ATTRA is the national sustainable agriculture information service operated by the National Centerfor Appropriate Technology, through a grant from the Rural Business-Cooperative Service, U.S.Department of Agriculture. These organizations do not recommend or endorse products,companies, or individuals. NCAT has offices in Fayetteville, Arkansas (P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville,AR 72702), Butte, Montana, and Davis, California.

By Barbara BellowsNCAT Agriculture SpecialistMay 2003

HORTICULTURE SYSTEMS GUIDE

Abstract: This publication is written for lawn care professionals, golf course superintendents, or anyone with alawn. Its emphasis is on soil management and cultural practices that enhance turf growth and reduce pests anddiseases by reducing turf stress. It also looks at mixed species and wildflower lawns as low maintenance alternativesto pure grass lawns.

SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE

LEAVE THIS SPACE HERE FOR THE TABLE OF

CONTENTS, TO BE ENTERED LATER.

Illustration 1. A healthy lawn complements a healthygarden. (Photo by Ron Francis, Natural ResourcesConservation Service)

Table of Contents

Introduction ..................................2Organic and Least-toxicTurfcare Practices ........................2A Healthy Soil Environmentfor Turf ...........................................2Species Diversity in the LawnEnvironment .................................9Cultural Practices that ReduceStress on Turf .............................12Biointensive Pest ControlMethods for Turf .......................15Summary .....................................20Acknowledgements ...................20Organizations .............................20Resources .....................................21Electronic Database ...................23References ...................................23Appendix: Tables 1-6 ........ 28-36Executive Summary ...................37

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 2

Related ATTRA Publications

Farm-Scale Composting Resource ListAlternative Soil Testing Laboratory Resource ListAlternative Soil AmendmentsSources of Organic Fertilizers and AmendmentsFlame Weeding for Vegetable CropsNotes on Compost TeasBiointensive Integrated Pest Control

Introduction

One 1996 survey found that more pesticides areused on turfgrass than on any other ornamental(1). High-maintenance turfgrass sites such as golfcourses use large amounts of fuel, fertilizer, pes-ticides, and water (2). However, homeowners,landscapers, and golf course managers are be-coming increasingly interested in organic andleast-toxic turf care. Reasons for this increasedinterest include (3):

� Elimination of pesticides from recre-ational areas such as lawns, parks, golfcourses, and athletic fields to eliminateexposure of people and pets

� Decreased susceptibility of turf to pests,diseases, and drought

� Reduced runoff and leaching of excessnutrients and pesticides into surface andground waters

� Enhanced biodiversity in urban regions,which contributes to the conservation ofspecies (birds, insects, herbs, others)

Organic and Least-toxic TurfcarePractices

Organic or least-toxic turf management reducesstress on the turf. Turf experiences stress fromheat, drought, wetness, compaction, nutrient de-ficiencies or imbalances, and disease and pest in-festations. To minimizing stress on turf, you needto pay attention to the following principles:

� Establish and maintain a healthy soil en-vironment

� Include a diversity of species in the lawnenvironment

� Use cultural practices that reduce stresson turf growth

� Understand and work with your local soiland climate conditions

� Use biological pest control methods

A Healthy Soil Environment for Turf

Good quality soil with an active population ofearthworms, fungi, bacteria, and beneficial nema-todes is critical for creating and maintaininghealthy lawns. According to Dr. Eric Nelson (2),turfgrass specialist at Cornell University, �Thechallenge of the turfgrass manager is to becomean expert not only in the management of whateveryone can see above the ground, but in themanagement of beneficial soil microorganismsto maximize turfgrass health.�

Fungi, bacteria, beneficial nematodes, and earth-worms in the soil are important for the decom-position of thatch, enhancing soil aerationthrough the formation of soil aggregates, andreducing populations of soil-borne plant patho-gens. To support a healthy and diverse popula-tion of soil organisms, soils need to have on-go-ing additions of organic matter, a near neutralpH, and a balanced supply of nutrients. In addi-tion, soil organisms thrive best in soils that arewell aerated and moist but not wet.

Soil management practices that promote thegrowth of beneficial soil organisms include:

� Adding compost� Monitoring soil pH and managing for

consistent soil fertility

�The heart of organic lawn care is the naturalbuild up of your soil. Healthy soils nurture ahealthy turf, which grows much better andhas an increased resistance to stress causedby heat, cold, drought, insect pests, diseases,and weeds. A successful organic fertilizerprogram provides for the long-term needs ofyour lawn by adjusting deficient nutrientswith organic fertilizers and soil conditioners.�

Shannon Pope, proprietor of HealthySoils, an organic lawn care service

�The challenge of the turfgrass manager is tobecome an expert not only in the managementof what everyone can see above the ground,but in the management of beneficial soil mi-croorganisms to maximize turfgrass health.�

Dr. Eric Nelson, Cornell University

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 3

� Preventing soil compaction� Reducing or eliminating the use of syn-

thetic chemicals

Compost additions. Continued applications ofsynthetic fertilizers and pesticides create a toxicenvironment for earthworms, fungi, bacteria, andbeneficial nematodes through radical changes inpH and the build up of toxic salts and othercompounds (heavy metals) sometimes found infertilizers. In contrast, mature compost enhancespopulations of soil organisms by providing themwith an excellent source of nutrients.

Soil quality. When soil organisms use and de-compose compost, they form slimes, gels, andfilaments that bind soil particles together into softclumps called aggregates. Soil aggregates im-prove conditions for turf growth by increasingsoil pore space, which then allows for less re-stricted root growth and easier flow of water,nutrients, and air through the soil and to plantroots. The low density of compost helps increasesoil softness or friability, while its high surfacearea and chemical activity increase the water andnutrient holding capacity of soil. Several turfspecialists recommend applying high rates ofcompost to improve degraded soil (4, 5). TheNOFA Standards for Organic Lawn Care (6) rec-ommends applying one inch or three cubic yardsof compost per 1,000 square feet for marginally-good soils. For very sandy or low-organic mat-ter soils, they recommend a two-inch layer or sixcubic yards of compost per 1,000 square feet.

Compost as a fertilizer. Mature compost pro-vides turf plants with a balanced source of nu-trients that are released slowly into the soil. Intheir excellent book, Ecological Golf Course Man-agement, Paul D. Sachs and Richard T. Luff (4)state:

�plants have a hard time understanding andadapting to the feast to famine scenario asso-ciated with many chemical-feeding programs.During periods when nitrogen is inadequateplants respond by elongating roots. When atidal wave of nitrogen becomes available froman application of soluble nitrogen, an extra-diffusive root system absorbs more than theplant needs, some serious side-effects that in-clude disease susceptibility, insect attraction,burning, and other problems can occur. In ahealthy ecosystem, however, there are mecha-

nisms that buffer and regulate the amount ofnitrogen available to plants.

Unlike soluble, synthetic fertilizers that imme-diately release available nutrients into the soil,the organic residues used to form compost mustdecompose before their nutrients are availableto plants. Good quality compost contains bothreadily available and stored nutrients. Once com-post is added to the soil, weak acids secreted byplant roots release the available nutrients fromcompost, and over time soil organisms breakdown and mineralize additional nutrients. SeeAppendix, Table 1, for characteristics of goodquality composts.

Compost maturity. As will be discussed in moredetail below, compost can effectively suppresssome turf pathogens. However, the compostmust be mature�fully composted and cured�for it to provide these disease suppressive ben-efits. In cured compost, heat-loving microorgan-isms have decomposed the organic stock mate-rials, and then more moderate temperature mi-croorganisms have stabilized various organicacids into humus. Compost piles that are wellaerated, contain a balanced mix of stock materi-als, and are managed at optimum temperatureand moisture content will decompose and curemore rapidly than less intensively managed com-post piles. Mature compost will have generatedenough heat to kill most pathogens and weedseeds and will have undergone sufficient miner-alization of organic materials to supply readilyavailable nutrients (7, 8, 9).

You can make a preliminary assessment of com-post maturity simply by filling a plastic bag withmoist compost, sealing it, and letting it sit in thesun for a few days. If the compost has an earthysmell when you open the bag, it is mature; if itsmells of sulfur or ammonia, it is still immature(5). In addition, special soil analysis laborato-ries can assess the types of microorganism domi-nating the compost pile and the level of biologi-cal activity. The ATTRA publication AlternativeSoil Testing Laboratory Resource List provides con-tact information and descriptions of the analysiscapabilities for many alternative soil testing labo-ratories.

If you are purchasing compost, make sure that itis from a reputable source and that it is mature,

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 4

nutritionally well balanced, and does not con-tain heavy metals, pathogens, or other toxic sub-stances (7, 9, 10). If you want to make your owncompost, the ATTRA publication Farm-ScaleComposting Resource List provides a compendiumof books and Web sites that can guide you.

Compost application. Compost can be tilled intothe soil during turf renovation, used as atopdressing, or sprayed on as compost tea. Solidcompost can be applied as an unmixed materialor mixed with sand for easier handling. Themethod of application depends on whether youwant to improve soil quality, enhance soil fertil-ity, or control pests and diseases.

When fertilizing turf, base the compost applica-tions on the nutrient needs of the turf, which aredescribed in greater detail below. To accuratelycalculate the amount of compost needed to meetthe nutrient needs of a lawn or turf, sample thesoil and test the nutrient content of the compost.Since compost is a biological material, its nutri-ents are released slowly�depending on the qual-ity and maturity of the compost and the climatewhere the compost is applied, only about one-third to one-half of its nutrients are availableduring the first year after application.

For maintenance of existing turf, apply compostas a topdressing. Compost may be applied as anunmixed material. However, in the turf indus-try, compost is typically mixed with sand 50/ 50,while for golf courses, topdressing mixes typi-cally contain 70% to 90% sand and 10% to 30%compost (4, 11). The advantages of mixing com-post with sand are easier application and better

distribution. But adding sand to compost cancause compaction problems if the topdressed soilis high in clay. To best mix compost with thesoil in existing turf, core aerate the turf, broad-cast the compost, then run a drag chain over theground to sweep the compost into the aerationholes.

The best time to apply compost is in the springor fall. Compost applied in the spring providesnutrients during the main growing season whilecompost applied in the fall helps prolong thegrowing season, strengthens root growth for thedormant season, and promotes early springgrowth (12). As will be discussed in more detaillater, compost mixed with cool-season grass seedin the fall facilitates effective overseeding.

Managing for soil fertility. Turfgrass requiresnitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K),and other nutrients. As for fields or gardens,turf should receive fertilizer applications basedon its nutrient needs. To accurately calculate theamount of compost needed to meet the nutrientneeds of a lawn or turf, sample the soil at leastevery other year. Your local Cooperative Exten-sion Service can tell you how to collect and sub-mit soil samples for analysis. You may also wantto refer to the ATTRA publication Alternative SoilTesting Laboratory Resource List for laboratoriesthat provide biological as well as chemical analy-ses. While soil sampling takes time and sampleanalyses may be costly, good fertility manage-ment can save fertilizer costs and help protectwater quality. The NOFA Standards for OrganicLand Care lists �adding nitrogen, phosphorus,or potassium without a soil test� as a prohibitedpractice (6).

Nitrogen needs. Proper nitrogen fertilization isespecially important for healthy turf. Too littlenitrogen will yield turf that lacks vigor and goodcolor. Too much nitrogen reduces turf�s toler-ance to drought and increases thatch (the layerof dead stems and roots that builds up beneathgrass) and susceptibility to disease. Timing ofnitrogen applications is also critical. Cool-sea-son grasses should be fertilized in the spring orfall when grass roots and shoots are activelygrowing. They should not receive fertilizer inthe late spring or summer when they are dor-mant. Conversely, warm-season grasses shouldbe fertilized in the late spring or summer when

http://www.planetgreen.com/education.shtml?performance

Tilling compost into soil during lawn renovation.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 5

Guide for Determining Compost Application Rates(developed from information provided in references 4 and 12)

Step 1. Test the compost nutrient content. A nutrient test should be conducted on each compost pile you willbe using. Especially if you are using commercial compost, test it for nutrient content as well as for thepresence of heavy metals or pesticides. If the compost is to be used for disease control, an analysis of micro-bial populations should also be conducted (see Table 1).

Step 2. Determine the amount of nutrients needed. Most soil testing laboratories provide recommendationson the amount of nutrients to be applied, based on the type of soil and plant variety you will be using. Whencalculating the amount of nutrients coming from compost, remember that only about one-third to one-halfwill be available during the current growing season.

For uniform turf growth throughout the growing season, apply the majority of your compost in the springand fall, with some topdressing during the summer. For example, you may want to apply 50% of the nutri-ents needed in the spring and 30% in the fall, with four topdress applications, each providing 5% of therequired nutrients.

Step 3. Determine the weight of compost needed (nitrogen based)To calculate the amount of compost needed, divide the amount of nitrogen to be applied by the percentage ofnitrogen in the compost, for example:Nitrogen to be applied = 6 pounds /1,000 ft2

Nitrogen content of compost = 2.0% on a dry weight basisMoisture content of the compost = 40%

Thus:Compost to be applied = 6 pounds N/(0.02 x 0.4) = 750 pounds of compost / 1,000 ft2

To translate pounds/1,000 ft2 into pounds/acre, multiply by 43.5.Thus:

750 x 43.5 = 32,625 pounds or 16.3 tons of compost would be needed to cover an acre.

Step 4. Calculate the volume of compost neededBulk compost is usually sold by the cubic yard rather than by weight. To calculate the volume of compostneeded, you need first to determine the weight of the compost for a given volume, such as a cubic foot.For example, if your compost weighs 25 pounds per cubic foot:then, its weight per cubic yard is 25 pounds/ ft3 x 27 ft3/ yd3 = 675 pounds/yd3

Continuing with the example given above:750 pounds of compost /675 pounds per yd3 = 1.1 yd3 /1,000 ft3 of compost needed.

Or32,625 pounds of compost /675 pounds per yd3 = 48.4 yd3 / acre needed.

Step 5. Depth of compost layer to applyIt is easier to apply compost by thickness rather than by weight per area. To convert cubic yards of compostneeded into thickness of the compost layer to be applied:Divide yd3/1,000 ft2 by the conversion factor 3.086

OrDivide yd3 /acre by the conversion factor 134.44.

Continuing with our examples:1.1 yd3 /1,000 ft3 needed / 3.086 = 0.35 inch or 3/8 inch of compost to be applied.or 48.4 yd3 / acre /134.44 = 0.35 inch or 3/8 inch of compost to be applied.

Note that normal agronomic compost application rates range from 5 to 10 tons/acre. The recommendedcompost application rates for turf are higher than the agronomic rates, because of the higher economic valueof turf and, depending on its use, the greater potential for compaction by people walking or playing sports onyards or athletic fields. For restoring degraded land, the recommend rates for compost additions can be ashigh as 250 cubic yards or 84 tons per acre, especially when the natural topsoil is missing (5).

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 6

they are actively growing. These grass speciesshould not be fertilized in the fall or winter whenthey are dormant (13, 14).

Turf species, soil conditions, length of the grow-ing season, and cultural practices all affect theamount of nitrogen fertilizer required. In gen-eral, cool season grasses such as Kentucky blue-grass, fine fescue, tall fescue, and perennialryegrass require 2 ½ to 3 pounds of N per 1,000square feet (109�130 lbs./acre) per year, whilewarm season grasses such as bahiagrass andbermudagrass require 5 to 10 pounds of N per1,000 square feet (217�435 lbs./acre) (13, 15). Turfneeds more nitrogen in southern states, wherethe growing season is longer, compared to north-ern latitudes where the growing season isshorter.

Compost as a source of nutrients. Compost pro-vides a complete source of turf nutrients, includ-ing micronutrients. Since these nutrients musteither be dissolved into solution by organic ac-ids or mineralized by microbial activity prior tobecoming available before they are available toplants, several weeks may pass before turf grassresponds to initial applications of compost. An-nual or semi-annual applications of compost willeventually provide a continual release of nutri-ents to turf. This nutrient release will slow orcease during the winter, when cold temperaturesslow the growth of soil organisms. As a result,turf that is dependent on compost for nutrientsmay green up slowly in the spring. If you wantgreen turf early in the spring, you will probablyneed to supplement compost with other naturalor synthetic nitrogen sources.

Natural nutrients sources. While compost is anexcellent natural nutrient source, its balance ofnutrients may not be the same as those requiredfor healthy turf growth. Consequently, you mayoccasionally need to apply more targeted nutri-ent supplements. Table 2 contains a list of nutri-ent supplements and their designation as organi-cally approved, permitted, or prohibited. Foradditional information on soil amendments andorganic fertilizers and where to obtain theseproducts, see the ATTRA publications Alterna-tive Soil Amendments and Sources of Organic Fer-tilizers and Amendments, respectively.

Soil pH refers to the acidity (soil pH lower than7) or alkalinity (pH greater than 7) of a soil. Mostturf grasses thrive best at a near neutral pH of6.5 to 7.5. Soil that is either too acid or too alka-line hinders the availability of nutrients. It alsolimits the ability of soil organisms to release nu-trients from compost, to form soil aggregates, andto break down thatch. At a low pH, phospho-rus, calcium, and magnesium become deficient,and nitrogen fixation by clover and soil algae isimpaired. At a high pH, the micronutrients iron,manganese, and boron become unavailable forplant uptake.

To raise the soil pH (make the soil less acid), ap-ply lime. Lime is available in two mineral forms:as a pure calcium limestome or as a combinationof calcium and magnesium, referred to as dolo-mite. It is also available in different grinds.Finely ground limestone is more chemically re-active and will change soil pH relatively rapidly,while more coarsely ground limestone may re-quire a year or more to affect soil pH. To lowersoil pH, add sulfur, typically available in the formof the mineral gypsum.

Illustration 2. Soil testing helps you provide your lawn with the correctamount of nutrients without risking contamination of the environment(Photo by Lynn Betts, Natural Resources Conservation Service)

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 7

The nitrogen in topdressed fertilizers is subjectto loss through volatilization. Between 13% and60% of the nitrogen in urea topdressed on turf islost to volatilization. Similarly, much of the avail-able nitrogen in topdressed compost can be lostto the atmosphere before it becomes available forplant growth (16). Incorporating compost or fer-tilizer into the soil can decrease the chances forvolatilization. As will be discussed in more de-tail below, core aerating the soil prior to apply-ing compost allows it to fall into the aerationholes and become partially incorporated into thesoil.

Caution when applying nitrogen to turf. Use carenot to overapply nitrogen to turf. Large doses ofsoluble nitrogen can injure or kill both plants andsoil organisms. If you are using synthetic sourcesof nitrogen, nitrate forms of nitrogen tend to beless injurious to turf than ammonic forms. Im-mature compost or other materials with a highnitrogen content should not be used in the prepa-ration of new or renovated turf, since these ma-terials can cause seedling death (16). High ni-trogen availability also increases the succulenceof turf grasses and their susceptibility to attackby pests and diseases, including chinch bugs, sodwebworms, parasitic nematodes, and brownpatch.

Turf fertilization and water quality. Applyingtoo much fertilizer or providing turf with nutri-ent applications that are out of balance with thenutrient needs of the turf can cause water pollu-tion problems. The average homeowner uses tentimes more chemical fertilizers per acre thanfarmers use on farmland (17). Too much nitro-gen fertilization, especially when applied to bareground or when plants are not actively growing,can result in nitrogen leaching into the ground-water. Overfertilization with phosphorus fertil-izers can result in phosphorus runoff, which con-tributes to algae growth in lakes and streams.Depending on the source materials used in com-post production, continual applications of com-post can cause phosphorus to build up in the soil.

This is particularly true for compost made fromanimal manure and less of a problem when com-post is made from lawn clippings and other land-scape materials. However, organic matter addi-tions stimulate microbial activity, which in-creases the capacity of soil to hold nutrientsagainst leaching and runoff (18).

Soluble nitrogen applied through an irrigationsystem has less potential for leaching than if it isbroadcast or topdressed on the sod, since onlysmall amounts are added to the soil with eachapplication. Organic soluble nitrogen sourcesinclude fish emulsion, fish powder, bat guano,seabird guano, worm castings, manure teas, andcompost teas. Synthetic slow-release nitrogenfertilizers, such as sulfur coated urea or resin- andpolymer-coated materials such as Osmocote�and Nutricote�, are less likely to contaminategroundwater than are soluble fertilizers.

For large turf areas such as golf courses, parks,or athletic fields, ponds or constructed wetlandscan collect and treat nutrients and sedimentsfrom storm water runoff. These areas also canprovide flood control, wildlife habitat, and asource of irrigation water (14).

Preventing and correcting soil compaction. Turfgrows poorly in compacted soil because its rootgrowth is hindered, water infiltration is slowed,and water and nutrient movement through thesoil is restricted. Compacted soils also put stresson turf by creating greater temperature extremes.You can decrease soil compaction by aerating thesoil and providing the soil with regular additionsof compost.

People walking, exercising, or playing on thegrass can compact turf soils. Even mowing thelawn can compact the soil, especially if the soil ismoist or wet when it is mowed. Applying highrates of nitrogen fertilizer (especially ammonicnitrogen) and continually removing grass clip-pings without adding organic matter back to thesoil also contribute to soil compaction.

Turf soil may be thin and compacted because ofthe natural characteristics of the soil in the areaor because of poor landscaping following hous-ing construction. Often when homes are built,the topsoil is removed or heavy equipment com-pacts the soil. If nothing is done to lessen the

The average homeowner uses ten times morechemical fertilizers per acre than farmers useon farmland (17).

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 8

soil compaction or if only a fraction of the top-soil removed is put back, turf will grow poorly.It will also be subject to water and nutrient stress,because the soil is too thin or consists largely ofnutrient-poor and easily compacted clay subsoil.

Thatch. Thatch is turf root growth that forms onthe surface of compacted soils. Lawn clippingsdo not form thatch. In fact, if managed prop-erly, they can help break down thatch. Thickthatch contributes to soil compaction and hin-ders water infiltration, soil aeration, and thegrowth of soil organisms. Over fertilization andover watering causes a thick thatch to build up.On smaller yards or in yards where thatch is builtup in isolated areas, raking can loosen it. Youcan leave this loosened thatch on the lawn todecompose or add it to your compost pile. Largeryards may require a mechanical dethatcher.However, large dethatchers can be very destruc-tive to turf and the soil structure. Many turf pro-fessionals prefer using management practicesthat encourage natural thatch decomposition byearthworms. Regular applications of compost,combined with soil aeration, provide earthwormsand other soil organisms with the air, moisture,and nutrients they need to grow and break downthatch (4, 19).

Aeration. Turf soils can be aerated by regularlyapplying compost to stimulate microbial activ-ity or by combining mechanical aeration withcompost additions. The appropriate type of me-chanical aeration for you depends on the size ofthe lawn or field you are treating. You can aer-ate a very small lawn with a garden fork, by in-serting the fork 6 inches deep every 4 to 6 inchesand working it back and forth gently. On largeryards, you can use a mechanical, walk-behindaerator. These machines pull cores 2 to 3 inchesdeep. For best results, make three or more passesacross the yard, then break down the cores lefton the soil surface with a rake or drag chain. Forfields and larger turf areas, tractor-mounted�shatter-core� aerators can treat deep compac-tion or drainage problems by penetrating 6 inchesor more into the soil (19).

Following mechanical aeration, topdress com-post onto the field or lawn. The topdressed com-post will fall into the core holes, resulting in apartial incorporation of the compost into the soil.Mixing 40% compost with 60% sand produces a

heavier mixture that will fall into the holes morereadily. The compost stimulates the activities ofearthworms and soil microbes that break downexcess thatch, form soil aggregates, and createtunnels through the soil. As biological activityin the soil increases, mechanical aeration may nolonger be required. Instead, biological aeration,stimulated by regular surface applications ofcompost, may be sufficient (7, 19, 20).

While adding topsoil may appear to be the solu-tion to thin soils, this treatment must be under-taken with care. Many commercial topsoils con-tain a plethora of weed seeds and may containheavy metals or toxic chemicals. The type of soiladded may not be compatible with the soil be-ing treated, with the resulting soil mixture beingcompacted. If a lawn or field has very thin soiland soil additions are necessary, make sure toget the soil from a reputable source. If you areunsure of the soil quality, or you are going towork with a soil supplier on a regular basis, youmay want to analyze the soil for contaminantssuch as heavy metals. When adding topsoil, mixit with compost before applying it to the turf.Then till this compost-soil mixture into the ex-isting soil so that there is no clear dividing linebetween the existing and the new soil (19).

Reducing or eliminating the use of syntheticchemicals. Earthworms, other soil invertebrates,and soil microorganisms are essential for main-taining soil structure, recycling organic debrissuch as thatch, and mineralizing nutrients in turfsoils (7, 19). Most pesticides are toxic to earth-worms. Similarly, the soluble fertilizers ammo-

http://www.usa.husqvarna.com/node1269.asp

A professional aerator.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 9

nium nitrate and methyl urea significantly reduceearthworm populations (21). Both pesticides andfertilizers kill soil organisms through direct tox-icity. They also retard their ability to regrow byincreasing soil acidity and compaction. In addi-tion, high soil nutrient concentrations associatedwith fertilizer additions suppress the growth ofmychorrhizal fungi, a type of soil organism thatassists grass in taking up nutrients and waterfrom the soil.

In contrast to soluble fertilizers, compost containscarbon and nutrients that promote the growthof soil organisms. Making the transition from achemically maintained turf to an organic or least-toxic turf can reduce thatch build up and pro-duce a turf that is resistant to pests and diseases.

Species Diversity in the LawnEnvironment

Turf species. Turf composed of a single speciesis highly susceptible to becoming weedy anddemands more nutrients and water than turfcomposed of a diversity of species (12). To mini-mize maintenance problems, use species that areappropriate for your location and for the specificconditions within the yard. Also, choose variet-ies that are resistant to common pests in the areaand that do not demand a lot of nitrogen.

Table 3 (see Appendix) lists growth characteris-tics of common turf grasses. Within these spe-cies, different varieties have been developed toprovide specific advantages, such as shade tol-erance, resistance to a particular pest or disease,or the ability to stand up to wear. Often, a mix-ture of grasses performs better than a single spe-cies. For example, Kentucky bluegrass is oftenmixed with tall fescue or fine fescue to providebetter wear and disease resistance. In morenorthern areas, a mixture of fescue and ryegrassallows for rapid soil coverage, less weed inva-sion, and better adaptation to both sun and shadeconditions (19). In mid-latitude locations, a mix-ture of cool season and warm season grasses al-lows for cold tolerance at the beginning and endof the season along with heat and drought toler-

ance in mid-summer. A mixture of appropriateturf species also protects the whole yard againstpests and diseases. Your local Cooperative Ex-tension Service can provide you with informa-tion on turf varieties and cultivars that are ap-propriate to your area.

Good quality seed is fundamental to establish-ing good turf. Read and compare seed labelscarefully before purchasing turf grass. Inexpen-sive mixtures often contain seeds of grasses thateither have weedy characteristics or are annualsand need to be reseeded yearly. Common fillergrass varieties include annual ryegrass, orchardgrass, timothy, annual bluegrass, bentgrass, andrough bluegrass (22, 23). To avoid weed controlproblems, use seed from a reputable dealer andcheck the label for the following information (23):

� Grass variety listed by trade name � notby generic name, e.g. Aries Kentuckybluegrass rather than just Kentucky bluegrass

� Germination rate of seed �should be atleast 75% for Kentucky bluegrass and 85%for others

� Weed content less than 0.5%� Inert matter less than 5%� No noxious weeds stated on the label

A good source for comparative information onthe performance of different turf varieties undera range of environmental conditions is the Na-tional Turfgrass Evaluation Program (NTEP)Web page, <http://www.ntep.org/>. Trialsconducted nationwide by the NTEP are designedto help breeders and growers select cultivars thatare well-adapted to their particular areas or spe-cific turf uses.

Mixed species lawns. For greater diversity, youmay want to consider mixing Dutch White Clo-ver (Trifolium repens) or subterranean clovers (Tri-folium subterraneum) into the turf mixture (3, 6).

To minimize maintenance problems, use onlyspecies that are appropriate for your locationand for the specific conditions within the yard.

Cool-season grasses do most of their growingduring the spring and fall, while warm-sea-son grasses have their strongest growth dur-ing the summer. Root growth for cool-seasongrasses peaks during the two months prior tomaximum shoot growth in the spring andduring the two months following the peak ofshoot growth in the fall.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 10

By evenly blending clover with grass seed, youcan obtain a uniform distribution of clover in thelawn. Adding clover to the turf cover can:

� Increase the drought-tolerance of thelawn

� Provide two pounds of nitrogen per 1000square feet annually

� Decrease disease infestations by increas-ing the population of pest predators

� Decrease weed infestations

In more arid or degraded landscapes, black medicis a good complement to turfgrass or wildflow-ers in a natural lawn. It can also serve as a tem-porary restoration crop to aid in turf establish-ment. Like clover, medic fixes nitrogen, helpsaerate the soil with its deep root system, growsclose to the ground, and is non-invasive (24).

In addition to legumes, a combination of grassesnative to your locality can provide a highly re-sistant, low-maintenance yard or turf. For ex-ample, a combination of little bluestem(Schizachyrium scoparium), common or Pennsyl-vania sedge (Carex pensylvanica), and tuftedhairgrass (Deschampsia flexuosa) is well adaptedto the Northeastern coastal areas (25), while bluegrama (Bouteloua gracilis), buffalograss (Buchloedactyloides), purple three-awn (Aristidapurpurea), and sideoats grama (Boutelouacurtipendula) are native grasses of the arid South-west (26). You can get information on grass na-tive to your area from your Cooperative Exten-sion office.

Some nurseries have created �no mow� lawnmixes composed of slow growing turf grasses,such as hard fescue and creeping red fescues.These grasses require little maintenance sincethey have deep roots and are resistant to drought.The fescue mix is suitable for the cooler, medium-rainfall areas of the upper Midwest and north-eastern United States, and southern Canada (27,

Illustration courtesy of Bob Mugaas, University ofMinnesota Department of Horticulture.

Illustration 3. Dutch white clover is an excellent additionto a mixed species lawn. (http://www.ampacseed.com/clover1.htm)

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 11

28). Sedges and rushes serve as a low-mainte-nance ground cover suitable for moist climates.Genetically-modified �no-mow� grass varietiesare also being developed. Researchers creatingthese varieties have identified a gene in grassesthat controls plant height by restricting the ac-tivity of a growth hormone (29).

Wildflowers. Including wildflowers as part of ayard provides options for adding color and vari-ety to your landscape. The diversity of speciesin wildflower lawns or meadows increases pestand disease resistance while attracting beneficialinsects and birds. Substitution of different plantvarieties permits easy adaptation to local sun,shade, and moisture conditions. And since wild-flower meadows are not usually mowed, theyare perfect for slopes, ditches, and other hard-to-manage areas (30, 31).

Choosing seed. To ensure that a wildflowerplanting will thrive, select wildflower mixturesthat are either native to or well adapted to thelocal climate and soil conditions. Note that manynon-native, naturalized species, including QueenAnne�s Lace, chickory, Dame�s Rocket, Ox EyeDaisy (Shasta Daisy), Bachelor�s Button (Cornflower), and Butter and Eggs, are used heavilyin most commercial wildflower seed mixes be-cause they grow rapidly on freshly worked soil.Since these plants exhibit aggressive, weedy be-havior, they can readily out-compete other spe-cies or contribute to weed infestations in sur-rounding areas (31).

Establishing a wildflower lawn. A wildflowerarea is often difficult to produce from seed be-cause many home owners or lawn managers areunable to distinguish weeds from desirableplants when the plants are still small. While fallplanting allows for earlier blooming of flowersin the spring, spring planting allows for betterweed control (32).

As with any turf management practice, success-ful establishment of a wildflower lawn requiresappropriate land preparation. Surprisingly,wildflower gardeners usually discourage tillingsince it can destroy seeds of prairie species lay-ing dormant in the soil, hurt tree roots, and causeerosion. A common method of land preparationis to first smother the existing turf over winterunder layers of newspaper held down by a layer

of sand and compost mix (33). Then, in thespring, remove any remaining plant growth byburning it or scalping the soil with a lawnmowerbefore planting seeds. If you wait until spring tostart preparing ground for wildflower planting,you can till the soil, allow one to two weeks forweeds to grow, kill the weeds with a herbicideor by flame weeding, then plant the wildflowerseeds. For more information on flame weeding,see the ATTRA publication Flame Weeding forVegetable Crops.

Mixing wildflower seed with an annual covercrop helps control weeds while enriching the soil.You can use either agronomic cover crops suchas buckwheat, annual flax, wild rye or oats, oryou can use native cover crops. Evening prim-rose, black-eyed Susan, and nodding wildrye areappropriate for the upper Midwest, while purplethree-awn and Mexican hat are suitable for theSouth or Southwest (28).

Since many wildflower seeds are small, you havebetter control over their distribution if your mixthem with compost, potting soil, or sand beforebroadcasting. Attempt to plant approximatelyfifteen to thirty seeds per square foot. This willensure that there are enough plants to crowd outweeds without the wildflowers being so closetogether that they are not able to bloom (31, 33).

Wildflower seed mixtures. Most wildflower mix-tures contain a combination of perennial, bien-nial, and annual plants. While the early bloom-ing annual plants produce a large quantity ofseed, much of this seed will probably not fall onbare ground. Reseeding annuals into the wild-flower planting each spring will help maintain abalance between annuals and perennials, as wellas decrease the potential for weed competition.

Illustration 4. Wildflowers add diversity to lawns. (Photoby Lynn Betts, Natural Resources Conservation Service)

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 12

Grasses, especially native warm-season prairiegrasses, are a natural complement to wildflow-ers. The grass species little bluestem (Andropogonscoparius), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula),and indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans) are excel-lent companions for wildflowers since they growreadily on almost any normal, well-drained soil,and can tolerate very dry conditions. In contrast,common lawn grasses �such as Kentucky blue-grass, tall fescue, and smooth bromegrass �grow too aggressively to serve as good compan-ions to wildflowers (31).

To rapidly establish a wildflower area, you canpurchase wildflower mats or wildflower sod.Wildflower mats are usually made of a wood fi-ber, are biodegradable, and serve as a mulch tohelp keep down weeds while the seeds impreg-nated into the mat are germinating (34). Wild-flower sod costs considerably more than seedsor mats, but this method is probably the mostlabor saving and dependable method for estab-lishing a wildflower area. As with the selectionof seeds, carefully review the list of plant speciesincluded before purchasing sod or mats. Wild-flower sods or mats that have the greatest po-tential for retaining blooms will contain plantsthat are either native to or compatible with localenvironmental conditions and have a high per-centage of perennial species.

Choosing and installing sod. Most sod containshigh-maintenance grasses and is grown usingsynthetic inputs. If you use sod, try to chooseone grown that uses compost and contains a mix-

ture of grasses appropriate to your locality. Goodsoil preparation, including soil tillage or aerationand compost incorporation, will enhance estab-lishment and help maintain the healthy and pro-ductive growth of either grass or wildflower sod.

Mulches. Mulches serve as attractive and low-maintenance complements to turf. They are par-ticularly useful in shady or wet areas that do notsupport healthy grass growth. They can also beused on walkways or other areas that receiveheavy traffic. Organic mulches are preferable,since they decompose and add organic matter tothe soil. However, inorganic mulches, such asstones, can be reused and do not need to be re-plenished as often as organic mulches. Whenusing mulches, do not pile them too high. Thickmulches hinder air and water movement throughthe soil, stimulate trees to sprout surface roots,and favor burrowing and plant damage by her-bivores (6).

Cultural Practices that Reduce Stresson Turf

By creating healthy soil and selecting appropri-ate species for your climate, you have taken thefirst steps towards establishing a healthy turf.The next steps involve mowing and wateringpractices that stimulate rather than stress plantgrowth. Overseeding allows you to quickly re-juvenate turf that has come under stress or toextend the length of time that turf grass is ac-tively growing and remaining green.

Mowing correctly can kill weeds, save water, re-duce diseases, stimulate root growth, and pro-vide grasscuttings for fertilizer (35). Mowing in-correctly can cause stress on turf, introduce dis-

http://www.americansod.com/photoessay.html

Recently laid wildflower turf.

Illustration 5. Prairie grasses can add diversity and beautyto a natural lawn (Photo courtesy of Prairie Nursery,Westfield, WI.)

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 13

eases, promote weed growth, and encouragethatch build-up.

Reducing stress. Increasing the height of cutduring mowing is key to reducing stress ongrasses and increasing the vigor of both leaf androot growth. Research trials and the experienceof turf professionals have demonstrated that in-creasing the mowing height to 2 to 2 ½ inchescan reduce weed invasions, encourage deeperroot growth, and improve drought resistance(19). For native grass lawns, heights up to 3inches are recommended (20, 36). Time the in-tervals between mowings so only one-third ofthe grass is removed each time you mow. Thismoderate trimming helps stimulate root growthwithout significantly reducing the leaf area avail-able for photosynthesis.

Increasing the mowing height is particularlyimportant when turf is under stress by heat,drought, or shade. Do not leave your mower setat the same height all year�or even while youare mowing different sections of your lawn onthe same day. Instead, increase the mowerheight to reduce stress on turf growing in theshade and when you mow during the summerheat. Since turf species grow more slowly whenthey are under stress, the time between mowingsshould allow turf in hot or shady conditions toregrow sufficiently before it is mowed again.This may mean mowing shady sections of yourlawn at intervals different from those used insunny areas. By increasing your mower height,you can both reduce stress on turf species as wellas the incidence of some common turf weeds. Incontrast, probably the most stressful mowingpractice for turf grass is allowing grass to reacha height of 7 inches or more, then mowing it to aheight of 2 inches or less just before the summerdrought. This abrupt change in height shocksand seriously weakens a lawn (19).

Mower type. Mulching mowers and grasscyclingmowers chop grass clipping finely and blowthem down into the turf. This provides a lawnwith a clean appearance while encouraging rapiddecomposition of the clippings. Grass clippings

that are returned to the soil, rather than beingcollected and bagged, replenish organic matterand can annually add between 2 to 5 pounds ofnitrogen per 1000 ft2 (12, 19). If you use a non-mulching mower and leave clippings on the soil,mow lawns early in the day to allow the clip-pings left on the ground to dry out so that theydo not serve as a source for disease transfer (4).

Manual reel mowers provide less soil compac-tion while eliminating polluting emissions asso-ciated with gas mowers. For smaller yards,manual mowers do not require great effort, es-pecially when the mower is sharp and the grassis cut at an appropriate time and height. Whenchoosing a mower, be careful to get a model thatis able to cut to a 2 ½ to 3 inch height, since manyreel mowers are not adjustable.

Mower maintenance. Maintaining sharp mowerblades enhances mowing efficiency, reducesstress on grass, and facilitates decomposition ofgrass clippings. Sharp mower blades also reducemower vibration, lengthen mower life, and re-duce fuel consumption by gasoline mowers byas much as 22 percent (14). Conversely, a dullblade favors the spread of diseases since it cutsgrass with a rough tear that provides more sur-face area for disease to enter than does a cleancut. Many turf professionals recommend sharp-ening mower blades at least once a month, orafter eight hours of mowing (12).

Water management. Healthy lawns that are wellaerated and have a moderate to high level of or-ganic matter need less water than do more com-pacted lawns. Soils that are not compacted al-low for good water infiltration and movementto plant roots, while organic matter acts as asponge, absorbing water and holding it for useduring dry periods.

Proper watering. Watering less frequently andmore deeply encourages root growth deep intothe soil rather than on the surface, where it formsthatch. Deeper root growth allows plants to with-stand dry conditions better, and the formationof less thatch enhances soil aeration. Deep rootshave better access to soil nutrients and water,especially in the dry season. They also promoteturf growth over weed growth, since many turfgrasses develop a deep root system, while manyweeds have shallow roots (36).

By increasing mower height, you can both re-duce stress on turf species as well as the inci-dence of some common turf weeds.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 14

Most grasses are adapted to seasonally dry con-ditions and compete best if the soil in the rootzone is allowed to become partially dry betweenwaterings. For best turf growth, wait until thesoil has dried to a depth of 2 to 4 inches thenirrigate to replenish the water to the depth of theroot zone (19). When rewetting a dry soil, slowlywet the surface, wait an hour or so for the waterto penetrate, then thoroughly irrigate the lawn.If you do not pre-wet the soil, you will loosewater and soil nutrients to runoff, since dry soilis water repellent and does not allow good wa-ter infiltration (19, 36).

Watering also needs to be timed according to thesoil texture, the rate of water infiltration into thesoil, and the flow rate of your irrigation or sprin-kling system. If you apply water faster than thesoil can absorb it, the excess will run off ratherthan soak into the soil (22). Besides being waste-ful, this runoff can transport diseases across thelawn and may cause water pollution if it runsinto storm sewers or creeks.

Overwatering. Watering grass too frequently ortoo lightly causes lawns to develop shallow root

systems, encourages water logging, increases thepotential for a variety of soil-borne diseases, andstimulates the growth of weeds such as butter-cup, speedwell, and annual bluegrass (19). Wa-tering during the morning places less stress ongrass and decreases the potential spread of fun-gal diseases (37).

Heat management. Reducing the water supplyto the lawn just before to the onset of the sum-mer heat prepares a lawn to become dormant(37). However, deeply watering the lawn onceduring each rainless month allows turf grassesto retain enough growth to remain competitivewith deep-rooted weeds such as dandelions (19).If your area receives a light rain during an other-wise dry month, the best time to water is imme-diately following the rain to ensure that the fullroot-zone has become wetted (31).

If you want to maintain green lawns throughoutthe hottest days of summer, water the grassbriefly (for about 10 minutes) every hot after-noon, to minimize heat stress, then provideheavy waterings as needed. You can test soilmoisture by feeling the top 2 to 4 inches of thesoil to see whether it has become dry, or you canuse a moisture meter. You can also rely on evapo-transpiration information for the area that is pro-vided by local weather stations or agriculturalcolleges. Applications of seaweed extract canfurther reduce heat stress in turf. By stimulatingantioxidant production, the natural hormones inseaweed may help grasses sustain a balance be-tween photosynthesis and respiration (4, 36).Leaving grass clippings on the soil andtopdressing with compost also mulches and coolsthe soil while stimulating microbial activity.

Overseeding. Overseeding is a practice that al-lows you to rejuvenate a lawn and fill in barespots where weeds might otherwise grow (19).Overseeding also allows you to slowly replaceinappropriate or disease-prone varieties withmore appropriate or more disease-resistant va-rieties. In some areas, overseeding extends thelength of time a lawn remains green into the fall.For lawn rejuvenation, overseeding may be doneeither in the spring (April or May) or in the fall(September or October). Prior to broadcastingseed into the existing turf, make a pass over thearea to be overseeded with an aerator or heavyrake. Or you can plant seed with a slice-seeder.

For best turf growth, wait until the soil hasdried to a depth of 2 to 4 inches then irrigateto replenish water to the depth of the rootzone.

Mowing guidelines to reduce turf stress (36):� Mow grass higher when temperatures

are high to encourage more rootgrowth and reduce soil temperatures.

� Manage grass located in shady ormoist areas differently from grass located in sunny areas: grass in shadyareas should be mowed to a higherheight and less frequently than grassin sunny areas.

� Regularly sharpen mower blades,since tearing grass with dull bladescreates stress and provides an idealentry point for pathogens.

� Clean mowers regularly to removepotential sources of inoculum thatcould be spread to other parts of thelawn or field.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 15

These techniques provide the conditions for goodseed-to-soil contact. Seed can be broadcast orplanted alone, followed by a topdressing layerof compost. If turf seed is broadcast planted, itcan be mixed with compost, and the two can bebroadcast together onto the prepared turf (19, 23).Following seed planting, press the seed into thesoil with a roller or, for small renovation patches,by walking on the overseeded area.

In the mid-latitude, humid areas of the country,warm season grasses thrive in the summer andcool season grasses thrive in the fall and into partof the winter. Under these conditions, you canmaintain a green lawn throughout much of theyear by establishing a turf dominated by peren-nial warm season grasses, then overseeding inthe fall with an annual cool season grass. Theoverseeded grass will keep the turf green intothe fall and continue growing in the early spring.Then it will die out when the warm seasongrasses reemerge in late spring.

Biointensive Pest Control Methodsfor Turf

Biointensive pest control seeks primarily to pre-vent pest and disease infestations by reducingturf stress and encouraging the growth of pestpredators. Building soil quality, avoiding

overfertilization, choosing locally appropriateand disease resistant turf species, and mowingand irrigating correctly are practices that reduceturf stress while also reducing the potential forpest and disease infestations. Cultural controlmeasures, such as using a diversity of species andremoving disease-infested leaf litter from thelawn, also help prevent pests and diseases frombecoming established or spreading. If preventa-tive measures are not entirely effective,topdressing with compost and employing bio-logical pest and disease control agents are goodways to protect your turf.

Once you are aware of a pest or disease prob-lem, your first step is to identify the cause of thedamage. The Resources section of this publica-tion lists several books that you can use to iden-tify weeds, insects, and turf diseases. Personnelat your local Cooperative Extension office shouldalso be able to help you identify and treat turfpest problems.

Turf diseases. Prevention is the key to diseasemanagement in turf. Planting resistant variet-ies, keeping mower blades sharp, avoiding over-fertilization and over-irrigation, and biologicallyenriching the soil with mature compost are prac-tices that will produce a vigorous, disease-resis-tant turf.

�My program begins with a detailed lawn evaluation. I look first at the turf type. Then, I look forproblem areas. Most of the time the weeds that are in the lawn will tell me what are the problemsand what needs to be done. For example, are they summer, winter, or spring weeds? Are theyannuals or perennials? Can they be controlled using pre-emergence measures or are they bettercontrolled after emergence? Can they be spot controlled, or do control measures need to be usedacross the turf area?�

�What time of year are you evaluating the lawn? If it is early spring and there are bare spots, asummer annual weed will probably invade. Look for problems with shade from trees, any diseaseor pest problems, too much or too little water, and thatch build-up. Key in on the condition of theturf. Is it thick and well-established? Or, is it thin and patchy? Take a shovel and look at your soiland the root systems of the grass. This is where most problems begin. If there are several inches ofhealthy soil and a strong root system, then a maintenance program is all that is needed. However,if the soil is thin and the roots are short or bunchy, the lawn needs an application of compost orother organic material to build-up the soil.�

�Be realistic and don�t make promises to your clients that you cannot keep. It will take time toadjust deficiencies. Take advantage of the highest growing period of your turf types. This is whenmost noticeable gains can be achieved and when the turf needs the greatest amount of nutrientsand care.�

Shannon Pope, proprietor of Healthy Soils, and organic lawn care service

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 16

Cultural control practices for turf grass diseasecontrol include (20):

� Altering the environment within the turfcrown by raking, coring, or spiking

� Applying natural supplements such aslime, ash, compost, liquid seaweed, orfish emulsion to alter disease-favoringconditions in the turf crown

� Overseeding with turf varieties that areresistant to diseases

� Waiting for weather conditions to changeand seeing whether this reduces or elimi-nates disease symptoms

A list of specific cultural control practices thatare effective against certain turfgrass diseases isprovided in Table 4 (see Appendix).

Pest and disease control with compost. In addi-tion to providing a steadily available source ofnutrients, compost suppresses some turf patho-gens. Research at Cornell University (2, 11) dem-onstrated that topdressing with compost sup-pressed some soil-borne fungal diseases just aswell as conventional fungicides. This effectlasted about thirty days, but was lost by sixtydays after the application (12, 38). Diseasesshown to be suppressed by compost include:

� dollar spot (Sclerotina homeocarpa) increeping bentgrass and annual bluegrass

� brown patch (Rhozoctonia solani) in creep-ing bentgrass, annual bluegrass, tall fes-cue

� pythium root rot (Pythium raminicola) increeping bentgrass and annual bluegrass

� typhula blight (Typhula spp.) in creepingbentgrass and annual bluegrass

� red thread (Laetisaria fuciformis) in peren-nial ryegrass

� pythium blight (Pythium aphanidermatum)in perennial ryegrass

� necrotic ringspot (Leptosphaeria korrae) inKentucky bluegrass

Characteristics of disease suppressive composts. Thecomposition, age, and preparation methods ofcomposts are keys to their providing disease sup-pressive benefits. Compost must be mature andfully cured to suppress diseases. Immature com-post has a high concentration of ammonic nitro-gen (NH4 ) and increases, rather than decreases,the incidence of Fusarium diseases (39). Disease

suppressive composts contain thoroughly de-composed organic materials that have been al-lowed to �cure.� During curing, bacteria andother microorganisms that help form humus andsuppress diseases replace the heat-loving organ-isms involved in the early stages of organic mat-ter decomposition. Compost that has been ster-ilized or allowed to decompose until most of theavailable nutrients have been used is biologicallyinert and unable to suppress diseases (4, 16, 39).

Compost applications control diseases by sup-plying the soil with millions of microorganismsthat are antagonistic to turf pathogens. Compostalso provides nutrients that stimulate the growthand reproduction of antagonistic organisms al-ready in the soil. However, the type of compostdetermines the type and numbers of soil organ-isms and the degree of disease suppression theyprovide.

Compost can suppress diseases in two ways. Itmay contain a high population of disease-sup-pressive organisms, or it may contain substancesthat stimulate the growth of disease suppressiveorganisms already present in the soil. Prelimi-nary results from studies conducted by EricNelson and his colleagues at Cornell University(8) indicate that compost derived from eitherbrewery sludge or municipal biosolids was ef-fective in controlling the soil-borne fungal dis-ease Pythium, because it contained high popula-tions of disease suppressive organisms. How-ever, compost derived from poultry litter, whileas effective in controlling Pythium did so by pro-viding appropriate nourishment to disease sup-pressive organisms in the soil.

http://www.bethelfarms.com/

Brown patch disease can be controlled by theapplication of certain types of compost.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 17

Different composts provide selective control ofsome diseases. For example, composted sewagesludge increased the incidence of Fusarium oncarnations and peas, but decreased the incidenceof Fusarium on cucumbers (40). Composted poul-try litter provided 75% control of brown patchbut only 15% control of typhula blight, whilecomposted brewery sludge provided only 25%control of brown patch but 70% control oftyphula blight (40). Studies by Elaine Inghamand her coworkers (42) indicate that compostmade from succulent materials such as grass clip-pings, green leaves, food waste, and manure isprobably best for turf production, since thesematerials favor high bacterial populations. Incontrast, compost made from woody materials,straw, and dry leaves favors the growth of fungiand is best used for the production of tree crops.

To obtain optimum disease control, broadcastmature compost monthly. Applications of pesti-cides or highly concentrated soluble fertilizerswill disrupt or kill beneficial soil organisms andminimize the effectiveness of the compost. Atopdressing of solid compost can be appliedalone or as a mixture of 70% compost and 30%sand, then incorporated into the soil with an aera-tor or drag chains. Alternatively, compost tea, aliquid solution prepared from high quality com-post, can be applied as a spray.

Compost tea. You can make anaerobic composttea by soaking a burlap bag full of compost in abarrel of water for up to two weeks. Soaking forfour to seven days at temperatures below 65° to70° F provides the highest level of disease sup-pression (8). Aerobic compost is prepared in thesame manner, except that the ratio of water tocompost should be no more than 10 to 1, and thecompost should be soaked in the water for nomore than 48 hours. Another method for pro-ducing aerated compost is to add compost to abrewer or vat that has air bubbling through it.Both anaerobic and aerobic compost extracts pro-tect against plant diseases (43). Research exam-ining the effect of compost tea on golf greensfound that treated grass had longer roots, fewerdiseases, and higher density than untreated turf.For this study, compost tea was applied weeklyto bi-weekly at the rate of one gallon per 1000square feet (44). For more detailed informationon the production and use of compost teas, seethe ATTRA publication Notes on Compost Teas.

Microbial fungicides. If preventative measuresare ineffective in controlling diseases, you canuse microbial fungicides that are labeled for turf.The fungus Trichoderma harzianum helps controlseveral diseases, including brown patch (causedby the pathogen Rhizoctonia solani), dollar spot(caused by Sclerotinia homoecarpa), and pythiumroot rot and blight (caused by Pythiumgraminicola) (45). Commercial products contain-ing Trichoderma include BINAB T� from BINABBio-Innovation AB, a Swedish company, andTurfshield� from BioWorks, Inc. Companion�,produced by Growth Products, is a concentra-tion of four species of Bacillus bacteria. It is rec-ommended for both general maintenance andremedial treatments of turf diseases. Studiesconducted at the Rutgers Center for TurfgrassScience showed that applications of Compan-ion� caused a 30 to 50% reduction in summerpatch (45). A new anti-fungal strain of bacterialabeled as APM-1 is being developed for turf useby researchers at the New England TurfgrassFoundation. It is not currently available com-mercially, but may be in the near future (4, 46).

For additional information on biological or bo-tanical treatments of turf grass or horticulturalplant diseases, see the Agrobiologicals Web page(<http://www.agrobiologicals.com/>). Thispage has an excellent database of pests and dis-eases. It also lists biological and botanical con-trol products and contact information for thecompanies selling them.

Turf insect pests. While pesticides kill insectpests listed on their labels, many pesticides arenon-specific. That is, they kill beneficial insects

A compost tea brewing tank in California.Steve Diver

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 18

as well as pests. Pesticides also kill many soilorganisms that decompose organic matter, formaggregates, and suppress diseases. As a result,pesticides may decrease insect infestations in theshort term, but create other conditions that in-crease turf stress. Thus, turf managed with pes-ticides often has more pest problems and requiresmore intensive management than turf managedwith biological products.

Cultural control measures. As with the controlof turf diseases, preventative cultural controlmeasures can greatly reduce insect damage. Cul-tural control practices for turf insects include:

� Reducing stress on turf by building upsoil quality with regular additions ofmature compost, protecting the soil fromcompaction, avoiding over fertilizationand over watering, and increasing themowing height.

� Decreasing thatch through a combinationof aeration and compost applications tostimulate the activity of thatch-eatingearthworms.

� Increasing the diversity of plants withinthe turf as well as in gardens, flower beds,and other areas adjacent to the lawn.Natural areas, in particular, serve as use-ful refuges for many beneficial insects.Plants in the parsley (Umbelliferae) anddaisy (Compositae) family are especiallyuseful for encouraging the growth ofparasitic wasps (20).

� Syringing or applying about 1/10 of aninch of water mid-day during hot, dryweather helps control chinch bugs andlawn grubs (20).

� Using pest- and disease-resistant variet-ies and seeds that contain endophytes(see below).

To effectively control turf pests, it is necessary tocorrectly identify the pest and understand its lifecycle. The Resources section of this publicationlists books that provide detailed descriptions ofturf insect pests, their major host species, andtheir growth cycles. Secondly, scout for pestsabove ground, in soil samples, or emerging fromthe ground when you apply soapy water to thesoil. Monitoring provides information on thepresence and changes in populations of insectpests. By combining monitoring and life cycleinformation, you can determine whether infes-tations have reached a point where some treat-ment is required (19, 47).

Endophytes. Perennial ryegrass and many dif-ferent types of fescue are bred with endophytes�fungi that live symbiotically within the cells ofthe grass. Grasses that contain endophytes pro-duce a bitter toxin that repels most insects andkills many of those that continue to feed. Be-sides protecting grasses from insect pests, endo-phytes also produce hormone-like substancesthat stimulate the growth and vitality of the grass.Care must be used when planting endophyte-infected seed, since the endophyte will die if theseed is stored too long or at too high a tempera-ture. However, once the endophyte-infectedgrass is planted, the endophyte grows and re-produces with the grass as long as the grass re-mains viable (4).

Biological and botanical insecticides useful in turfmanagement include (4):

� Beauveria bassiana, an entomopathogenic(insect-eating) fungus

� Bacillus thurengiensis (Bt) a bacteria usedin the control of turf eating caterpillers

� Milky spore, formed by the bacteria Ba-cillus popillae, controls Japanese beetlegrubs

� Entomopathogenic (insect-eating) nema-todes control grubs

� Neem, a botanical insecticide derivedfrom the leaves of a tree native to India

� Repellents containing garlic juice and ex-tracts from hot peppers that persuade in-sects to go elsewhere to lay their eggs

� Insecticidal soaps

http://www.bethelfarms.com

Grubs feeding on turf.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 19

Biological insecticides need to be handled andapplied with care in order to be effective. Sincecontrol is a result of the activities of living or-ganisms, the source of the product and how it isshipped affect the viability of the organisms (48).In addition, soil conditions at the time of appli-cation must be favorable to the growth of theorganisms. For example, entomopathogenic orinsect-eating nematodes survive best in moist,loamy soils that have soil temperatures between65° and 85° F. Since they are able to withstandhigh pressure, you can apply these biologicalcontrol organisms using a sprayer or irrigationequipment (49). The ATTRA publicationBiointensive Integrated Pest Management providesdetailed information on biological control prac-tices. It also contains extensive lists of suppliersfor biopesticides and microbial pest controlagents.

Table 6 (see Appendix) summarizes cultural andbiological control measures for common turf in-sect pests.

Turf weeds. Weeds are plants growing in thewrong place. The type of lawn you are inter-ested in having will define which plants areweeds. For example, for someone developing anatural lawn, white clover is an integral compo-nent of the turf. For people wanting a pure grasslawn, white clover is a weed. Using good turfmanagement practices that favor the growth ofdesired species allows these plants to out-com-pete undesired species. Essential managementpractices for weed control include (22):

� Growing grass species appropriate foryour region and your soil conditions

� Eliminating soil compaction� Reducing wear on the lawn or turf� Providing turf soil with appropriate and

balanced levels of fertilization� Overseeding with cool-season grasses to

maintain grass growth in the fall andspring

� Watering turf deeply and infrequentlyduring dry periods

� Ensuring proper drainage� Increasing mowing height

Table 5 (see Appendix), which summarizes soil,weather, and management conditions that favorthe growth of weeds. To reduce stress on turf

and decrease infestations from weeds, makemanagement changes to alter these weed enhanc-ing conditions.

Mowing to control weeds. Raising the mowerheight reduces the incidence of some commonturf weeds. Research conducted at the Univer-sity of Maryland showed that mowing turf at 3inches, especially during the spring, provided asmuch control of crabgrass as did the use of her-bicides (50). The higher cut reduced the stresson the turfgrass and they were able to choke outthe crabgrass.

Mowing at a lower cut during seed set can helpcontrol annual bluegrass, crabgrass, goosegrass,foxtail, barnyardgrass, fall panicum, anddallisgrass. This technique must be carefullytimed to coincide with early seed set. Attach aclippings bag to the mower to collect and removeseed heads. Also be careful not to mow so lowthat you stress the desired turf species (4).

When not mowing to collect and remove seedheads, leave the grass clippings on the soil to con-trol weed growth. Clippings from a variety ofdifferent turf species contain allelopathic com-pounds that suppress the germination andgrowth of certain weeds (4, 47). Many tur grassroots also produce allelochemicals that suppressthe growth of weed seeds. Raising the mowingheight favors root growth and the production ofthese allelochemicals.

Corn gluten meal is effective in the pre-emer-gence control of various weed species, includ-ing crab grass, foxtail, pigweed and dandelion.This animal feed product controls weed growthby inhibiting root formation (51). Studies dem-onstrate that repeated applications increase theeffectiveness of this natural herbicide. Thesestudies show that corn gluten meal initially re-duced weeds by 60 percent, by 80 percent thesecond year, and by 90 percent in the third year.The main drawback to using corn gluten meal isits high cost, which makes its use economicallyfeasible only in small areas. The average cost is$1.50/lb., with recommended applications ratesof 40 to 65 pounds per 1,000 square feet (52). Sinceit contains 10% nitrogen, it should be managedas both a fertilizer and a herbicide. Universityof Iowa turfgrass researcher, Nick Christians hascompiled a list of suppliers of corn gluten meal,

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 20

which is available at:<http://www.public.iastate.edu/~isurf/tech/cgmwebsite.html>.

Vinegar has recently gained attention as an ef-fective natural post-emergence herbicide. Itworks by degrading the waxy cuticle layer onweed leaves, resulting in desiccation. More fre-quent applications or applications with a stron-ger solution are needed to control weeds withvery thick cuticle layers. While vinegar typicallycontains approximately 5% acetic acid, distilla-tion can increase this concentration to 15%, andfreeze evaporation can increase it to 30%. Re-search conducted by the USDA Agricultural Re-search Service demonstrated that vinegar at 10,15, or 20% acetic acid concentrations killed 80 to100% of giant foxtail, common lambsquarters,smooth pigweed, and velvetleaf (53). Some gar-deners have seen increased effectiveness by add-ing lemon juice to the vinegar and applying itduring the heat of the day (53).

Like corn gluten meal, vinegar is an expensivetreatment for large areas. Approximate costs forbroadcast application of vinegar are $66.00 peracre for 20% acetic acid and $99.00 per acre for30% acetic acid (54).

While vinegar readily degrades in the soil andhas no long-term impact on soil organisms (soilpH decreases at the time of application but re-turns to its original level in less than two days),it is caustic. When applying this material, youshould wear a mask to avoid inhalation andgloves to prevent skin contact (55).

Summary

A lawn that is healthy requires less irrigation andresists pests and diseases. Establishing and main-taining a healthy lawn means reducing or elimi-nating conditions that put stress on the turf. Asoft, microbially-rich soil allows for rapid waterinfiltration, good water and nutrient holding ca-pacity, unimpeded root growth, efficient nutri-ent mineralization, and effective antagonisticcontrol of pests and diseases. Regular additionsof mature compost enhance soil quality whileproviding biological control of diseases and cer-tain weeds. Raising mowing height to 2 ½ to 3inches, keeping mower blades sharp, and return-ing mower clipping to the soil stimulates healthy

turf growth and reduces the potential for dis-eases. Similarly, watering infrequently�but tothe depth of root penetration�minimizes bothturf stress and the environmental conditions thatfavor root diseases. A diversity of species withina lawn reduces insect and weed infestations.Natural lawns including clover, wildflowers, orgroundcovers that are drought or shade tolerantadd variety to a landscape while reducing main-tenance time and expenses.

Acknowledgements

This publication is a rewrite of the ATTRA Sus-tainable Turf Care publication by Lane Greer, andmany of the organizations and resources listedin this publication were taken from this earlierpublication. ATTRA specialist Steve Diver iden-tified compost and compost tea references, whileATTRA specialist Rex Dufour provided pest anddisease biocontrol references. They both pro-vided excellent review assistance. ShannonPope, proprietor of Healthy Soils, an organiclawn care service in northwest Arkansas, pro-vided insightful, practical turf management in-formation, which he permitted me to include inthis publication.

Organizations

Golf Course Superintendents Assoc. of America1421 Research Park Dr.Lawrence, KS 66049-3859Telephone: 800-472-7878, 785-841-2240http://www.gcsaa.org

The Golf Course Superintendents Associationof America (GCSAA) supports research on en-vironmentally sensitive turfgrass care. Theirmagazine, Golf Course Management, includesarticles on least toxic pesticide use and prac-tices, integrated pest management (IPM), bio-logical control, wildlife and golf courses, watersaving practices, and compost use in golf coursemanagement, among other topics.

Turfgrass Resource Center / Turfgrass Produc-ers International1855-A Hicks Rd.Rolling Meadows, IL 60008Telephone: 800-405-8873, 847-705-9898.FAX: 847-705-8347E-mail: info@TurfGrassSod.orgWeb page: http://www.TurfgrassSod.org

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 21

A member�s Web page with information aboutturfgrass varieties, turf soil management, andlawn watering practices. Also includes a data-base of turfgrass specialists.

National Turfgrass Evaluation ProgramKevin Morris, Executive DirectorNational Turfgrass Evaluation Program10300 Baltimore Ave. Bldg. 003, Rm. 218Beltsville Agricultural Research Center-WestBeltsville, MD 20705Telephone: 301-504-5125E-mail: kmorris@ntep.orgWeb page: http://www.ntep.org/contact.htm

The National Turfgrass Evaluation Program(NTEP) is one of the most widely-knownturfgrass research programs in the world. NTEPcurrently evaluates seventeen turfgrass speciesin as many as forty U.S. states and six prov-inces in Canada. Their Web page provides an-nual evaluation results on turfgrass quality,color, density, resistance to diseases and insects,tolerance to heat, cold, drought, and traffic.

United States Golf Association Green SectionP.O. Box 708Far Hills, NJ 07931Telephone: 908-234-2300USGA Publications: 1-800-336-4446Web page: http://www.usga.org/green/index.html

Golf course maintenance publications cover turfmanagement, IPM for golf courses, landscaperestoration, environmental issues for golf coursemanagement and construction, irrigation sys-tems, waste water reuse, and bird conservationon golf courses.

NOFA Accredited Organic Land Care Profes-sionalsc/o NOFA ConnecticutPO Box 386Northford, CT 06472-0386Web page: http://www.organiclandcare.net/professionals.php

They wrote the Standards for Organic LandCare. Their Web page also lists names oflawncare professionals in the Northeast who areNOFA Accredited Organic Land Care Profes-sionals.

ResourcesBooks

Least-toxic and Organic Lawn Care

Standards for Organic Land Care: Practices for De-sign and Maintenance of Ecological Landscapes.Organic Land Care Committee. 2001. 66 p.Northeast Organic Farming Association of Con-necticutPO Box 3Northford, CT 06472-0386.Web page: <http://www.nofaic.org/store/ct/index.php>

This manual describes how to grow an organiclawn following an ecological stewardship phi-losophy for designing and maintaining land-scapes. Written by landscape professionals, sci-entists, and citizen activists. It includes lists ofpreferred, allowed, and prohibited materials andpractices for organic land care. Purchase of thismanual includes the booklet A Citizen�s Guideto Organic Land Care, which answers, in cus-tomer-friendly terms, the questions: what is anorganic lawn? and what are the advantages ofan organic lawn?

Organic Lawn CareBruneau, A.H., Fred Yelverton, L.T. Lucas, andRick L. Brandenburg. 1997. Publication AG-562.North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service.32 p.Department of Agricultural CommunicationsNorth Carolina State UniversityBox 7603Raleigh, NC 27695-7603

Practical information for homeowners. Main-tenance schedules, sources of organic fertiliz-ers, organic control strategies for insects anddiseases, and recommended cultivars and plant-ing dates for North Carolina.

Handbook of $uccessful Ecological Lawn CareSachs, Paul D. 1996. 290 p.Edaphic PressPO Box 107Newbury, VT 05051Telephone: 802-222-4277

Well-researched handbook, written for profes-sionals who install and maintain lawns. The

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 22

book is divided into two sections. The first, calledIn the Field, includes chapters on turfgrass dy-namics, installing a new lawn, cultural prac-tices, turfgrass pests, and soil testing and fer-tility. Part Two focuses on the business aspectsof running a lawn care business. This book iscomprehensive in its approach to the soil-turfcomplex.

Ecological Golf Course ManagementSachs, Paul D., and Richard T. Luff. 2002. 197 p.Wiley PublishersWeb page: <http://www.wiley.com/cda/sec/0,,10734,00.html>.

A comprehensive publication on ecological turfmanagement. It focuses on managing the healthand welfare of all soil organisms from a single-celled bacterium to fully developed turf plants.It also points out ways to exploit natural plantdefense systems that have been largely ignoredand to engage many of the powerful alliesthat live above and below ground.

Down-to-Earth Natural Lawn CareRaymond, Dick. 1993. 176 p.Storey Communications25 Main St.Williamstown, MA 01267Telephone: 800-793-9396

Natural lawn care for residents or landscape pro-fessionals.

Pest and Disease Control

Turfgrass Problems: Picture Clues and ManagementOptionsEva Gussack and Frank S. Rossi. 2001. 214 p.Natural Resource, Agriculture, and EngineeringService (NRAES)Cooperative Extension152 Riley-Robb HallIthaca, New York 14853-5701Telephone: 607-255-7654Fax: 607-254-8770E-mail: nraes@cornell.edu.Web page: <http://www.nraes.org/publica-tions/nraes125.html>

A compact, spiral-bound guide with over 130color photos designed to help readers identifyturfgrass problems and implement appropriatemanagement strategies. The guide covers prob-lems of cool-season turfgrasses caused by non-living (abiotic) or living (biotic) factors. Eachproblem discussion includes photos, a detailed

description, conditions under which the prob-lem tends to occur, and non-chemical manage-ment strategies. Also includes chapters onscouting and sampling procedures and symp-tom timelines for when in the season prob-lems are likely to occur.

IPM Handbook for Golf CoursesSchumann, G., P. Vittum, M. Elliott, and P. Cobb.1998. 264 p.Wiley PublishersWeb page: <http://www.wiley.com/cda/sec/0,,10734,00.html>

An excellent introductory handbook for golfcourse superintendents. Describes IPM andhow it can be performed on golf courses. Chap-ters include site assessment, scouting and moni-toring, cultural control strategies, biological andchemical control strategies.

Biological Control of Turfgrass DiseasesCornell Media Services Resource Center. 12 p.Ithaca, NY 14853Telephone: 607-255-2080Web page: http://www.cce.cornell.edu/publi-cations/gardening.cfm

Lists biological controls for turfgrass diseasesand describe the use of organic fertilizers, sup-pressive composts, and microbial fungicides.

IPM for Lawns.Bio-Integral Resource Center. 1987. 70 p.PO Box 7414Berkeley, CA 94707Telephone: 510-524-2567Web page: <http://www.birc.org/>

Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC) specializesin finding non-toxic and least-toxic, integratedpest management (IPM) solutions to urban andagricultural pest problems.

The Chemical-Free LawnSchultz, Warren. 1989. 208 p.Rodale Press33 E. Minor St.Emmaus, PA 18098Telephone: 800-527-8200

Designed for homeowners. Includes informa-tion on assessing lawn problems, species andcultivars, seeding, sodding, sprigging, fer-tilizing, mowing, watering, and fighting weeds,insects, and diseases without chemicals.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 23

References

Compendium of Turfgrass Diseases. 2nd ed.Smiley, Richard W. et al. 1992. 102 p.American Phytopathological Society3340 Pilot Knob Rd. St. Paul, MN 55121-2097Telephone: 612-454-7250

Management of Turfgrass Diseases. 2nd ed.Vargas, M.J., Jr. 1993. 320 p.Lewis Publishers2000 Corporate Blvd. NWBoca Raton, FL 33431Telephone: 800-272-7737

Managing Turfgrass PestsWatschke, Thomas L., Peter H. Dernoeden, andDavid Shetlar. 1994. 384 p.Lewis Publishers2000 Corporate Blvd. NWBoca Raton, FL 33431Telephone: 800-272-7737

Alternative Lawns

Easy Lawns: Low-Maintenance Native Grasses forGardeners EverywhereStevie Daniels (ed.). 1999. 111 p.Brooklyn Botanic Garden1000 Washington Ave.Brooklyn, NY 11225Telephone: 718-622-4433Web page: <http://www.bbg.org/gar2/topics/sustainable/handbooks/lawns/>

This book is a compilation of information on theestablishment of no-mow and native grass prai-rie lawns. Each chapter focuses on low-main-tenance lawn species and management practicesfor different regions of the country.

The Wild Lawn Handbook: Alternatives to the Tradi-tional Front Lawn.Daniels, Stevie. 1995. 256 p.MacmillanNew York, NY

A practical guide for transforming grass lawnsinto beautiful alternative lawns using nativegrasses, ferns, mosses, wildflowers, low-grow-ing shrubs, and perennials. Includes detailedinstructions on choosing, installing and main-taining a wild lawn, including a chapter on land-scaping ordinances.

Gardening with Prairie Plants: How to Create Beau-tiful Native LandscapesWasowski, Sally. 2002. 285 p.University of Minnesota PressMinneapolis, MN

A beautifully illustrated guide to establishingprairie landscapes. Describes methods for de-signing, installing, and maintaining yards withprairie plants. Provides extensive and detailedprofiles of prairie flowers and grasses and howto use them in prairie lawns.

Electronic database

Turfgrass Information CenterMichigan State University100 LibraryEast Lansing, MI 48824-1048Telephone: 517-353-7209E-mail: tgif@pilot.msu.eduWeb page: <http://www.lib.msu.edu/tgif/>.

The Turfgrass Information Center (TIC) atMichigan State contains the most comprehen-sive collection of turfgrass educational materi-als publicly available in the world. The TICmaintains the Turfgrass Information File(TGIF), an on-line computer based bibliographicdatabase of turfgrass research data. Subscrip-tions or flat rates available. See their Web sitefor more information.

1) Latimer, Joyce G., et al. 1996. Reducing thepollution potential of pesticides and fertiliz-ers in the environmental horticulture indus-try: I. Greenhouse, nursery, and sod produc-tion. HortTechnology. April�June. p. 115�124.

2) Nelson, Eric B. 1996. Enhancing turfgrassdisease control with organic amendments.TurfGrass Trends. June. p. 1�15.

3) Edmonds Lawncare. 2002. Quality lawncarewithout pesticides. Accessed at: <http://www.edmonds.ns.ca/lawncare/lawncare.html>.

4) Sachs, Paul D., and Richard T. Luff. 2002.Ecological Golf Course Management. AnnArbor Press. Chelsea, MI. 197 p.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 24

5) U.S. Composting Council. 2000. Field Guidefor Compost Use�Landscape and Turf Man-agement. Accessed at: <http://www.compostingcouncil.org/section.cfm?id=6>

6) Organic Land Care Committee. 2001. Stan-dards for Organic Land Care: Practices forDesign and Maintenance of Ecological Land-scapes. Northeast Organic Farming Associa-tion of Connecticut, Northford, CT.

7) Dinelli, F. Dan. 2000. Composts to improveturf ecology. The IPM Practioner. Vol. XXII.No. 10. p. 1�6.

8) Nelson, Eric B., and Michael J. Boehm. 2002.Microbial mechanics of compost-induced dis-ease suppression. Part II. BioCycle. Vol. 48.No. 7. p. 45�47.

9) Landschoot, Peter. 1999. Using composts toimprove turf performance. PennState Col-lege of Agriculture Sciences, Cooperative Extension. Accessed at: <http://www.agronomy.psu.edu/Extension/Turf/Composts.html>.

10) Darlington, William. 2001. Compost: Soilamendment for establishment of turf andlandscape. Soil and Plant Laboratory. Ac-cessed at: <http://www.soilandplantlaboratory.com/articles2.html>.

11) Tyler, Rod. 1999. Sports Turf Markets forCompost. Planet Green, Inc. Accessed at:<http://www.planetgreen.com/knowledge/know_sportsturfmarkets.html>.

12) Sachs, Paul. 2000. Organic lawn care. Ver-mont Public Interest Research Group. Ac-cessed at: <http://www.vpirg.org/campaigns/environmentalHealth/organic_lawn_care.html>.

13) Bruneau, A.H., Fred Yelverton, L.T. Lucas,and Rick L. Brandenburg. 1997. OrganicLawn Care. Publication AG-562. NorthCarolina Cooperative Extension Service,Raleigh, NC. 32 p.

14) Perkinson, Russ (ed.). 2002. Golfing GreenVirginia: Golf Course EnvironmentalStewardship. Virginia Departmentof Environmental Quality andVirginiaDepartment of Conservation and Rec-reation. Accessed at:<http://www.environmentva.org/Agenda/2002/Workshops/ggbmpfinal.pdf>

15) Woerner Turf. 2002. Fertilizing Turfgrass.Accessed at: <http://www.woerner.com/pages/grass/fert1.htm>.

16) Barker, Allen V. 2001. Compost utilizationin sod production and turf management. In:P.J . Stoffel la and B.A. Kahn (eds.) .CompostUtilization in Horticultural Crop-ping Systems. Lewis Publishers, BocaRaton, LA. 414 p.

17) Teffeau, Marc, Ray Bosmans, Sidney Park-Brown, Susan W. Williams, and MerleGross. n.d. Lawn and Garden Care. In:Urban Home*A*Syst. Cooperative Exten-sion Service, University of Arkansas, Divi-sion of Agriculture, Little Rock, AR. p. 21�27

18) Wander, M.M., S.J. Traina, B.R. Stinner,and S.E. Peters. 1994. Organic and con-ventional management effects onbiologicallyactive soil organic matterpools. Soil Science Society of AmericaJournal. Volume 58. p. 1130�1139.

19) McDonald, David K. 1999. EcologicallySound Lawn Care for the Pacific Northwest:Findings from the Scientific Literature andRecommendation from Turf Professionals.Seattle Public Utilities. Community ServicesDivision, Resource Conservation Section.Seattle, WA. Accessed at: <http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/util/lawncare/default.htm>.

20) Talbot, Michael. 1990. Ecological LawnCare. Mother Earth News. May/June. No.123. p. 62�73.

21) Potter, Daniel A., with Margaret C. Buxton,Carl T. Redmond, Cary G. Patterson, andAndrew J. Powell. 1990. Toxicity of pesti-

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 25

cides to earthworms (Oligochaeta:Lumbricidae) and effect on thatch degra-dation in Kentucky bluegrass turf. Journalof Economic Entomology. Vol. 83. No. 6. p.2362�2369.

22) Daehnke, David. 2000. The GardeningGuru�s Organic Lawn Care Manual.Accessed at:<http://www.members.tripod.com/~Gardeningguru/index-11.html>.

23) The Lawn Institute. 2001. How to establish,renovate, or overseed your lawn. Accessedat: <http://www.turfgrasssod.org/lawninstitute/guide.html>

24) Osentowski, Jerome, and Peter Bane. 2002.Golf in the garden: Designing thepermaculture links. The IPM Practitioner.Vol. XXIV. No. 7. p. 1�6.

25) Grimes, James C. 1999. Little bluestemblends for the East. In: Stevie Daniels (ed.).Easy Lawns: Low-Maintenance NativeGrasses for Gardeners Everywhere. Brook-lyn Botanic Garden. Accessed at: <http://www.bbg.org/gar2/topics/sustainable/handbooks/lawns/7.html>.

26) Daniels, Stevie. 1995. The Wild LawnHandbook. Alternatives to the TraditionalFront Lawn. Macmillan, New York, NY.256 p.

27) Prarie Nursery. 2002. �No Mow� LawnMix. Wildflowers & Native Grasses. Ac-cessed at: <http://www.prairienursery.com/catalog/cat_nomow.asp>.

28) Daniels, Stevie. Low & Slow Fescues. In:Stevie Daniels (ed.). Easy Lawns: Low-Maintenance Native Grasses for GardenersEverywhere. Brooklyn Botanic Garden. 111p. Accessed at: <http://www.bbg.org/gar2/topics/sustainable/handbooks/lawns/4.html>.

29) Palmer, Dave (ed.). 2001. Growing Con-cerns. University of Florida Extension.April, May, June. Accessed at: <http://prohort.ifas.ufl.edu/Newsletters/CommApr01.PDF>.

30) Seattle Public Utilities. 2000. About Ecoturf.Conservation and Environment: NaturalLawn Care. Accessed at: <http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/util/lawncare/aboutEcoturf.htm>.

31) Diboll, Neil. 2002. Wildflowers: The casefor native plants. Prairie Nursery, Inc.Westfield, WI. Accessed at: <http://www.prairienursery.com/NeilsPage/AchWriting/WildflowersCaseforNative.htm>.

32) American Meadows. n.d. Planting Instruc-tions: How to create your own wildflowermeadow. Accessed at: <http://www.americanmeadows.com/plantinst.cfm>.

33) Wasowski, Sally. 2002. Gardening withPrairie Plants: How to Create BeautifulNative Landscapes. University of Minne-sota Press, Minneapolis, MN. 285 p.

34) PageWise. 2001. How to plant a wildflowermeadow. Accessed at: <http://www.allsands.com/Gardening/wildflowersmea_suc_gn.htm>.

35) McHenry County Defenders. 1996. Got thelawnmower blues? Natural Landscaping,Woodstock, Il. Accessed at: <http://www.mcdef.org/natlan.htm>.

36) Wheaton, Paul. 2000. Organic lawn carefor the cheap and lazy. Accessed at: <http://www.richsoil.com/lawn/>.

37) Mugaas, Bob. 2002. LILaC: Low InputLawn Care. University of Minnesota Ex-tension Service. Accessed at: <http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG7552.html>.

38) Nelson, Eric B., and C.M. Craft. 1991. Sup-pression of dollar spot on creepingbentgrass and annual bluegrass turf withcompost-amended topdressings. Plant Dis-ease. Vol. 76. p. 954�958.

39) Hoitnik, H.A.J., M.J. Boehm, and Y. Hadar.1993. Mechanisms of suppression of soilborne plant pathogens in compost-amended substrates. p. 601�621. In: H.A.J.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 26

Hoitnik and H.M. Keener (eds.). Scienceand Engineering of Composting. Renaissance Publishers, Worthington, OH.

40) Quarles, William. 2001. Can composts sup-press plant disease? Common Sense PestControl. Vol. XVII, No. 3. p. 12�22.

41) Nelson, Eric B., and Michael J. Boehm.2002. Compost-induced disease suppres-sion of turf grass diseases. Part I. BioCycle.Vol. 43. No. 6. p. 51�55.

42) Ingham, E.R., D.C. Coleman, and J.C.Moore. 1989. An analysis of food-web struc-ture and function in a shortgrass prairie, amountain meadow, and a lodgepole pineforest. Biology and Ferility of Soils. Vol. 8.p. 29�37.

43) Quarles, William. 2001. Compost tea fororganic farming and gardening. The IPMPractitioner. Vol. XXIII. No. 9. p. 1�8.

44) Blair, Marney, Christa Conforti, KevinHutchins, and Jean Koch. 2002. The effectsof compost tea on golf course greens turf.2002 International Symposium:Composting and Compost Utilization. TheOhio State University. Accessed at:<http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/michel/diseasesuppression.htm>.

45) Anon. 1999. A new companion. BUGSFlyer. March. p. 6�7.

46) Torello, W.A., H. Gunner, and M. Coler.1999. Biological disease control in golf turf:A unique approach utilizing newly devel-oped carrier technology for a new anti-pathogenic activity bacterium. p. 25. In:1999 Turfgrass Field Day. University ofMassachusettes, Amherst, MA.

47) Sachs, Paul D. 1996. Handbook of Success-ful Ecological Lawn Care. The EdaphicPress, Newbury, VT. 290 p.

48) Zein, S.M. 2001. B.U.G.S. Flyer. March. p.1�3.

49) Wilhelm, S. Paul. 2002. Nematodes andlawn care. IPM Practioner. Vol. XXIV. No.5/6. p. 14�15.

50) Demoden, P.H., M.J. Carroll, and J.M.Krouse. 1993. Weed management and tallfescue quality as influenced by mowing, ni-trogen, and herbicides. Crop Sciences. Vol.33. p. 1055�1061.

51) Christians, Nick. 1999. Using biologicalcontrol strategies for turf . Part III: Weeds.Grounds Maintenance. Vol. 34. Number3. p. 28�32. Accessed at: <http://www.gluten.iastate.edu/grndmain.html>.

52) Quarles, William. 1999. Corn gluten meal:a least-toxic herbicide. The IPM Practitio-ner. Vol. XXI. No. 5/6. P. 1�7.

53) Radhakrishnan, Jay. 2002. The �Vinegaras an Herbicide� Information Page of TheSustainable Agricultural Systems Labora-tory, USDA Agricultural Research Service.Accessed at: <http://www.barc.usda.gov/anri/sasl/vinegar.html>.

54) Market Farming listserve. May 30, 2002.

55) RO. 1997. Vinegar. Material Safety DataSheet. Accessed at: <http://www.greensense.net/vinegarmsds.html>.

56) AllAboutLawns.Com. 2001. Getting toknow your lawn. Accessed at: <http://www.allaboutlawns.com/Knowing_Your_Lawn_Central.htm>.

57) Brown, Deb. 2001. (Ultra) low maintenancelawns. Yard and Garden Brief. Univer-sity of Minnesota Extension. Accessed at:<http://www.extension.umn.edu/projects/yardandgarden/ygbriefs/h325lawn-lowmaint.html>.

58) Meyer, Scott. 1997. Your personal lawn careadvisor. Organic Gardening. February. p.52�58.

59) Schultz, Warren. 1989. The Chemical-FreeLawn. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. 194 p.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 27

The electronic version of Sustainable Turf Careis located at:HTMLhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/turfcare.htmlPDFhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/turfcare.pdf

By Barbara BellowsNCAT Agriculture Specialist

Edited by Paul Williams and David ZodrowFormatted by Cynthia Arnold

May 2003

IP123

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 28

Compost Characteristic

Appearance

Color

Texture or particle size

Odor

Temperature

Moisture content

Carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N ratio)

Organic matter

Humus

Ammonium

Nitrate

Sulfides

pH

Heavy metals

Soluble salts

Microbial profile

Analysis

few recognizable components of original materialremain. Structure is light and crumbly.

dark brown to black (but not dark black, which indi-cates overheating during the composting process)

fine texture, particles smaller than 1/2 inch for incor-poration, smaller than 1/8 for topdressing

earthy aroma, no smell of ammonia or sulfur

not warm to the touch

30 to 50%

15:1 to 20:1

more than 25%

color chromotography test between 50 and 80 forfinished compost

0.2 to 3.0 ppm

< 300 ppm

zero to trace

6.5 to 8.5; pH 7 optimal

lower than allowable limits

conductivity less than 3 millimhos

�10,000 to 20,000 species of bacteria per gram�aerobic bacteria populations should be between 100million to 10 billion CFU/gdw�aerobic bacteria should outnumber anaerobic bacte-ria by ratio of 10:1 or more�Pseudomanas bacteria populations should be be-tween 1 thousand to 1 million CFU*/gdw�nitrogen-fixing bacteria populations should be be-tween 1 thousand to 1 million CFU/gdw�yeasts and fungi populations should be between 1 to10 thousand CFU/gdw�actinomycete populations should be between 1 to 100million CFU/gdw

APPENDIX: Table 1. Characteristics of good quality compost for turf

* CFU/gdw is colony forming units per gram dry weight

Sources: 4, 5, 6, 40

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 29

Preferred

Allowed

Prohibited

Nitrogen Sources

� alfalfa meal� compost� compost tea

� vegetable meal such as soybeanmeal, corn gluten meal, cottonseed meal, and peanut meal� blood meal from U.S. sources� fish emulsion or meal

� leather meal� Chilean nitrate� synthetic nitrogen fertilizers

Phosphorus Sources

� compost� compost tea� green manures

� greensand� rock phosphate� steamed bone meal fromU.S. sources

� synthetic phosphorus fer-tilizers

Potassium Sources

� alfalfa meal� compost� compost tea

� greensand� seaweed� Sul-Po-Mag� potassium sufate

� muriate of potash� synthetic potassiumfertilizers

Do not use:� uncomposted manure, since it contains weed seeds and pathogens� sewage sludge, since it may contain heavy metals and pathogens

Source: 6

APPENDIX: Table 2. Organic Nutrient Sources

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 30

Shad

e

Mod

erat

e - P

oor

Poor

-V

ery

Poor

Fair

-Mod

erat

e

Fair

-Goo

d

Goo

d-V

ery

Goo

dG

ood

Goo

d

Mod

erat

e

Goo

d -

Ver

y G

ood

Poor

Goo

d-V

ery

Goo

d

Goo

d

Goo

d

Dro

ught

Goo

d -

Exce

llent

Goo

d-Ex

celle

ntPo

or

Goo

d

Goo

d -

Poor

Goo

d-Ex

celle

nt

Goo

d

Poor

Ver

yG

ood

Goo

d-V

ery

Goo

dPo

or

Goo

d -

Poor

Ver

y G

ood

Goo

d

Dur

abili

ty o

rW

ear

Poor

-G

ood

Goo

d -

Exce

llent

Poor

Poor

Poor

-G

ood

Goo

d -

Exce

llent

Goo

d

Poor

Goo

d -

Ver

y G

ood

Goo

d

Goo

d

Mod

erat

e

Mod

erat

e

Pest

Res

ista

nce

Nem

atod

es- V

. Goo

dD

isea

ses

- Goo

dN

emat

odes

- Poo

rD

isea

ses

- Goo

dN

emat

odes

-Poo

rD

isea

ses

- Mod

erat

eN

emat

odes

-Poo

rD

isea

ses

- Goo

dN

emat

odes

-Goo

dD

isea

ses-

Mod

erat

eN

emat

odes

-Poo

rD

isea

ses

- Goo

d

Dis

ease

s- m

oder

ate

Dis

ease

s- m

oder

ate

Dis

ease

s- m

oder

ate

Resi

stan

t to

red

thre

ad

Dis

ease

s- m

oder

ate

Alls

tar -

hig

h in

sect

resi

stan

ce

Dis

ease

-goo

d

Dis

ease

-goo

d

Soil

Pref

eren

ce

Aci

d, s

andy

Wid

e ra

nge

Aci

d, w

et

Aci

d, in

fert

ile

Wid

e ra

nge

Wid

e ra

nge

Wid

e ra

nge

Wid

e ra

nge

Aci

d so

ils

Mai

nten

ance

Lev

el

Low

- M

oder

ate

Med

ium

- H

igh

Low

Low

Med

ium

Hig

h

Mod

erat

e -H

igh

Mod

erat

e

Low

- M

oder

ate

Low

Hig

h

Low

- Mod

erat

e

Low

Low

Esta

blis

hmen

tM

etho

d

Seed

, sod

Sod,

spr

igs,

plug

s, se

ed

Seed

, spr

igs

Seed

, sod

,sp

rigs

, plu

gsSo

d, p

lugs

,sp

rigs

Sod,

plu

gs

Seed

, sod

Seed

, sod

Seed

, sod

, plu

gs

Sod,

plu

gs,

spri

gsSe

ed

Seed

, sod

Seed

, sod

, plu

gs

Seed

, sod

Seed

, sod

Law

n G

rass

War

m-S

easo

nG

rass

es

Bahi

agra

ss

Berm

udag

rass

Car

petg

rass

Cen

tiped

egra

ss

St. A

ugus

tineg

rass

Zoys

iagr

ass

Coo

l-Sea

son

Gra

sses

Ken

tuck

yBl

uegr

ass

Roug

h-st

alk

Blue

gras

s

Tall

Fesu

e

Red

Fesc

ue

Ann

ual

Ryeg

rass

Pere

nnia

lRy

egra

ss

Nat

ive

Gra

sses

Buffa

logr

ass

Blue

Gam

ma

Cre

sted

Whe

atgr

ass

Hea

t or C

old

Tole

ranc

e

Hea

t tol

eren

t

Hea

t tol

eren

t

Hea

t tol

eren

t

Hea

t tol

eren

t

Hea

t tol

eren

t

Hea

t tol

eren

t

Hea

t - m

oder

ate

Col

d - m

oder

ate

Hea

t - m

oder

ate

Col

d - m

oder

ate

Hea

t - m

oder

ate

Col

d - m

oder

ate

Nor

ther

n

Hea

t- po

orC

old

- mod

erat

eH

eat -

mod

erat

eC

old

- mod

erat

e

Hea

t-goo

dC

old

- mod

erat

e

Hea

t-mod

erat

eC

old

-goo

dH

eat-m

oder

ate

APP

EIN

DIX

: Ta

ble

3. C

hara

cter

istic

s of

Com

mon

Tur

f Gra

sses

Sour

ces:

56,

57,

58

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 31

Dis

ease

Ant

hrac

nose

Brow

n pa

tch

Dol

lar

spot

Fair

y ri

ng

Fusa

rium

Leaf

spo

t

Nec

rotic

rin

g sp

ot

Pow

dery

mild

ew

Pyth

ium

blig

ht

Pyth

ium

roo

t rot

Gra

ss s

peci

es a

ffec

ted

� Fe

scue

� Ry

egra

ss�

Blue

gras

s�

Berm

udag

rass

� St

. Aug

ustin

egra

ss

� Bl

uegr

ass

� Ry

egra

ss�

Cen

tiped

egra

ss�

Berm

udag

rass

� Zo

ysia

gras

s

All

cool

and

war

m s

easo

ngr

asse

s

� A

ll co

ol-s

easo

n gr

asse

s�

Berm

udag

rass

� Bl

uegr

ass

Res

ista

nt v

arie

ties

avai

labl

e

avai

labl

e

avai

labl

e

shad

e-to

lera

ntcu

ltiva

rs

Aer

atio

n

incr

ease

aera

tion

incr

ease

aera

tion

incr

ease

aera

tion

incr

ease

aera

tion

incr

ease

aera

tion

incr

ease

aera

tion

incr

ease

aera

tion

Mow

ing

� in

crea

se m

owin

ghe

ight

� co

llect

and

com

-po

st c

lippi

ngs

� in

crea

se m

owin

ghe

ight

� in

crea

se m

owin

ghe

ight

esp

ecia

llyin

late

spr

ing

and

sum

mer

� ke

ep m

ower

blad

es s

harp

incr

ease

mow

ing

heig

ht

do n

ot m

ow w

hen

wet

incr

ease

mow

ing

heig

ht

Fert

ility

incr

ease

� re

duce

N in

late

sp

ring

, s

umm

er

� ad

just

pH

to 6

- 6.

5

� a

dequ

ate

fer

tiliz

atio

n n

eces

sary

� ra

ise

pH

inc

reas

e N

, iro

n

red

uce

N

redu

ce N

min

imiz

e st

ress

red

uce

N

red

uce

N

Wat

erin

g /

Leaf

wet

ness

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

� w

ater

dee

ply,

infr

eque

ntly

� w

ater

ear

ly in

day

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

� pr

ovid

e go

od d

rain

age

� w

ater

dee

ply,

infr

eque

ntly

� av

oid

drou

ght s

tres

s�

wat

er e

arly

in d

ay�

redu

ce le

af w

etne

ss

� av

oid

drou

ght

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

� w

ater

dee

ply,

infr

eque

ntly

� w

ater

ear

ly in

day

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

� m

inim

ize

stre

ss

� w

ater

dee

ply,

infr

eque

ntly

� w

ater

ear

ly in

day

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

� do

not

wat

er a

t nig

ht�

impr

ove

drai

nage

� im

prov

e dr

aina

ge

Oth

er

� to

pdre

ss c

ompo

st

� pr

evel

ent i

n dr

y w

eath

er�

topd

ress

com

post

� re

mov

e ex

cess

org

anic

mat

ter

� d

ecre

ase

that

ch �

roto

till o

r rem

ove

soil

� re

duce

that

ch�

prev

elen

t in

cool

wea

ther

� re

duce

that

ch

� re

duce

that

ch �

topd

ress

com

post

� re

duce

sha

de �

pre

vele

nt in

coo

lw

eath

er

� re

duce

sha

de �

topd

ress

com

post

� re

duce

sha

de �

hea

vy fa

ll co

mpo

st a

p-pl

icat

ion

APP

END

IX:

Tabl

e 4.

Cul

tura

l Pra

ctic

es fo

r Tur

f Dis

ease

Con

trol

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 32

Dis

ease

Gra

ss sp

ecie

s aff

ecte

dR

esis

tant

var

ietie

sA

erat

ion

Mow

ing

Fert

ility

Wat

erin

g /

Leaf

wet

ness

Oth

er

Red

thre

ad/p

ink

patc

h

Rust

Slim

e m

olds

Sout

hern

Blig

ht

Sum

mer

pat

ch

Stip

e sm

ut

Take

-all

patc

h

Yello

w p

atch

Yello

w tu

ft

All

cool

-sea

son

gras

ses

� Fe

scue

� Ry

egra

ss�

Blue

gras

s�

Zoys

iagr

ass

All

cool

and

war

m s

easo

n gr

asse

s

� Bl

uegr

ass

� Ry

egra

ss

� St

. Aug

ustin

egra

ss

ava

ilabl

e

ava

ilabl

e

sm

ut-fr

ee s

eed

coll

ect

and

com

post

leaf

clip

ping

s

coll

ect

and

com

post

leaf

clip

ping

s

coll

ect

and

com

post

leaf

clip

ping

s

incr

ease

mow

ing

heig

ht

incr

ease

mow

ing

heig

ht

incr

ease

fert

ility

, pH

incr

ease

fert

ilize

pro

perl

y

low

er p

H

redu

ce N

low

er p

Hin

crea

se P

, Kde

crea

se C

a

redu

ce N

redu

ce N

incr

ease

iron

� w

ater

dee

ply,

infr

eque

ntly

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

� m

inim

ize

stre

ss�

mai

ntai

n go

od s

oil

moi

stur

e�

redu

ce le

af w

etne

ss

� w

ater

dee

ply,

infr

eque

ntly

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

min

imiz

e st

ress

impr

ove

drai

nage

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

� re

duce

leaf

wet

ness

� im

prov

e dr

aina

ge

� im

prov

e ai

r m

ovem

ent

� pr

evel

ent i

n co

ol w

eath

er�

prev

elen

t in

dry

wea

ther

� to

pdre

ss c

ompo

st

� re

duce

sha

de�

prev

elen

t in

dry

wea

ther

� re

mov

e m

old

by b

rush

ing

or w

ashi

ng tu

rf�

redu

ce th

atch

� pr

evel

ent i

n co

ol w

eath

er

� re

duce

that

ch

redu

ce s

hade

Sour

ces:

12, 1

3, 2

2

APP

END

IX:

Tabl

e 4.

Cul

tura

l Pra

ctic

es fo

r Tur

f Dis

ease

Con

trol

- C

ontin

ued

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 33

Inse

ct P

est

Roo

t fee

ders

Whi

te g

rubs

Mol

e cr

icke

ts

Stem

feed

ers

Bill

bugs

Juic

e su

cker

s

Chi

nch

bugs

Mite

s

Spitt

lebu

gs

Leaf

eat

ers

Sod

web

wor

ms

Cra

ne fl

ies

Geo

grap

hica

l Lo

-ca

tions

Aff

ecte

d

� N

orth

east

� So

uthe

ast

� M

idw

est

� Pl

ains

sta

tes

� N

orth

wes

t�

Sout

hwes

t

� So

uthe

ast

� G

ulf s

tate

s

� So

uthe

ast

� Pl

ains

sta

tes

� N

orth

east

� So

uthe

ast

� G

ulf s

tate

s�

Sout

hwes

t

� Zo

ne 8

� N

orth

east

� So

uthe

ast

� G

ulf s

tate

s�

Mid

wes

t�

Plai

ns s

tate

s�

Nor

thw

est

� N

orth

wes

t

Endo

phyt

es

avai

labl

e fo

rco

ol-s

easo

ngr

asse

s

avai

labl

e fo

rco

ol-s

easo

ngr

asse

s

avai

labl

e fo

rco

ol-s

easo

ngr

asse

s

avai

labl

e fo

rco

ol-s

easo

ngr

asse

s

Cul

tura

l con

trol

met

hods

� w

ithol

d w

ater

in J

uly

and

earl

y A

ugus

tw

hen

eggs

nee

d w

ater

to h

atch

� in

crea

sing

mow

ing

heig

ht to

3 in

ches

en-

hanc

es m

ilky

spor

e ef

fect

iven

ess

� r

emov

e th

atch

to r

educ

e ha

bita

t�

red

uce

com

pact

ion

� w

ater

dee

ply

in s

prin

g

� re

sist

ant v

arie

ties

of g

rass

� w

ater

regu

larl

y, e

spec

ially

ear

ly in

seas

on

� fr

eque

nt li

ght w

ater

ing

� w

ater

thor

ough

ly to

rem

ove

bugs

� w

ater

ligh

tly d

urin

g he

at o

f the

day

� m

ow to

3 in

ches

� re

mov

e th

atch

to r

educ

e ha

bita

t�

ensu

re g

ood

drai

nage

� av

oid

drou

ght c

ondi

tions

� en

hanc

e fe

rtili

ty�

aera

te la

wn

Bota

nica

l Pes

ticid

es

� N

eem

� N

eem

� D

iato

mac

eous

ear

th fo

r adu

lts

� N

eem

� In

sect

icid

al s

oap

� In

sect

icid

al s

oap

� N

eem

� In

sect

icid

al s

oap

Biol

ogic

al I

nsec

ticid

es

� Ba

cillu

s po

pilli

ae (M

ilky

spor

e)to

con

trol

Japa

nese

Bee

tles

� Be

auve

ria

bass

iana

� Ba

cillu

s ja

pone

nsis

� En

tom

opat

hoge

nic

nem

atod

es

� Ba

cillu

s po

pilli

ae�

Ento

mop

atho

geni

c ne

mat

odes

� Be

auve

ria

bass

iana

� En

tom

opat

hoge

nic

nem

atod

es�

Beau

veri

a ba

ssia

na

� Be

auve

ria

bass

iana

� En

tom

opat

hoge

nic

nem

atod

es�

Baci

llus

thur

ingi

ensi

s

APP

END

IX: T

able

5. C

ultu

ral a

nd B

iolo

gica

l Con

trol

Met

hods

for T

urf I

nsec

t Pes

ts a

nd O

ther

Ath

ropo

ds

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 34

Cut

wor

ms

Arm

ywor

ms

Oth

er A

rthr

opod

s

Slu

gs a

nd s

nails

Inse

ct P

est

� N

orth

wes

t

� So

uthe

ast

� G

ulf s

tate

s

� M

oist

, hum

idcl

imat

es

Geo

grap

hica

lLo

catio

nsA

ffec

ted

avai

labl

e fo

rco

ol-s

easo

ngr

asse

s

avai

labl

e fo

rco

ol-s

easo

ngr

asse

s

Endo

phyt

es

� re

mov

e th

atch

to r

educ

e ha

bita

t�

use

pher

omon

e tr

aps

to m

onito

r tim

eof

egg

layi

ng�

mow

and

bag

clip

ping

s to

rem

ove e

ggs

from

leaf

tips

� re

mov

e th

atch

to r

educ

e ha

bita

t

� el

imin

atin

g w

et a

reas

in la

wn

� se

tting

out

trap

s�

plan

ting

non-

pref

erre

d pl

ant s

peci

es

Cul

tura

l con

trol

met

hods

� N

eem

� In

sect

icid

al s

oaps

� N

eem

� In

sect

icid

al s

oaps

� C

oppe

r bar

rier

s�

Hor

seta

il (E

quis

etum

) e

xtra

ct�

Saw

dust

� W

ooda

sh

Bota

nica

l Pes

ticid

es

� En

tom

opat

hoge

nic

nem

atod

es�

Baci

llus

thur

ingi

ensi

s

� En

tom

opat

hoge

nic

nem

atod

es�

Baci

llus

thur

ingi

ensi

s

� Sl

ug-a

ttack

ing

nem

atod

es(a

vaila

ble

curr

ently

onl

y in

Briti

an)

Biol

ogic

al I

nsec

ticid

es

APP

END

IX:

Tabl

e 5.

Cul

tura

l and

Bio

logi

cal C

ontr

ol M

etho

ds fo

r Tur

f Ins

ect P

ests

and

Oth

er A

thro

pods

-C

ontin

ued

Sour

ces:

6, 1

3, 5

8, 5

9

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 35

Weed

Annual bluegrass

Barnyardgrass

Birdsfoot Trefoil

Black Medic

Broadleaf Plantain

Burdock

Buttercup

Chickweed

Cinquefoil

Coltsfoot

Common Mullein

Corn Chamomile

Corn Speedwell

Crabgrass

CreepingBentgrass

CreepingSpeedwell

Creeping Thyme

Curly Dock

Soilmoisture

Poordrainage

Poordrainage

Droughtyconditions

Droughtyconditions

Poordrainage

DroughtyconditionsHighsurfacemoisture

Poordrainage

Poordrainage

Droughtyconditions

DroughtyconditionsHighsurfacemoisture

Droughtyconditions

Soil pH

High

Low

Low

Low

High

High

SoilCompaction

High

High

High

Soil fertility

High N

Low N

Low N

High N

Low fertility

Low fertility

Low N

Mowing

Too low

Infrequent

Too low

Too low

Too low

Shade

Too muchshade

APPENDIX: Table 6. Conditions that Favor Weed Infestations

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 36

Weed

Dandelion

English Daisy

Foxtail

Goosegrass

Hawkweed

Henbit

Hop Clover

Lady�s Thumb

Leafy Spurge

Mallow

Nutsedge

Pigweed

Prostrate Knotweed

Prostrate Spurge

Red Sorrel

Speedwell

Wild Parsnip

Yarrow

Yellow Woodsorrel

Soilmoisture

Droughtyconditions

Poordrainage

Droughtyconditions

Poordrainage

Droughtyconditions

Droughtyconditions

Droughtyconditions

Droughtyconditions

Droughtyconditions

Droughtyconditions

High

Low

Low

High

Low

Low

Soil pH

High

High

High

SoilCompaction

Soil fertility

Low fertility

Low fertility

Low fertility

Low fertility

Low N

Low fertility

Mowing

Too low

Too low

Shade

APPENDIX: Table 6. Conditions that Favor Weed Infestations - Continued

Sources: 4, 13

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 37

Sustainable Turf CareExecutive Summary

Barbara C. Bellows

The key to organic or least-toxic turf managementis reducing turf stress. Turf experiences stressfrom heat, drought, wetness, compaction, nutri-ent deficiencies or imbalances, and disease andpest infestations. To minimizing stress on turf,you need to pay attention to the following prin-ciples:

� Establish and maintain a healthy soil en-vironment

� Include a diversity of species in the lawnenvironment

� Use cultural practices that reduce stresson turf

� Understand and work with your local soiland climate conditions

� Use biological pest controls

Establish And Maintain A Healthy SoilEnvironment

A lawn that is healthy requires less irrigation andbetter resists pests and diseases. Mature compostprovides turf plants with a balanced, slow-releasesource of nutrients. Compost can be tilled intothe soil to renovate land for healthy turf growthor applied to existing turf as a topdressing. Whentopdressing, the best time to apply compost is inthe spring or fall. Compost applied in the springprovides nutrients to the soil and turf during themain growing season, while compost applied inthe fall helps prolong the growing season,strengthens roots for the dormant season, andpromotes early spring growth. Other organicsources of plant nutrients include vegetable andalfalfa meals for nitrogen, rock phosphate andgreensand for phosphorus, and alfalfa meal,greensand, and seaweed for potassium.

Besides serving as a complete source of nutrientsfor turf growth, compost provides food for soilorganisms. These organisms help create a soft,porous, well-aerated soil. They also break downthatch and allow for more effective water andnutrient use.

Include A Diversity Of Species In The LawnEnvironment

Turf composed of a single species is highly sus-ceptible to becoming weedy and demands morenutrients and water than turf composed of a di-versity of species (12). To minimize maintenanceproblems, use a combination of species appro-priate for your location and for the specific con-ditions within the yard. Also, choose varietiesthat have resistance to common pests in the areaand that do not have a high demand for nitro-gen.

Adding legumes such as Dutch white clover,subterranean clover, or black medic can add ni-trogen to the soil, increase drought-tolerance, anddecrease diseases and weed infestations. Whenmixed evenly with turf grass species, the result-ing lawn has a soft, natural look.

Slow growing or �no mow� lawn mixes provideanother option for low-maintenance lawn care.A combination of hard fescue and creeping redfescue is suitable for the cooler, medium-rainfallareas of the upper Midwest and the northeast-ern United States, and southern Canada. Vari-ous sedges and rushes can be used in moisterregions.

Wildflowers provide additional color and vari-ety to a yard while also attracting beneficial in-sects and birds. When purchasing wildflowerseeds, select mixtures that are either native to orwell adapted to your local climate and soil con-ditions. Avoid inexpensive seed mixes that con-tain a high percentage of weedy, aggressive, an-nual species. Native, warm-season prairiegrasses provide an excellent companion to prai-rie flowers.

Use Cultural Practices That Reduce Stress OnTurf

Mowing and watering are normal lawn mainte-nance practices that can either be used to createa healthy lawn or misused to produce a highlystressed lawn. Raising the mowing height to 2½ to 3 inches, keeping mower blades sharp, andreturning mower clipping to the soil stimulates

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 38

healthy turf growth, controls weeds, and reducesthe potential for diseases. Watering infrequently,but to the depth of root penetration, stimulateshealthy root growth, minimizes turf stress, andreduces environmental conditions that favor rootdiseases.

Overseeding allows you to rejuvenate a lawn andfill in bare spots where weeds might otherwisegrow (18). Overseeding also allows you to slowlyreplace inappropriate or disease-prone varietieswith more appropriate or more disease-resistantvarieties. In mid-latitude areas, it will extend thelength of time a lawn remains green into the fall.For lawn rejuvenation, overseeding may be doneeither in the spring (April or May) or in the fall(September or October).

Other cultural practices that help control turfgrass diseases include aerating the soil and turfby raking, coring, or spiking. You can also stimu-late the growth of microbial antagonists by ap-plying natural supplements such as lime, ash,compost, liquid seaweed, or fish emulsion.

Biological Pest Control Methods

A light topdressing of high-quality mature com-post applied every 30 days can provide effectivecontrol of some root pathogens and reduce weedinfestation. Compost applications can suppresssome soil borne fungal diseases as well as con-ventional fungicides. You can topdress solidcompost or mix with 20 to 30% sand, then incor-porated into the soil with an aerator or dragchains. Alternatively, you can apply composttea�a liquid solution prepared from high qual-ity compost�as a spray.

Various biological pesticides are labeled for turf.The fungus Trichoderma harzianum controls sev-eral diseases, such as brown patch, dollar spot,pythium root rot, and blight. A commercial mix-ture of four species of Bacillus bacteria providesremedial treatment of turf diseases. Bacilluspopilliae, also known as milky spore, controlsgrubs of Japanese beetles and mole crickets. Twospecies of insect-eating nematodes can be usedto control white grubs, billbugs, sod webworms,cutworms, and army worms. These pest preda-tors survive best in moist, loamy soils that havesoil temperatures between 65° and 85° F. Sincethey are able to withstand high pressure, they

can be applied using a sprayer or irrigation equip-ment.

Perennial ryegrass and many types of fescue havea symbiotic relationship with special fungi or en-dophytes. Grass varieties that contain endo-phytes produce a bitter toxin that repels mostinsects and kills many of those that continue tofeed. Besides protecting infected grasses frominsect pests, endophytes also produce hormone-like substances that increase the growth and vi-tality of the grass. While endophyte-infectedseed must be stored carefully and plantedpromptly to ensure the survival of the endophyte,once the endophyte-infected grass is planted, theendophyte grows and reproduces with the grassas long as the grass remains viable.

The easiest and most effective method of weedcontrol is to increase species diversity in the lawn.By raising the mower height to 3 inches, espe-cially during the spring, you can obtain the samelevel of crabgrass control as with herbicides.Leaving grass clipping on the lawn after mow-ing can control the germination and growth ofcertain weeds, because the clippings contain al-lelopathic compounds. Two organically-ap-proved herbicides have demonstrated a highlevel of control. Corn gluten meal provides pre-emergence control of various weed species, in-cluding crab grass, foxtail, pigweed and dande-lion. Concentrated vinegar, containing 10 to20% acetic acid, is an effective post-emergenceherbicide that kills giant foxtail, commonlambsquarters, smooth pigweed, and velvetleaf.Unfortunately, both of these products are onlyeconomical to use in small areas or as a spot-treat-ment.

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CARE PAGE 39

//SUSTAINABLE TURF CAREPAGE 40