The mixture was sieved through a tea strainer into another container.

4. the filtrate was stirred and immediately transferred into a test tube.

5. the tube was centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 2 minutes and the

supernatant was discarded.

6. the sediment in the tube was agitated by a glass rod until it became

homogenous and then the tube was filled with saturated sodium

chloride to the same level as before.

7. the contents of the tube were mixed by inverting it several times.

A Pasteur pipette was filled while the stirring of the faeces and salt

suspension was still going on.

8. The small sample was rapidly run into one chamber of a McMaster

counting slide. After another stirring a second sample was withdrawn

and run into the other chamber.

9. The slide was left for 5 minutes to allow all eggs and oocysts to float

before microscopical examination. Under microscope all eggs and

29

oocysts were counted within the drawn squares on each chamber of

the slide . The number of eggs and oocysts per gram of faeces was

determined according to the following equation .

Eggs per gram(EPG)= number of eggs in the two chambers ×100

2

2.6.3 Sedimentation:

For high recovery of trematode eggs the following sedimentation technique

was peformed;

1. Five grams of faeces were mixed with sufficient volumes of normal

saline.

2. After thorough disintegration, the suspension was passed through a tea

strainer into a beaker and then into a conical flask.

3. To the filtrate more normal saline was added until it filled the flask.

4. The suspensions were allowed to settle and clarify the faecal mass.

Most of the supernatant material was decanted carefully and the flask

containing the sediment was refilled with normal saline.

5. The process was repeated several times until the supernatant become

clear.

6. After discarding the supernatant fluid, and by using a pipette, few

drops of the sediment were transferred to a glass slide. Then a cover

slip was slid over it before microscopical examination.

30

CHAPTER THREE

RESULTS

3.1 Pasture status:

During the period of study in dry season, the pasture areas were generally

dry and the amount of available grass was poor except at the banks of the

White Nile River, Nile islands and the canals. Some areas were greener than

others but it was never all green.

3.2Microscopical examination

3.2.1Prevalence of parasites:

204 sheep and 205 goats were examined; 158(79.96%) of sheep and

167(81.95%) of goats were found to harbor one or more parasite species as

shown in table (3.1) and figure (3.1).

The parasites identified were Coccidia, Strongylids, Schistosoma, Moneizia,

Fasciola, Paramphitomum, Trichuris and Strongyliodes. The prevalence

rates of these parasite varied from one area to the other (Table 3.2 and

figure 3.3, 3.4,3.5&3.6).

In general infection with Eimeria, Strongylids, Schistosoma and

Moniezia were the most prevalent ( Table (3.2). The prevalence for Moniezia

was higher in sheep than in goats.

Infection with Schistosoma were significantly higher in Omjar island than

other areas(Fig:3.6).single and multiple infection can be seen in table(3.4)

31

3.2.2 Eggs and oocyst count:

The results of quantitative examination of eggs using McMaster method are

presented in Table (3.5).The total eggs count and number of eggs per animal

for strongyles were highest in Algazeera area while coccidia oocyst counts

were higher in all areas investigated for both animal species. However, the

highest infection rate for Strongyles was seen in Rabak area, while that of

Coccidia, Moniezia and Paramphistoms was in Kosti area. Liver flukes were

more prevalent in Algazeera Aba.

Eggs of some parasites detected can be seen in plates (3.1- 3.6).

32

Table(3.1): Number Of Goats And Sheep Infected In the Region

parasite Goat (205) Sheep(204)

No. of

animals

infected

Percentages No. of

animals

infected

Percentages

Coccidia 103 50.24% 84 41.17%

Strongyles

/trichostrongyles

64 31.22% 50 24.50%

Schitosoma 55 26.83% 47 23.04%

Moneizia 32 15.60% 52 25.49%

Fasciola 14 6.83% 12 5.88%

Paramphitomum 6 2.92% 4 1.96%

Trichuris 6 2.92% 1 0.49%

Strongyliodes 2 0.97% 0 0.00%

Total number

examined

205 81.95% 204 76.96%

33

Table (3.2): Number of goats and sheep infected with various internal

parasites in four region in White Nile State

parasites Aljazeera Kosti Rabak Omjar

Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep

Strongyles

/trichostron

gyles

17(33.33

%)

17(33.3

3%)

11(22

%)

10(20

%)

29(54.7

%)

16(30.1

8%)

7(14

%)

7(14%

)

Coccidia 29(56.86

%)

22(43.1

3%)

33(66

%)

22(44

%)

19(35.8

4%)

23(43.3

9%)

22(44

%)

17(34

%)

Trichuris 0.00(0.0

0%)

0(0.00%

)

3(6%) 0(0.00

%)

2(3.77%

)

1(1.88%

)

1(2%) 0(0.00

)

Moneizia 6(11.76

%)

7(13.72

%)

14(28

%)

8(16%

)

6(11.32

%)

10(18.8

6%)

6(12

%)

27(54

%)

Fasciola 8(15.68

%)

4(7.84%

)

1(2%) 2(4%) 3(5.66%

)

5(5.66%

)

2(4%) 3(6%)

Paramphito

mum

1(1.96%

)

0(0.00%

)

2(4%) 3(6%) 1(1.88%

)

0(0.00) 2(4%) 1(2%)

Schitosoma 9(17.64

%)

12(23.5

2%)

6(12%

)

8(16%

)

6(11.32

%)

8(15.09

%)

34(68

%)

19(38

%)

Strongyliod

es

1(1.96%

)

0(0.00%

)

0(0.00

%)

0(0.00

%)

1(1.88%

)

0(0.00%

)

0(0.0

0)

0(0.00

)%

34

Table(3.3): Prevalence of internal parasites

parasite No. of

animal

infected

Percentages

Strongyles

/trichostrongyles

114 27.87%

Coccidia 187 45.72%

Trichuris 7 1.71%

Moneizia 84 20.53%

Fasciola 26 6.35%

Paramphitomum 10 2.44%

Schitosoma 102 24.93%

Strongyliodes 2 0.48%

35

Table(3.4): Single and multiple parasitic infections in sheep and goats

Location Goats Sheep

Single infection

Double infection

Multi infection

Single infection

Double infection

Multi infection

Algazeera aba

22(43.13%) 15(29.41%) 6(11.76%) 29(56.86%) 6(40%) 6(40%)

Kosti 22(44%) 16(32%) 5(10%) 20(40%) 12(24%) 3(6%)

Rabak 23(43.39%) 16(30.18%) 4(7.54%) 21(36.63%) 15(28.3%) 3(5.66%)

Omjar 21(41.17%) 14(27.45%) 9(1764%) 21(42%) 16(32%) 8(16%)

36

50.24%

31.22%

26.83%

15.60%

6.83%

2.92% 2.92%0.97%

41.17%

24.50%23.04%

25.49%

5.88%

1.96%0.49% 0.00%

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

Coccid

ia

Strong

yles

/trich

ostro

ngyle

s

Schito

soma

Moneiz

ia

Fascio

la

Paramph

itomum

Trichu

ris

Strong

yliod

es

Goat Sheep

Fig:(3.1) Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in all of the

regions

37

45.72%

27.87%

24.93%

20.53%

6.35%

2.44% 1.71%0.48%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

Coccid

ia

Strong

yles

/trich

ostro

ngyle

s

Schito

soma

Moneiz

ia

Fascio

la

Paramph

itomum

Trichu

ris

Strong

yliod

es

Fig:(3.2) Prevalence of internal parasites in all animals

38

56.86%

33.33%

17.64%

11.76%

15.68%

1.96%0.00%

1.96%

43.13%

33.33%

23.52%

13.72%

7.84%

0.00% 0.00% 0.00%0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Coccid

ia

Strong

yles

/trich

ostro

ngyle

s

Schito

soma

Moneiz

ia

Fascio

la

Paramph

itomum

Trichu

ris

Strong

yliod

es

Goats Sheep

Fig: (3.3) Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in

Aljazeera Aba

39

66%

22%

12%

28%

2%4%

6%

0.00%

44%

20%16% 16%

4%6%

0.00% 0.00%0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Coccid

ia

Strong

yles

/trich

ostro

ngyle

s

Schito

soma

Moneiz

ia

Fascio

la

Paramph

itomum

Trichu

ris

Strong

yliod

es

Goats Sheep

Fig: (3.4) Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Kosti

40

35.84%

54.70%

11.32% 11.32%

5.66%

1.88%3.77%

1.88%

43.39%

30.18%

15.09%

18.86%

5.66%

01.88%

0.00%0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

Coccid

ia

Strong

yles

/trich

ostro

ngyle

s

Schito

soma

Moneiz

ia

Fascio

la

Paramph

itomum

Trichu

ris

Strong

yliod

es

Goats Sheep

Fig; (3.5) Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Rabak

41

44%

14%

68%

12%

4% 4%2%

0

34%

14%

38%

54%

6%2%

0 0.00%0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Coccid

ia

Strong

yles

/trich

ostro

ngyle

s

Schito

soma

Moneiz

ia

Fascio

la

Paramph

istom

um

Trichu

ris

Strong

yliod

es

Goats Sheep

Fig:(3.6)Prevalence of internal parasites in sheep and goats in Omjar

42

Table (3.5): Average of Strongyids and coccidia eggs per grame ( EPG)

of feaces

EPG of feaces Aljazeera Kosti Rabak Omjar

Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Strongyles /trichostrongyles

19950

14450

7400

1750

10250

18100

2400

3100

range 0 - 5750 0-4700 0 - 3100 0 - 500 0 -1800 0-10000 0 - 1250 0 - 2000 Coccidia 41700

19050

44900

18450

31150

18150

16450

10900

range 0 - 9500 0-3500 0 - 1000 0 - 9200 0- 9900 0-10000 0 - 3400 0 - 5200

43

817.64

391.17373.52

283.33

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Coccidia Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Goats Sheep

Fig:(3.7) Average eggs/ animal of Strongylids and coccidia in Algazeera

Aba

44

898

148

369

35

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Coccidia Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Goats Sheep

Fig:(3.8) Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in

Kosti

45

587.73

193.39

342.45 341.5

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Coccidia Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Goats Sheep

Fig:(3..9) Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in

Rabak

46

322.54

47.05

218

62

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Coccidia Strongyles /trichostrongyles

Goats Sheep

Fig:(3. 10) Average eggs per gram (EPG )of Strongylids and coccidia in

Omjar

47

3.3Questionnaires results

3.3.1Parasites problem:

In this questionnaire, 79.62% of the owners stated that their animals suffer

from high infection level with internal parasites, 12.96% indicated moderate

infection level and 7.4% complained light infection.

77.4% of the owners know internal parasitic infection by clinical sign, while

22.6% of the owners do not care much about internal parasites.

Only 5% of the owners examine their animals for parasites in veterinary

clinics.

3.3.2Control of parasites:

85.19% of owners control internal parasites by use of anthhelmintic. Control

of parasites by using grazing practices and management is not practiced

(0.0%), while control by grazing practice and anthhelmintic treatment

together constituted

14.81%.The drugs used in control of parasites are Albendazole, Tetramisole,

Ivermectin, Antifasciola and a combination of drugs (antifascoil &

anthelmintic). 55% of owners follow the treatment doses prescribed by the

veterinarians, whereas 44.5% of them use random doses.

3.3.3Veterinary care:

62.25% of owners raising both sheep and goats practice regular treatment for

their animals against internal parasites. 99.2% of owners raising sheep do

treat for parasitic infection on regular level. On the other hand only 50% of

those keeping goats treat their animals against internal parasites.

48

Table (3.6): Results of Questionnaires Survey

factors of questionnaire Percentage Parasites problem

1. Big 2. moderate 3. light

parasites clinical sign 1. Yes 2. No

Laboratory examination 1. Yes 2. No

Control of parasites 1. anthheminthic 2. grazing practice

&management 3. both*

type of drugs

1. Albendazole 2. Tetramisole 3. Ivermectine 4. Antifasciola 5. combination*

Dose as doctor guidance 1. Yes

(79.62%) (12.96%) (7.4%) (77.4%) (22.6%) (5.55%) (94.55%) (85.19%) (0.00%) (14.81%) (6.8%) (2.88%) (3.77%) (16.75%) (69.8%) (55.5%) (44.5%)

49

2. No Dose repeat

1. as doctor guidance 2. random 3. not repeat

Owners have sheep & goats

1. treat 2. no treat

Owners have sheep only

1. treat 2. no treat

Owners have goats only

1. treat 2. no treat

(37%) (53.7%) (9.3%) (62.25%) (37.75%) (99.2%) (0.8%) (50%) (50%)

both* = anthheminthic and (grazing practical &mengement)

Combination* = antifasciola and anthhelmintic drug

50

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION

The present study revealed that 339 out of 409 fecal samples examined were

positive for endoparasites eggs. 77 %( 158) of Sheep; 81.95 %( 167) of goats

were detected positive . Cases of single and multiple infections were

observed.

Generally prevalence rate of endoparasites is supposed to be low because the

survey was conducted in the dry season when environmental conditions on

pasture are not favourable for the development and survival of the larva

stage the heminthes and oocyst of coccidia.

The present findings disagree with Muhammad etal.(1999), Ijaz etal.(2008),

Saiful Islam and Taimur (2008) in that parasitic infection seem to be very

low during the dry months of the year.

Strongylids and Eimeria infections are the most abundant. Fikru etal (2006)

found similar finding in Ethiopia with variation in percentage.

There was a high prevalence rate of coccidia in all areas, compared to other

parasites, regardless of the animal species, because coccidiosis is not

usually treated ( most drugs was anthehimitics).

In general the prevalence rate of coccidia was higher in goats compared to

sheep mainly in Algazeera aba, Kosti, and omjar. The present study is in

agreement with Fikru etal.(2006) who reported prevalence of Eimeria

species of 26.7% and 34.3% in sheep and goat respectively. Asif etal. (2008)

repored that the prevalence of coccidia was slightly higher in goat (57.5%)

compared to sheep (51.61%). Saiful Islam and Taimur (2008) found about

51

48% of goats and 31% of sheep examined were infected with Eimeria

species.

In Bangladesh Kanyari etal. (2009) reported, Coccidia infection in 35% of

sheep and 48% of goats.

On the other hand Borgsteede and Dercksen. (1996) found that 82% of

goats were infected with Eimeria species while Kusiluka etal. (1996)

reported 91% of goats and 93% of sheep were infected with coccidia.

O’Callaghan etal. (1986) reported that 80% of sheep were positive for

coccidia in Australia. This variation may be related to the difference in

climatic conditions and management.

The overall prevalence of Strongylids reported here is in agreement with

the range of results obtained by Ghada (2000), Raza etal. (2007), Abo El

Hadid and Lotfy (2007) and Ijaz etal. (2008).

In Rabak the prevalence rate of strongylids was higher in goats compared to

sheep. Most of the sheep and goats which were sampled were not owned by

the same owners, but Sheep and goats owned by many people usually grazed

in the same area.

When goats and sheep belong to one owner, the veterinary care given to

both species could be in the same level, but when only goats are found, the

veterinary service may be very poor in most cases. Animals which are

poorly managed are locally referred to as village animals, which are grazed

without shepherd, of which 95% of them are goats. All village animals may

attended by one shepherd with animals in pasture intermix.

The relatively higher prevalence of Strongyles in Algzeera aba and Rabak

may by related to some environmental conditions at pasture that favored

such high infection. one of these conditions that animals being graze on

remains of scheme’s crop and green grass near irrigation canals.

52

The Low prevalence rate of Strongylids in Omjar island despite the

relatively favourable conditions may be related to routine Anthelmintic

treatment .Contrary to that, Schistosoma infections in both sheep and goats

were higher at Omjar due to prevailing suitable conditions like presence of

canals and water packets which harbor the snail intermediate host.

The high prevalence of Schistosoma in goats in Omjar may be due to

prolonged exposure of goats to the infective stage of parasite, since most of

the goats usually don't leave Omjar as they are used for daily milk

production. In contrast sheep leave Omjar island during the rainy season and

return by the dry season.

Prevalence of Moniezia species was higher in sheep than in goats especially

in Algazeera aba, Rabak and Omjar. The present finding agrees with

Kanyari etal. (2009) who reported higher prevalence of Monieza in sheep

compared to goats (21% and 16% respectively). Saiful Islam and Taimur

(2008) also found that tapeworm infections were more frequent in sheep

(24.26%) in comparison to goats (16.52%).This higher infection in sheep

may by related to species resistance.

The higher prevalence of Fasciola in goats Algazeera aba probably due to

that goats usually graze near the river (Algasir) throughout the year where

snails propagate. The infection by Fasciola in kosti, Rabak and Omjar areas

was similar (2- 6%) in both goats and sheep. Higher infection rates with

Fasciola species in goats compared to sheep was also reported by El Sayed

(1997) in Egypt and Ijaz etal. (2008) in Pakistan.

Higher fluke infection in sheep than in goats were reported by Okoli.etal.

(2002) in Nigeria, Morsy etal. (2005) and Abo El Hadid and Lotfy (2007) in

Egypt, Menkir etal.(2007) in Ethiopia and Rajat etal. (2009) in India.

53

However Assessment of fluke infection by faecal examination may be

limited due to the fact that many animals may be infected with acute stages

not associated with ovideposition (Rajat etal. 2009).

Braun etal. (1995) and Kumar etal. (2002) compared the apparent

prevalence of liver fluke infection, detected by examination of liver, faeces

and bile and found that examination of liver or bile samples was more

indicative than faecal examination. Moreover the high temperature during

summers and lower rainfall hampers the survival and availability of the

infective stages of the parasite, as well as of the snail intermediate snail host

(Rajat etal., 2009).

The prevalence rate of Paramphistomum was very low. this seem to be in

agreement with other authors who reported very low prevalance (Khajuria

and Kapoor, 2003; Hassan etal., 2005; Gicik etal., 2003; Tariq etal.,2008)

Moreover the Paramphistomum egg output was low in almost all the

examined animals (1-3 eggs), indicating low degree of pasture

contamination and justifying the low prevalence of paramphistomosis

reported. As paramphistomosis is a water snail borne infection, the low

prevalence of paramphistomosis could be due to the low snail population.

Sometime water bodies, the habitat of snails, dry up quickly due to frequent

shortage of water( Tariq etal., 2008). The varairion in the prevalence of

Paramphistomum. among animals of the two species was not significant.

The lower prevalence rates of Strongyloides recorded in Sheep and goats as

a whole, disagrees with most of the reports . A study performed in the same

area (White Nile State) reported 7.8% the prevalence of Strongyloides

(Ghada, 2000). Almalaik etal.(2008) reported that Strongyloides is one of

most prevalent species in sheep and goats in Tulus locality in south Darfur

State in western Sudan. Abebe and Esayas (2001) reported, in eastern part

54

of Ethiopia during the dry season a prevalence rate of 45.22 % for

Strongyloides in sheep. The possible cause of this difference in the

prevalence of infection could be due to different sampling procedure and

variation in the climatic condition (Mazid etal. 2006). beside anthelmintic

treatment.

In this is study the overall prevalence of Trichuris was 0.4% and 2.92% in

sheep and goats respectively. This result seems to agree with Kanyari etal.

(2009) in Kenya who found that the prevalence of Trichuris species was 0%

and 2% in sheep and goat respectively. Similar prevalence rate in goats was

reported by (Ghada, 2000), while Almalaik etal. (2008) reported lighter

prevalence in sheep in south Darfur state. However the latter author found

higher infection rates with Trichuris globulosa in goats than sheep with

general prevalence rate of 0.6%.

Higher prevalence of Trichuris in goats compared to sheep was also reported

by Asif etal. (2008) in Pakistan and Kanyari etal. (2009) In Kenya.

The load of Coccidia (oocyst per gram) seem to be higher in goats than

sheep, especially in Algazeera aba and Kosti; this is may be related to

management.

Strongylids egg count per gram (EPG) was low especially in Omjar

regardless of species. Ghada (2000) performed a study in the same state and

reported that EPG was very low in the dry season. This findings may

influenced by many factors which are: in the dry season, larvae of

nematodes are able to undergo a period of arrested development

(hypobiosis) in the host (in the abomasal or intestinal mucosae) and

following infection, larvae may become metabolically inactive for several

months. Although the immune status of the host also has an influence on

rates of hypobiosis, the greatest proportion of larvae usually become arrested

55

at times when conditions in the external environment are least favourable for

development and survival of eggs and larvae (Michel et al., 1975; Ogunsusi

& Eysker, 1979; Chiejina etal., 1988; El-Azazy, 1995; Eysker, 1997). This

suspension of development helps some nematode parasites to survive the dry

seasons. Resumption of development usually coincides with the onset of the

rainy seasons, the most favourable period for larval development and

transmission on pasture (Agyei etal., 1991; El-Azazy, 1995; Tembely,

1995). The stimuli for the onset of arrested development in tropical areas are

linked to the dry conditions (Allonby and Urquhart, 1975; Vercruysse,

1985).

However a variety of factors like age, sex , breed of the host, grazing habits,

level of education, economic status of farmers, standard of management and

anthelmintic used can influence the prevalence of helminthes in animal

(Asanji and Williams, 1987;Pal and Qayyum, 1992;Niezen et al. 1996;

Waller 1999; Valcarcel and Romero, 1999; Ouattara and Dorchies, 2001;

Saiful-Islam et al., 2008).

Result of questionnaire addressed to the owners indicated that most of the

animals in the areas investigated suffer from parasitic infection. Owners

suspect parasitic infection in animals by observable clinical signs, like

diarrhorea, emaciation, and decreased productivity and treat them

accordingly. They do not resort to proper clinical or laboratory examination.

Most of the Owners use anthehilmintic mainly to control parasites whereas

few of them use their own grazing practices and management beside

anthehilmintics, however the higher stocking rate(number of animals per

grazing area) result in more feces being deposited on the grazing area and

thus more parasitic eggs and more pasture contamination.

56

Combination of drugs (drug for fasciola and drug for round worm) like

tetramisole for round worm plus oxyclosanide for fasciola was most used in

treating parasites, but the concentration of each component in this

combination may be decreased and less efficient against target parasites.

This may lead to increased resistance of parasites against such drugs.

Moreover many owners do not abide by the treatment recommendations

(dose, frequency of application), and this may also contribute to

development of resistance.

The results also indicated that sheep are usually well attended by owners

more than goats, especially when the latter are kept alone. These goats

receive less veterinary medical care and this may partially explain the higher

prevalence of internal parasites in goats compared to sheep.

57

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Survey of all parasitic diseases in sheep and goats in those

areas.

2. Because rotational grazing is difficult apply in traditional

pasture mass treatment under veterinary supervision must be

use before animals inter new pasture.

3. Optimized anthelmintic usage to preserve anthelmintic efficacy

and prevent resistance, include the use of the most suitable

drugs, correct dosage and possible combination of drugs

4. extension services, which includes, goats must have more

attention, sign of parasites and the relationship between

parasites and productivity.

58

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بسم اهللا الرحمن الرحيم

Appendix

Questionnaire form

1 Owner name……………………………………………………… 2 Location…………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………. 3 animal species

Sheep Goats two species

4 are internal parasite making problem? Big moderate light

5 How do you know that your animals are suffering from parasites? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6 Do you examine you animals for parasites periodically? Yes No

7 To control parasites in your animals do you use?

Anthelmintics grazing practice management

both

8 type of drugs

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

9 Do you use dose as doctor guidance?

Yes No

1. Do you repeat dose? as doctor 's guidance Random not repeated