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217 83 IR

SWD STEERING COMMITTEE

WINDEIMERGY

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

P.O. BOX 85

3800AB AMERSFOORT

THE NETHERLANDS

Irrigation water storage tanks made of earth bunds with various linings

A manual for design and construction

Maart 1983

_v "'•'J

13 HV DHV Consulting Engineers

TWO Technical Working Group

for Developing Countries

Ml&lt-^^

CONTENTS PAGE

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

3. GENERAL 5

3.1. Design criteria 5 3.2. Location 5 3.3. Soils and rock 5 3.4. Soil improvement 9 3.5. Permeability 9 3.6. Execution - Site clearance 9

Levelling 10 Preparation of foundations 11 Bunds 12 Crowns of the bunds 12 Construction 12 Maintenance 12

3.7. Fencing 12

13

13 13 13 14 14 15 15

17

17 soil 17

Vibration test 17 Setting test 18 Cohesion test 18 Permeability test 19

4.

4.1. 4.2.

4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6.

5.

5.1. 5.2.

MATERIALS

General Sheets

Bentonite Chemicals Bitumen Brickwork/concrete

TESTING

Introduction Simple field identi

Polythene PVC

fication tests

6. TOOLS 21

2

CONTENTS (Continue)

7. STABILITY CONDITIONS

7.1. General aspects 7.2. Causes of failure

8. TYPES OF TANKS

23

23 23

27

8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. 8.6. 8.7.

Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VII

Clay bund Coffer dam PVC lining Sand-bentonite lining Bitumen lining Lining of bricks or concrete Sand-cement sausages

27 36 45 55 64 73 83

9.

9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Annex 1 Annex 2 Annex 3

RELATIVE COMPARISON AND SUMMARY 98

Water impermeability 98 Execution/quality of workskill 99 Frost resistance 99 Resistance against changes in humidity, temperature and light intensity 99 Area required 99 Chances of pollution by the lining material used 99 Dependability/reliability/durability 100 Possibilities for repair 100 Cleaning possibilities/need for maintenance 100 Resistance against use and damage by animals 100 Resistance to vegetation 100 Summary 101

Sizes of wires and steel rods 102 Conversion of common units 103 Bibliography 104

3

1. PREFACE

The SWD (Steering Committee on Wind-Energy for Developing Countries) has designed and built windmills for irrigation purposes in several developing countries. One of the essentials for achieving properly regulated irrigation with windmills is water storage. Experience has shown that the cost of water storage tanks involved can equal the cost of a windmill. Also some types of storage tanks are liable to become damaged during use, sometimes due to lack of knowhow. Discussions in TWO (a non profit organization set up by employees of DHV) about the technical problems of water storage tanks resulted in a contract between SWD and DHV. Under this contract DHV has prepared designs and construction manuals of irrigation water storage tanks in various types constructed of different materials. A design and construction manual for brickwork tanks was prepared in December 1981 and in October 1982 a similar manual for ferrocement and ferrocement-brickwork tanks.

The tanks described in the present manual have walls consisting of earth bunds. These tanks which can be constructed by several methods and with various types of linings or construction, will have storage capacities of 30 m3 - 60 m3 - 90 m3 and 150 m3 like the brickwork and ferrocement tanks.

The authors are grateful for the support and criticism, received from the SWD.

The authors: J. Costa C. Pieck J. Tromp

4

2. INTRODUCTION

Watertanks for storage of irrigation water are liable to have some losses due to the permeability of the walls. In certain circumstances a 10% loss of water per day may not be a problem. If such losses are not acceptable, more care has to be taken with the impermeability of bottom and bunds. In some cases this will mean applying other linings or a combination of linings such as a clay bund with plastic sheet lining. Due to the slopes at the perimeter of some of the described tanks shallow water remains standing; this may be a breeding place for mosquitoes. The area needed for a bund tank is larger than for a brickwork, concrete or ferrocement tank. A summary of the several types of tanks reads as follows:

Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VII

clay bund coffer dam PVC lining sand-bentonite lining bitumen lining lining of concrete or bricks sand-cement sausages lining

The choice of a type depends largely on the availability of the materials and the costs involved. Bills of quantities are made for each type of tank to facilitate making cost estimates for specific situations. A comparison of these bills of quantities will make clear that bund tanks are often much cheaper than other types of tanks.

The main chapters in this manual are: a general description of design criteria, location, site clearance and execution of the tanks construction materials tools types of tanks including construction sequences, bills of quantities, drawings and other instructions methods for testing materials, to obtain an impression of the quality and suitability of the materials to be used calculation methods to be used for the user who is sufficiently knowledgeable and experienced to adapt the tank dimensions if a smaller tank is required.

Annexes contain data on construction materials, and conversion of units, and a bibliography.

5

3. GENERAL

3.1. Design criteria

The United States Water Conservation Laboratory in Arizona has listed the desired characteristics of an artificial catchment. They are: 1. Run off must be non-toxic 2. Surface should be smooth and impermeable 3. The surface should have a high resistance to weathering and have no

internal chemical or physical deterioration 4. The surface need not have great physical strenght but should be able

to withstand hail, intense rain, wind, occasional amimals, moderate water flow, plant growth, insects, birds and borrowing animals

5. The treatment should be inexpensive on an annual cost basis. Site preparation and construction costs should be as low as possible

6. Maintenance requirements should be simple and cheap

This manual describes several types of cheap linings, for water storage tanks made of bunds, that satisfy these conditions and require a minimun of skilled labour to construct.

3.2. Location

For irrigation from the tank by means of gravitational flow, the tank has to be situated at the highest part of the field. If the land is rather flat, the base of the tank has to be constructed about 0.50 m above ground level. Points to be considered are:

location in the highest part of the field that has to be irrigated site as close as possible to the windmill to reduce the cost of the delivery line no obstructions to other field operations avoid damage by roots or falling branches by choosing the site away from trees it is advisable to choose the site near a road or track, but not one on which a lot of heavy traffic passes

3.3. Soils and rock

Ground materials are usually divided into three types.

These are:

1. Granular : Silts, sand, gravels and boulders which are not cemented together

2. Cohesive : Clays, or materials which have sufficient clay minerals in them for them to act as clays

3. Lithified : Rock

A simple grain size classification for soils is given in the following table:

Grainsize classification of soils

6

grain diameter (mm) term

Boulder Cobble Coarse Gravel Medium Gravel Fine Gravel Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Coarse Silt Medium Silt Fine Silt Clay

The name of the soil is given by its grain size-distribution. A full description may include such physical properties as relative density (for sands) or strength (for clays) and a description of geological structure. Other features such as colour may be added to help distinguish one stratum of material from another. A description might be "Dense thinly bedded grey fine Sand". Strength is one of the most important parameters for engineering purposes and so scales of strength have been devised. One such scale is given in the following table which also indicates how a very approximate indication of strength may be obtained by hand. This strength and also the relative density can be lost by excavating and be improved by compacting.

60 20 6 2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 0.006 0.002

> ----------<

200 200 60 20 6 2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 0.006 0.002

Field Definition

Description

Extrudes between fingers when squeezed

Very soft

Very easily moulded with fingers

Soft

Moderate finger pressure required to mould

Firm

Moulded only by strong finger pressure

Stiff

Cannot be moulded with fingers

Very Stiff

Brittle or very tough

Hard

Strength

Categories

10 20 40 80 160

Shear Strengths of Clays (kN/m2)

7

Field definition

description

Strength

Crumbles in hand break easily in hand

Very Weak

Thin slabs broken by heavy hand

Thin slabs broken

Lumps or core broken

by light by heavy hammer blows

pressure

Weak

1.25

Moderately weak 5

Unconfined compressive

Point Categories

Load Strengths o 0.075 0.3

hammer blows

Moderately strong 12.5

Strengths

Lumps or core heavy hammer

Lumps only chip by blows. Sparks fly

blows.Dull ringing sound

Strong

50 of Rocks

f Rocks (MM/m2)* 0.75 3

Very strong

100 (MM/m2)

6

Rocks ring on hammer

Extremely strong

200

12

"Based on the approximate relation: Corap. Strength = 16 Point Load Comp. Strength

We may use these terms for description. A typical soil description might be "Stiff laminated brown sandy CLAY". Permeability depends on the kind of soil and the compaction (see 3.5.). Sand is a good compactible soil.

8

Important cngineermg properties Relative desirability for (No. I is considered the best)

earthftl) dams

Typical names of toil croups

Shear strength Compressibility Workability Permeabtlhy when when as a

Group when compacted compacted conuructioa symbols compacted and saturated and saturated material

Homo-

embank*

Well-graded gravds, gravel-wnd mixtures, little or no Tines

Poorly-graded gravels, gravel-\»nd mixtures, little or no fines

Silly gravels, poorly-graded

gravel-tand-stlt mi»lures

Clayey gravels, poorly-graded

gravel-und-clay mixtures

-Well-graded sands, gravelly

sands, little or no fines

Poorly-graded sands, gravelly

sands, little or no fines

Silly sands, poorly-graded

<and-«ilt mixtures

Clayey sands, poorly-graded

sand -clay mixtures

Inorganic silts and very fine

sands, rock flour, silly or

clayey fine sands with slight

plasticity

Innrgank clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy days, silty clays, lean clays

Organic sills and organic silt-clays of low plasticity Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or ulty soils, elastic sihs

Excellent Negligible Excellent

GP

CM

GC

SW

SP

SM

sc

ML

CT

OL

Very pervious

Semipcrviou* to impervious

Impervious

Pervious

Pervious

Scmipcrvjous to impervious

Impervious

Scmipervious to impervious

Impervious

Scmipervious to impervious

Good

Good

Good to fair

Elect lent

Good

Good

Good to fsur

Fair

Fsir

Poor

Negligible

Negligible

Ver j low

Negligible

Very low

Low

Low

Medium

Medium

Medium

Good

Good

Good

Excellent

Fair

Fair

Good

Fair

Good to fair

Fair

Scmipervious to impervious Fair to poor High Poor

Inorganic days of high plasticity, fat clays C H

Organic clays of medium to high plasticity O H

Peat and other highly organic soils Pi

Impervious Poor

Impervious Poor

High

High

Poor

Poor

7

10

Source: Untied Stales Bureau of Reclamation (1974).

9

For rocks we have similar descriptions. However, an important addition to a rock description is the state of weathering of the rock. We must say if the rock is fresh (un-weathered) and thus at its greatest strength or has been weakened by weathering to, say, a highly weathered condition. A typical description for rock might be "Highly weathered thinly bedded red coarse weak micaceous SANDSTONE". It is very difficult for engineers to give an accurate geological identification of a rock type. The geological classifications of rocks are not uniform throughout the world and description often comes only from examination using a microscope. For engineering purposes it is also often considered more important to give an accurate description of the properties of the rock than to give an exact name. Accordingly, when engineers must name a rock, the name need not be as accurate as a geologist would give but should be not too far from the truth.

3.4. Soil improvement

The locally available clay or silt can be improved by chemical treatments and additives.(see also 4.4.) Three different types of chemical treatment are known:

hydrophobic; i.e. a treatment which increases the contact angle between soil particles and any water on them so that water infiltration will be reduced dispersing; i.e. a treatment which causes any clay in the soil to disperse or swell and partially seal the soil pores stabilisers; i.e. a treatment that improves all properties of the soil like strenght, resistance to weathering and to erosion.

Another type of treatment is mixing the soil with bentonite, which swells when fully saturated and forms a more or less impermeable blanket.

3.5. Permeability

Permeable materials have interconnections between solid particles, which allow the passage of fluid through the material. If the material does not have these passages through it, it is impermeable. The size of the passages governs the permeability and may make the material permeable to one fluid e.g. gas but not to another e.g. water. For flow to take place through a saturated material there must be a pressure head. In this case we are concerned mostly with water and with its flow through materials and mass.

3.6. Execution

Site clearance

The site chosen for the tank should be cleared. The soil layer is to be excavated to a depth of approx. 0.20 m to be sure that all vegetation, loose surface soil, black soil, stones and roots should be removed.

10

Levelling

When the s i t e is cleared i t s surface is levelled with a layer of sand or soi l unt i l the required height i s reached. The set t ing out can be done by driving a post into the ground at the centre point of the tank s i t e and describing a c i r c l e , while marking the ground with pegs at approx. 1 meter core to core.

± o

WATER LEVEL "

MARK

JUNGLE STICK.

L e v E u WATER

"LEVEL

MARK

JUNGLE STICK

TRANSPAReMT PLASTIC TU8e

u LEVELLING TOOL

Levelling can be done by means of a levelling tool. Put one pole of the levelling tool on top of the centre peg and the other pole on a peg on the circumference. Hammer the peg on the circumference till the water level in the tube is at the desired mark. Repeat this for all pegs on the circumference. See figure.

MARK-

LEVELLING

C T P A N & P A R E N T TU8E"

RCLE PCG6

\ » / A y O F - u«e,iKiG O F L e v E U - l N G P O L E S F'olZ A . O y i _ l W D R K A U T A K K .

The setting out for rectangular tanks (see chapter 4.2.) can be done by putting one pole of the levelling tool on top of a peg on the edge and the other pole on the next peg on the edge. Repeat this for all pegs on the rectangle.

See figure next page.

11

MARK- -JQJ^T —AT— .vffL J T ^ J I J V ^ 1 ^

LEVEL fOCE

PEG

*Al*K->!fj

-1=»3(_E.

P E G PBC^—yjT

\</A.y O F l>SlKCi O F - U£.V/El_L.lNKo F t o L E S p"0« . A

+ The levelling tool can be made very easily with about 15 m of transparent plastic tube. This tube is fixed with some binding wire to two wooden poles - one on each side of the tube - of equal length (about 1.5 m). Fill the tube with water to about 0.15 m from the top. Mind that no air is enclosed in the tube filled with water. Stand the poles vertically next to each other on a flat surface and make a mark on the poles at the water levels. Then the levelling tool is ready for use.

Preparation of foundations

On some sites (see chapter 3.2.) the base of-the tank has to be constructed about 0.5 m above ground level. The earth fill required has to be executed in maximum layer thicknesses of 0.2 m to 0.3 m. These layers need to be compacted by ramming and possibly water sprinkling, if sand is used. If the fill material used is clay, this must be crumbled, compacted and remolded. Oxen can be used for this work. Using sand for bund fill a toefilter at the outside toe of the bund is necessary to catch the seepage and prevent instability of the bund (see figure). For filter material one can use locally available gravel.

TO C A T C H T+K&. S £ A P A Q £ A*JO TO P R E V E M T i N * - S T V M i i u i T y .

12

Bunds

The bunds forming the walls of the tank have to be constructed by heaping up soil. Water must be added to each layer of sandy soil (0,2 m thick) after which it should be compacted with tampers (own manufacture). Clay should be compacted by treading with bullocks, sheep or human feet, untill the heights, sizes and slopes as indicated on the drawings have been reached. After finishing the bunds and the base the surface has to be dug and trimmed to shape. Stones, roots and other large objects should be removed. It is advisable in general to cover the outside of the bunds with rockfill to prevent erosion. Do not use vegetation, it may puncture the sheet if used.

Crowns of the bunds

The crown of the bund should be about 1.00 m wide (from the point of view of stability, easy reach and maintenance) and consist of a thin layer of sand, paved with bricks or rockfill. To prevent the crown being washed away if the tank overflows, a PVC or concrete overflow has to be made (for detail see type VII details and dimensions).

Construction

Tanks and the impermeable layers are constructed differently for each type. For more information it is advisable to read the work sequences for the various types.

Maintenance

Maintenance is very important for these newly constructed water tanks. The maintenance should consist of regulary checking of the tank wall and base for erosion. If necessary the wall should be repaired immediately.

3.7. Fencing

Before starting the works it is advisable to fence the whole site adequately because goats or other cattle can be a tremendous nuisance around the area and damage the storage tank or even drown in the water. Especially goats find polythene extremely appetising, in addition to which they may pierce it with their sharp hoofs.

13

4. MATERIALS

4.1. General

In general the choice to be made between the materials described in the

manual depends on local availability. The bills of quantities are not given completed with prices because these may differ from place to place/country to country. Plastic sheeting materials such as polythene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are not manufactured in all countries, but it may be possible to obtain it locally or to import it in large quantities, if a substantial number of storage tanks is to be constructed.

Transport costs of plastic sheeting materials are low because this material has a rather small volume.

4.2. Sheets

Polythene

Polythene sheeting is flexible. During its manufacture a black pigment is added to combat rapid degradation on exposure to light. Chlorosulfonated polythene has a better resistance to degradation by light. Polythene is not termite-proof. However, if it is used on the base of the tank in the form of a blanket of two layers with a layer of mud between them, any holes made in the polythene layers, by termites will be sealed by the mud between the layers. This mud will also seal the joints between two parts of polythene sheeting provided the overlap is at least 1.50 m. If polythene is used on the inside of the tank, the tankbase and its slopes must be smooth and the polythene sheeting must be covered as soon as possible to prevent degradation of the liner. It does not matter if polythene tubing that forms the skin of the sand/cement sausages (described in type VII) is exposed to sunlight and damaged because this tubing is only needed to act as a watertight form of shuttering for the first four weeks. Polythene is the cheapest prefabricated sheet material and is available in thicknesses between 0.025 mm and 0.25 mm. Whether it is economical to use polythene sheetings often depends on the maximum width of sheeting available. The rolls are available in widths of: 12.00 m in the USA and 7.50 m in the UK.

PVC

PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride) is not naturally flexible and plasticisers are incorporated to give the sheet flexibility. The properties of the plasticisers used in a particular type of PVC sheeting should be checked to see that they are conform the health requirements before the sheet is adopted for use in irrigation water storage tanks.

14

PVC is not termite-proof and also has only a short life when it is exposed to light; therefore it is generally used in water storage tanks as a hurried membrane. PVC is easier to join than polythene. PVC can be heat joined by means of a flat or soldering iron with an overlap of about 0.20 m and cold joined with glue-cement. PVC is more resistant to puneture and can be repaired more easily than polythene. The subgrade which should be compacted and structurally stable must be sterilized (see 4.5.) before installation of PCV lining. The PVC then must be covered as soon as possible to prevent degradation. PVC is available in thicknesses between 0.25 mm and 0.80 mm. Rolls with widths of upto 20.00 m are available (USA) and in any lenght that is suitable for handling. For economical reasons a rectangular tank is preferred by using PVC or Polythene sheeting.

4.3. Bentonite

Bentonite is a naturally occurring clay, which contains a high proportion of the mineral sodium montmorillonite. Depending on its exact make up bentonite will expand to between ten and fifteen times its dry volume when fully saturated. So it will crack extensively when it dries out.

To prevent drying out the bentonite layer can be covered by a layer of sand mixed with a small amount of bentonite (10 : 1). The layer itself is a mixture of sand with 25% bentonite. A thickness of 20 cm will give a good watertightness. Bentonite should not be used on calcareous soils. The calcium carbonate reacts with the sodium montmorillonite and this results in calcium montmorillonite, which does not posess the swelling properties of sodium montmorillonite. Bentonite in granular form can be added to the water in a storage tank (sprinkling) that is known to be leaking through cracks or seams. The bentonite may be drawn into them and seal them as it swells.

4.4. Chemicals

Chemical treatment of permeable soil is only possible for soils which won't crack on drying out. In § 3.4. the different kinds of chemical treatments are given. The chemicals must be used as a lining. With sodium methyl silanolite the most effective chemical treatment, which produces hydrophobic soil, is given. A 30% solution at a rate of 500 lb of this chemical per acre will produce a 0.01 m (0,4 inch) thick layer of hydrophobic soil. The combination of a solution of aluminium chloride and distilled water has a good resistance against erosion, whereafter a solution in distilled water of potassium stearate was applied. The double application is considered a disadvantage. The use of sodium polyphosphate needs very skilled labourers. The subsoil must be especially prepared and protected from light.

15

Sprayable liquid vinyl polymer has excellent properties for stabilising sandy soils. At high concentrations it has been tested for the control of seepage on highly compacted subsoils.

4.5. Bitumen

Bitumen is a product obtained from the distillation of crude oil and has often been used to create waterproof membranes in water storage tanks. It may be used in combination with a reinforcement like glass fibre or polypropylene. Generally reinforced bitumen membranes are more durable than unreinforeed bitumen membranes. The subgrade must be thoroughly sterilized to prevent puncture by the growth of vegetation. Diesel fuel at the rate of 4-6 liter per m2 will be sufficient, but a sterilizer may be harmfull, pollution of groundwater and so on. Before applying the bitumen the subgrade must be compacted to achieve structural stability. Especially when bitumen is locally available, a cheap method is spraying of the bitumen membrane. A hot bitumen (350-400 degrees F) can be applied to the wetted subgrade by pouring it with cans untill a membrane with a thickness of 0.06 m has been achieved. Pouring is started at the base of the storage tank and is continued up the slope. When the bitumen has hardened it should be inspected for thin areas or holes which can be locally patched. The sand or gravel covering layer should be placed as soon as the bitumen membrane has been completed and should be lightly rolled into the surface. To prevent damage to the bitumen membrane the covering layer should not be pushed down the slope or allowed to slide down. Prefabricated bitumen rolls and panels as waterproof linings for water storage tanks are also available.

4.6. Brickwork/concrete

The bricks must be of good quality in order to obtain a watertight structure. Prior to laying, the bricks must be moistened with water. To prevent cracking caused by shrinkage and high temperatures the layer should be moistened during the first four weeks or protected by means of a cover (plastic foil). The cement to be used in the mortar should be an ordinary Portland cement (in accordance with BS 12 or similar specification). In the case of aggressive soil due to a high salinity, Portland cement 5 or blast furnace cement must be used. Lower strength cements are not recommendable. The cement must be stored in a dry place. The first requirement for sand is that it should be free from organic and chemical impurities which may weaken the mortar. A coarse silica sand is probably the best for the purpose. The use of coarse sand will lessen the workability of the mortar but its resistance to shrinkage will be greater than that of a mortar made with fine sand.

16

The water must be clean and free from acid chemicals, salt and organic matters. Salt water should never be used. Mortars for brickwork are a mixture of cement, sand and water, each ingredient having the correct proportion. For a maximum brickwork resistance to water pressure the following cement mortar mixes are advisable: a. 1 volume part of Portland cement

2 volume parts of sand (fine aggregate)

b. 1 volume part of Portland cement 2,5 volume parts of sand (fine aggregate)

c. 1 volume part of strong hydraulic powder-lime 0,25 volume part of Portland cement 2,5 volume parts of sand (fine aggregate)

A mortar for concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water, each ingredient having the correct proportion. A general mix is:

WATER. CEMeMT SAND AGGREGATE o.M5 \ t> l . o 3 .o

DRY - MIXED

1 volume part of Portland cement 2 volume parts of sand 3 volume parts of aggregate 0.45 weight parts of water

If bricks of a somewhat lower quality are used, the quality of the mortar should also be lower (for instance 1 : 4%) in order to prevent shrinkage differences between the brickwork and mortar. However, it should not be forgotten that any such reduction in quality may result in a less watertight structure. The mortar must be thoroughly mixed and workable although one should remember that a dry mortar is stronger than a wet one. In any event the weight ratio of water to cement must not exceed 0.5 : 1. The Portland cement should be fresh. Old and/or wet bags with Portland cement are to be removed.

Where tests can be carried out they should be in accordance with the codes locally applicable. The aggregate (sand) should be free from vegetable soil and black soil.

17

5. TESTING

5.1. Introduction

If possible it is recommended that the materials to be used and the subsoil should be tested on site. This chapter gives some guidelines for testing of available soil.

5.2. Simple field identification tests for soil

Preliminary

Look at the whole sample Is it mainly a coarse or fine soil? Are there any fibres or roots? Is it dull or dirty?

a. Appearance

If the soil is fibrous or dirty in appearance, test for organic material.

b. Feel

Sands and gravel feel coarse and gritty. Silts and clay are hard or floury when dry and soft or sticky when wet. Clay when wet will stain the fingers and can only be removed by washing.

c. Composition

Estimate how much of each fraction is in sandy soil and separate coarse from fine material by hand.

d. Organic (smell) test

Take a sample of the soil and smell it. If it has an earthy or vegetable smell it is probably organic. Warm the sample and the odour will become distinct.

Vibration test

(For particle size distribution). Place a dry sample on a board. Hold the board at a slope and tap lightly with a stick. The finer material will move up the slope or remain in place, the coarser will move down the slope.

18

If there are many different sizes between the Largest and the smallest, the sample is well-graded. This means it will compact well. If only a few sizes can be seen, then it is single-sized or poorly graded.

Settling test

This test can also be used to determine the amount of soil (dirt) in river sand used for masonry or concrete work.

Place a sample of sand in a bottle or a glass jar with straight sides. Add water and shake well. Then put it down to allow the mixture to settle. Gravel and coarse sand will settle immediately. Fine sand and coarse silt will settle more slowly taking about 30 seconds. Clay and fine silt fractions will not settle for several hours.

In the sample, the approximate quantities of each size can be seen as layers, the finer materials being different in colour. For sand which is used for masonry and concrete work, the amount of clay and silt must be less than 6%, otherwise the sand has to be washed.

#

WATER.

• 0 „

• Fiwe -MEDIUM

-coARse

Cohesion test

(To show whether there is sufficient building material in the soil).

Take a handfull of damp material and mould it into a ball. a. With gravels the material will not stick together unless there are

fine materials present. b. With sands the damp material will stick together, but if no fine

materials are present it will crumble at a touch. c. If the ball stays together, even when placed on a sheet of paper,

silts or clays are present, which means the material is suitable for bunds (see § 3.3.).

19

Permeability test

This test can give an impression of the permeability of a clay soil compacted in a standard way. Take a large barrel (e.g. an oil drum), perforate the bottom, and stand the barrel on some kind of frame, free of the ground. Place the soil in small layers in the barrel and compact it layer after layer. Try to imitate the future situation (fill to about 0.5 m). After compaction fill the rest of the barrel with water (upto e.g. 1 m). The water level must not decrease more than 10% per day. If the water level does decrease more than 10% per day, it means that in practice the soil layer will have to be thicker, or that another type of soil must be used for the bunds. If only smaller barrels are available the decrease of the water level can be lower, f.i. a water layer of 0.8 m and a soil layer of 0.4 m requires a decrease of water level of about 7%. In general:

v < 0.033 x i in which v = decrease of waterlevel in % . _ , , ,. ,. hw water level l = hydraulic gradient = T— = — n — , . . , so

hs soil thickness

v < 0.033 x ^ | = 0.067 m/day

i.e. about 7%

20

L.6V

•pe R.F=OR A T e.'p, B o T T o H .

A & O V 0 "Sent-J

OF -%«ni_.

, . , ,v>rl(^fl^l^tl/<^

PERMEARlUiTy T E S T

21

TOOLS

Excavation marking out tools

Tools to compact

Tools for driving piles

Tools for the frame work

Where needed tools to spray the bi A roller to roll the sand into the Tools for the sand-cement sausages

Mixing mortar tools

Tools for placing the mortar mix

Tools for finishing

wheelbarrow buckets post pegs tape (measure) 2 kg string line shovels pickaxes for excavation mattocks for groundlevelling woodsaw spirit level plumbline, measuring tape tampers (selfmade) oxen/bullocks heavy hammer or drop weight with driving leads and pulley pins or wire ladder hammer planks and stakes

tumen. bitumen, type (VII)

filling tool perforating tools flat board (wood) plastic sheeting mixing box 70 x 120 x 35 cm gauging/measuring box 50 x 50 x 40 cm sieve 5 mm maximum openings for sand shovel for mixing water container/bins concrete mixer plasterers steel hand floats hand hawks trowelling boards wire brush chisels plastic sheeting for curing the mortar

22

WOODEN; MORTAR HOLDER (HAWK)

2o .

T=X FLOAT

MEASURING 60X So X So X Ao (

PlASTCRERi STEEL HAND

23

7. STABILITY CONDITIONS

7.1. General aspects

There are two kinds of stability: macrostability i.e. the stability of a mass of earth along a plane of sliding and microstability i.e. the stability of the small soil particles under the slope line. The size of the designed bunds make extensive calculations of the macro-stability unnecessary. Under normal circumstances, macrostability will be ensured, if inclines of slope for clay are less than 45° and for sand less than 38°. The microstability may be affected by seepage because of an even small permeability of a sand bund. For these bunds a toefilter can be a solution see § 3.6.). The microstability of the outside slope can also be improved by a layer of rockfill or clay with vegetation. Seepage might cause transportation of small soil particles and piping (see figure). This will disturb the stability.

7.2. Causes of failure

From the engineering point of view, there are a number of reasons, why failures occur. Experience has shown that these causes can be divided into five categories: 1. Site conditions not investigated 2. Errors in design 3. Poor construction 4. Inadequate maintenance 5. Statistically remote phenomena (extreme rainfall, tornado, earth

quakes)

O V E R T O P P I N G - W.A.«SntM<3 OUT ENBANkMCNT

24

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26

Particulary in our case for the narrow type of bunds the horizontal equilibrium must be ensured. An example of a check calculation of the coffer dam type is given in the next paragraph.

27

8. TYPES OF TANKS

8.1. Type I: Clay bund Page

General layout 28

Details and dimensions 29 Work instructions 30 Capacity 30 m3: Bill of quantities 32 Capacity 60 m3: Bill of quantities 33 Capacity 90 m3: Bill of quantities 34 Capacity 150 m3: Bill of quantities 35

Short description: A bund simply build up from clay, in small layers on an impermeable subsoil.

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31

work sequence and description notes and recommendations

- cover the inside of the bund-side and the base with a layer of a clay-sand mixture of about 0.30 m thick to prevent the clay from drying out

- cover the outside of the bund - this side of the bund must have with rockfill or vegetation a steep slope to prevent cattle to prevent erosion from approaching the water

- cover the crown of the bund (being about 1.00 m of wide) with a 0.15 m sand layer paved over with bricks or rockfill

- make a toefilter as described on page 11

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8.2. Type II: Coffer dam

General layout Details and dimensions Work instructions Capacity 30 m3: Bill of quantities Capacity 60 m3: Bill of quantities Capacity 90 m3: Bill of quantities Capacity 150 m3: Bill of quantities

Short description: A dam of clay-layers between wooden stakes

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40


fill the coffer dam and build up the tank base in layers of max. 0.20 m crumbled clay also these layers are to be compacted with tampers and/or by letting sheep and/or oxen walk over them insert a PVC or concrete overflow in the coffer dam at the height of the highest water level connect the overflow pipe with an irrigation channel control the height of the coffer dam by a jungle-stick marked at the height of the dam) on the already hammered pegs cover the base with a layer of a clay-sand mixture of about 0.30 m thick to prevent the clay from drying out cover the crown of the coffer dam with a 0.15 m sand layer paved over with bricks or rockfill

the soil can also be improved if it is not of the necessary quality (see page 9)

this overflow pipe is to prevent the top of the coffer dam being eroded by spillover

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45

8.3. Type III: PVC-lining Page

General layout 46 Details and dimensions 47 Work instructions 48 Capacity 30 m3: Bill of quantities 50 Capacity 60 m3: Bill of quantities 51 Capacity 90 m3: Bill of quantities 52 Capacity 150 m3: Bill of quantities 53

Short description: A bund of available soil with a lining of PVC over het base and the inside of the bund wall.

46

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TYPICAL DESIGN

EARTH BUND

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SWD

TYPEJJE GENERAL LAY OUT

" ! ' ' TWO : """

47

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TYPICAL DESIGN

EARTH BUND

CONSTRUCTION

SWD n < i i u K t

„ . «3'ZOej2| TYPE m: DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS ; TWO : "'"'

48

TYPE III: PVC-lining


- fence the area of the site

clear the area of the site where it is proposed to construct the tank remove a layer of approx. 0.20 m of the top soil fill with a layer of soil of approx. 0.20 m the fill is to be compacted with tampers (self made) and/or by letting oxen walk over it if necessary the surface is to be levelled mark the inner and outer circumference of the bund with pegs (pegs core to core 1 meter) setting out can be done by putting down the levelling tool on the top of each peg hammer the peg till the water level in the tube reached the desired marks build up the earth bund and the tank base in layers of 0,20 m these layers are also be compacted with tampers and/or by letting oxen walk over them

insert a PVC or concrete overflow in the bund at the height of the highest water level connect the overflow pipe with an irrigation channel the groundwork is completed when the outlines and slopes have reached the height, dimensions and gradients indicated on the drawings control the height of the bund by placing a jungle-stick (marked at the height of the bund) on the already hammered pegs.

cattle can be a hindrance and would damage the bund construction test the quality of the local subsoil (see page 17)

to avoid settlements and under seepage under the earth bund

tools are described in this manual (see page 21)

for more information about levelling and the levelling tool see pagelO)

the base of the tank has to be constructed 0.50 m above ground level to allow gravitational flow this overflow pipe is to prevent the top of the bund being eroded by spillover

depending on the kind of soil the slopes may deviate from the drawings

49


the slope and the base have to be as smooth as possible

compact the surface of the soil of the base and the slopes with tampers sterilize the soil with a sterilant for instance diesel fuel

place a conserved wooden or bamboo beam at the top of the inside of the bund (see drawing) fold the plastic sheet over this beam and entrench the sheet

the soil may not contain gravel or other sharp objects because these may damage the plastic sheet

a layer of soil 0.30 m thick on the base and on the slopes will be sufficient conserving can be done by singeing the surface slightly or saturing the wood with oil choose a type of plastic sheeting and join the sheet as described in the chapter "materials". Use a sheet with a high resistance to puncture, great flexibility, a high tear resistance and easy to splice and repair it must be laid with some slack to prevent stresses due to the expansion or contraction of the sheet

put another conserved wooden or bamboo beam connected with a fibre mat over the plastic sheet to protect this sheet on the inside of the bund wall cover the plastic sheet on the base with a layer of sand of about 0.25 m thick to protect the sheet put stackable stones on the base upto the waterline against the fibre mat on the bund wall to assure the stability; the slope of it depends on the sizes of the stones cover the outside of the bund with rockfill to prevent erosion

do not use vegetation, it may puncture the sheet

50



- make a toe-filter as described on page 11

51

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55

8.4. Type IV: Saad-bentonite lining Page

General layout 56 Details and dimensions 57 Work instructions 58 Capacity 30 m3: Bill of quantities 60 Capacity 60 m3: Bill of quantities 61 Capacity 90 m3: Bill of quantities 62 Capacity 150 m3: Bill of quantities 63

Short description: A bund of available soil with a lining of a sand-bentonite layer over the base and in the bund.

56

SECX-ION

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TYPICAL DESIGN '

EARTH BUND

CONSTRUCTION

TYPE T V GENERAL LAY OUT

SWD 1. «^"2de^2l

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57

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C O N S T R U C T I O N

TYPE T V 1

D E T A I L S AND D I M E N S I O N S T W l 3

SWD < ^ C < ^ - , 11

58

TYPE IV: Sand-bentonite lining


fence the area of the site

clear the area of the site where it is proposed to construct the tank remove a layer of approx. 0.20 m of the top soil fill with a layer of clay of approx. 0.20 m the fill is to be compacted with tampers (self made) and/or by letting oxen walk over it if necessary the surface is to be levelled mark the inner and outer circumference of the bund with pegs (pegs core to core 1 meter) setting out can be done by putting down the levelling tool on the top of each peg hammer the peg till the water level in the tube reached the desired marks build up the earth bund in layers of 0.20 m - 0.30 m with (radial) width 0.20 m of sand/bentonite mixture (4:1) as indicated on the drawing cover the tank base with a 0.20 m layer made up of the same mixture as described above

cover the tank base with a following layer (thick 0.30 m) consisting of sand/bentonite mixture of 10 : 1 compact these layers with tampers


to avoid settlements and seepage under the earth bund



bentonite can be affected by calcareous soils

try to keep the base wet to prevent shrinkage cracks. The base has to be constructed 0.50 m above groundlevel to allow gravitation flow a pure bentonite layer may be unstable

bentonite in granular form can be added to water in a storage tank which is known to be leaking though cracks or seams.

59


insert a PVC or concrete overflow in the bund at the height of the highest water level connect the overflow pipe with an irrigation channel the groundwork is completed when the outlines and slopes have reached the height, dimensions and gradients indicated on the drawings control the height of the bund by placing a jungle-stick (marked at the height of the bund) on the already hammered pegs. cover the outside of the bund with rockfill or vegetation to prevent erosion cover the crown of the bund (being about 1.00 m of wide) with a 0.15 m sand layer paved over with bricks or rockfill make a toe-filter as described on page 11

Bentonite may be drawn into the cracks and in swelling may seal them, therefore it is advisable to keep an extra quantity of bentonite apart to be able to repair cracks this overflow pipe is to prevent the top of the bund being eroded by spillover


this side of the bund must have a steep slope to prevent cattle from approaching the water

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8.5. Type V: Bitumen lining Page


65 66 67 69 70 71 72

Short description: A bund of available soil with a lining of bitumen over the base and the inside slopes of the bund.

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DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS | TWO o m '

67

TYPE V: Bitumen lining



clear the area of the site where it is proposed to construct the tank remove a layer of approx. 0.20 m of the top soil fill with a layer of earth of approx. 0.20 m the fill is to be compacted with tampers (self made) and/or by letting oxen walk over it if necessary the surface is to be levelled mark the inner and outer circumference of the bund with pegs (pegs core to core 1 meter) setting out can be done by putting down the levelling tool on the top of each peg hammer the peg till the water level in the tube reached the disered marks build up the earth bund and the tank base in layers of 0.20 m - 0.30 m these layers are also be compacted with tampers and/or by letting oxen walk over them



to avoid settlements and seepage under the clay bund





68


sterilize the soil with a sterilant, for instance diesel fuel

make a water proof lining, by creating a membrane by hand pouring or spraying bitumen with, if necessary a prime and seal coating as a liner for the inside slope and the base cover the bituminous lining on the inside slopes with a layer of sand or gravel lightly rolled in to protect the bitumen from oxidation cover the outside of the bund with stones or rockfill to prevent erosion cover the crown of the bund (being about 1.00 m of wide) with a 0.15 m sand layer paved over with bricks or rockfill make a toe-filter as described on page 11

a layer of soil of 0.30 m thick on the base and on the slopes will be sufficient the soil has to have a structural stability, being well compacted and smooth it is advisable to start with a layer of a prefabricated glass or polypropylene mat as a reinforcement, before spraying or pouring the bitumen layer

for more information about bitumen and the cover layer of sand (see page 14)

this side of the bund must have a steep slope to prevent cattle from approaching the water

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8.6. Type VI: Lining of bricks or concrete


Short description:

A bund of available soil with a lining of bricks o base and inside slopes of the bund.

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TYPE V T .i i^ac^^l

DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS TWO 1"""

76

TYPE VI: Lining of bricks or concrete



clear the area of the site where it is proposed to construct the tank remove a layer of approx. 0.20 m of the top soil fill with a layer of clay of approx. 0.20 m the fill is to be compacted with tampers (self made) and/or by letting oxen walk over it if necessary the surface is to be levelled mark the inner and outer circumference of the bund with pegs (pegs core to core 1 meter) setting out can be done by putting down the levelling tool on the top of each peg hammer the peg till the water level in the tube reached the desired marks build up the earth bund and the tank base in layers of maximally 0.20 m thick with crumbled clay these layers are also be compacted with tampers and/or by letting oxen walk over them








77

work sequence and description

- sterilize the soil with a sterilant for instance diesel fuel

- compact the soil on the base and the slopes with self-made tampers

- start bricklaying

- mix the mortar (1 part cement, 2 to 2\ parts of sand)

- add water to the dry mortar until the mortar can be handled well

- moisten the subsoil and the bricks before laying

- spread "a good and ample mortar bed" on each brick to connect the bricks; start at the base of the tank

- do not place the mortar too far "in advance", before the bricks are laid in their final positions

- fill all joints completely - make vertical joints in the slopes at 5.00 m intervals and fill them with tar

- cover the bricks with a layer of cementplaster, 0.015 m thick

- cover the bricks/layer that has already been laid with plastic sheeting or wet sacking

notes and recommendations

- a layer of soil 0.30 thick on the base and on the slopes will be sufficient

- the soil must have a structural stability and be well compacted

- the bricks must be of good quality in order to obtain a watertight structure

- beware of too much water; the water must be clean and free off acid chemicals, salt and organic materials

- moistening is important because the soil and the bricks may not transport water from the joints

- Such a process would result in cracks due to shrinkage

- bricks are not to be moved or repositioned once the hardening process has begun

- no joints should be placed -above each other; no "dead" mortar retrieved from the ground or other surface must be re-used

- the mix of the mortar for the plaster has to be 1 part cement, 1\ to 3 parts of sand

- it is important to prevent the bricks/layer and the cement-plaster from drying out; this curing period should be take place in the first week after plastering

78


Note - instead of a lining of bricks with cementplaster it is possible to make a layer of concrete with a minimum thickness of 0.06 m

cover the outside of the bund with rockfill to prevent erosion

cover the crown of the bund (being about 1.00 m of wide) with a 0.15 m sand layer paved over with bricks or rockfill make a toe-filter as described on page 11

then a plastic sheet is to be spread over the area and have a reinforcement for the slab and the slopes (05-200), mix cement sand and gravel to a dry mortar (1:2:3); level the surfaces and cover them with a plastic sheeting for the first four weeks this side of the bund must have a steep slope to prevent cattle from approaching the water

79

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TYPE II: Coffer dam



clear the area of the site where it is proposed to construct the tank remove a layer of approx. 0,20 m of the top soil fill with a layer of clay of approx. 0.20 m the fill is to be compacted with tampers (self made) and/or by letting oxen walk over it if necessary the surface is to be levelled mark the inner and outer circumference of the coffer dam with pegs (pegs core to core 1 meter) setting out can be done by putting down the levelling tool on the top of each peg hammer the peg till the water level in the tube reached the desired marks build up the coffer dam by driving the retaining stakes (0 0.15 ra) in a radial distance of 1.00 m and a tangential distance of approx. 1.50 m about, till one third of the necessary retaining height is driven in the subsoil make a closed wall of horizontal planks or piles (0 0.10 m) against the the vertical framework and fill the gaps between these with branches or fibre mats join the retaining stakes with nails, ropes or wire place the supporting stakes (0 0.15 m) against the retaining stakes to support the coffer dam


to avoid settlements and seepage under the coffer dam



all the wooden piles have to be conserved by singeing the wooden surface or saturating the wood with oil

A bamboo stake is a good alternative to a wooden pile

the supporting stakes on the inner side of the tank are temporary. After filling of the coffer dam and before making the tank base they must be taken away

82

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8.7. Type VII: Sand-cement sausages Page

General description Polythene sheeting sausages General layout Details and dimensions Work instructions Capacity 30 m3: Bill of quantities Capacity 60 m3: Bill of quantities Capacity 90 m3: Bill of quantities Capacity 150 m3: Bill of quantities

84 89 90 91 94 95 96 97

Short description: A bund of available soil with a lining of polythene and sand/cement sausages over the base and the inside slopes of the bund.

84

TYPE VII - Storage tank made of sand/cement sausages

General description This system of storage of irrigation water has been developed by Doxiadis Ionides Associates Ltd. of Ripley, Surrey (UK) in collaboration with Doxiadis Associates International of Athens and is employed by ITDG in Botswana and in Sudan.

For fencing, site clearance, levelling, preparation of foundations and bund constructions see descriptions in chapter 3 and the work-sequence of type VII.

Polythene sheeting

If the surface is free of all sharp objects and irregularities and satisfactory sterilised (with dieselfuel) to prevent plant growth, polythene (0.025-0.25 mm thickness) can be laid. It must be laid with some slack to prevent introducing stresses due to the expansion or contraction of the polythene. It is advisable to start laying two layers at the top of the slope and to anchor the sheeting in a trench after folding it over a preserved wooden beam. Polythene expands on heating and it is best to lay at low temperatures and protected from light. It should be laid at a time of day when winds are not expected and as soon as the first layer is down a layer of mud or clay of 0.15 m thick must be laid on the part covering the base (see drawing).

DETAIL IB

85

A second layer of polythene of the same thickness and quality is then laid on the layer of mud/clay. The joints between the polythene sheeting can be formed:

by applying an overlap of 1.50 m with a 1.00 m wide high quality tape with special polythene sheeting glue, in case an overlap of minimally 0.10 m must be available. It is advisable to glue only when the weather is dry.

It is essential that the mud/clay layer between the two polythene layers should be kept in a moist condition all the time to give body and provide a cushioning effect for the sausages.

Sausages The use of sand sausages and sand-cement sausages is an essential part of the structure. The sausages which are used as a lining for the base, consist of a sand filling inside a polythene tube. The sausages used as a lining for the sloping sides of the tank consist of a sand/cement mix inside a polythene tube.

The sausages have to be made of thin polythene tubing (0.025-0.25 mm thick) with a diameter of about 0.09 m. This tubing is to be cut into lengths of about 0.80 m and tied at one end. Filling of the tubing with a dry sand/cement mix (14:1) can then start. To make filling the tubing easier it is advisable to use a piece of PVC piping of the same diameter as the tubing and cutting one end of this pipe under 45°. When this piece of piping is inserted into the tube, it is easy to scoop up the dry mix. (see drawing).

P v c F»iF>S

R 3 I _ ~ / T > i g M E T u S l N S

After filling the tubing the other end can be tied. The most satisfactory length of the sausages will be about 0.70 m while the thickness should be about 0.09 m, in diameter.

86

ff\ <

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At the moment before use, the sausages have to be perforated with a number of small holes in a line along the lengths after which they are to be laid with the perforation downward in a tub or basin of water and left there for five minutes.

<G L> Perforating the sausages can be easily done by one of the following tools:

l o o , I | o o | I l o q l I lo<3]

FIG. A

M IN M M

The perforating tool as shown in fig. A is made of a wooden beam with wire nails hammered into it at the intervals indicated on the drawing. After that remove the heads of the wire nails and the tool is ready. W I R E ^ ^ ,-», Another perforating tool is easy to make by cutting a piece of wire (gauge 13) and shaping it as indicated in figure B.

T i G / B

When the sausages are lying in the water, water will seep into the sand/cement mixture by capillary action, moistening the mix thoroughly but not saturating it.

87

(Of course it is not necessary to perforate the sausages which are filled only with sand). The polythene skin of the sausages will prevent the contents from drying out quickly (which is especially important in arid countries) so the cement is able to cure fully, creating maximum strenght. That is the reason why a much smaller proportion of cement can be used than in brickwork mortar. After moistening, the sausages have to be laid on the lining of the slopes in a stretcher-bond (exactly the same way as bricks, but with no mortar). Then they must be tamped down, using a flatboard to compact the layer.

To bind the sausages together it is advisable to push 1.00 m lengths of gauge 8 wire through the sausages, at intervals of 2.00 m as reinforcing pins (see fig. C) or to attach them to one another with wire gauge 20 as indicated on fig. D.

88

_PlW& G A U G E D v*Af%c o -^oce . ^2o

F'G. I*

F I G . C

Before laying the sausages on the slopes of the tank, the surface of the base (on the second layer of polythene) has to be covered with a layer of sand sausages (i.e. those containing no cement) to be laid in a stretcher-bond (exactly the same way as bricks, but with no mortar). Then the sausages have to be tamped down, using a flat board to compact the layer.

89

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TYPICAL DESIGN

^cc=(l«. ir-> r n e + « r s EARTH BUND

CONSTRUCTION

SWD

TYPE "^TTT

DETAILS AND DIMENSIONS , TWO ! '""'

91

TYPE VII: Sand-cement sausages


- fence the area of the site

clear the area of the site where it is proposed to construct the tank remove a layer of approx. 0.20 m of the top soil fill with a layer of clay of approx. 0.20 m the fill is to be compacted with tampers (self made) and/or by letting oxen walk over it if necessary the surface is to be levelled mark the inner and outer circumference of the bund with pegs (pegs core to core 1 meter) setting out can be done by putting down the levelling tool on the top of each peg hammer the peg till the water level in the tube reached the desired marks build up the earth bund and the tank base in layers of 0.20 m -0.30 m these layers are also be compacted with tampers and/or by letting oxen walk over them

insert a PVC or concrete overflow in the bund at the height of the highest water level connect the overflow pipe with an irrigation channel the groundwork is completed when the outlines and slopes have reached the heights, dimensions and gradients indicated on the drawings; remark: a slope of 4 : 1 only for cohesive soil control the height of the bund by putting a jungle-stick (marked at the height of the bund) on the already hammered pegs.





the base of the tank has to be constructed 0,50 m above ground level to allow gravitational flow this overflow pipe is to prevent the top of the bund being eroded by spillover

92


sterilize the soil with a sterilant, for instance diesel fuel

compact the surface of the soil of the base and the slopes with tampers tampers place a conserved wooden or bamboo beam at top inside of the bund (see drawing) fold the plastic sheet over this beam and anchor the sheet provisional by entrenching

a layer of soil 0.30 m thick on the base and on the slopes will be sufficient the soil must have a structural stability and must be well compacted the beams can be conserved by singeing the surface or saturating with used oil choose a type of plastic sheeting and join the sheets as described in chapter "materials". It must be laid with some slack to prevent stresses due to the expansion or contraction of the sheet

a layer of mud or clay (0.15 m thick) has to be laid on the part of the sheet of the base fold another layer of the same plastic sheet over this beam and entrench the two sheets definitively make sausages for the base and the slope by cutting polythene tubing into lenghts of about 0.80 m tying them at one end fill the sausages for the base with sand only and tie the other end

the (sand) sausages for the base have -to be laid in a stretcher bond tamp the sausages down, using a flat board to compact the layer then fill the sausages for the slopes with a dry sand/cement mix (14:1) and tie the other end perforate the sausages with a number of small holes. When a great number of sausages has been filled and perforated, moistening can be started moisten the perforated sausages by laying them downward in a tub or basin of water and leaving them there for five minutes

it is advisable to use thin polythene tubing (0.025 -0.25 mm thick)

to make filling easier use a PVC-pipe as described in the chapter on "sausages", laid in the same way as bricks but with no mortar

to make filling easier use a PVC-pipe as described in the chapter on "sausages", perforating the sausages can be easily done with a perforating tool as described in the chapter on "sausages"

93

work sequence and description

- after moistening the sausages have to be laid on the sheet of the slopes in a stretcher-bond

- tamp the sausages down using a flat board to compact the layer

- bind the sausages together by pushing 1.00 m lengths of gauge 8 wires through the sausages every 2.00 m.

- cover the outside of the bund with stones or rockfill to prevent erosion


- make a toe-filter as described on page 11

notes and recommendations

- laid in exactly the same way as bricks, but with no mortar

- binding the sausages together can also be done with gauge 20 wire as indicated on the drawing

- this side of the wall must have a steep slope to prevent cattle from approaching the water

94

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TYPICAL DESIGN

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IRRIGATION WATER STORAGE

TYPICAL DESIGN

TYPE-SIC capacity côm3

EARTH BUND

CONSTRUCTION

TANKS

SWD

TYPE 3Z IE BILL OF Q U A N T I T I E S

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98

9. RELATIVE COMPARISON AND SUMMARY

In this chapter a comparison is made between the several properties of the different types not related to local conditions. The following properties can be compared:

water impermeability execution/quality of the skill resistance required against changes in humidity, temperature and light intensity area chances of polution by the lining material used dependability/reliability/durability possibilities for repair cleaning possibilities/need for maintenance resistance to use and damage by animals resistance to vegetation frost-resistance

Repetition of typenumbers: Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VII

Clay bund Cofferdam PVC lining Sand-bentonite lining Bitumen lining Lining of bricks or concrete Sand-cement sausages

9.1. Water impermeability

Water tanks for storage of irrigation water may suffer some losses because of the permeability of the walls. Under some circumstances a daily loss of 10% of the water may not be a great problem. In other cases it may be of importance that some types are more waterproof than others. The impermeability of type I depends very much on the quality of the existing subsoil. If the quality is good, the impermeability will be good. The impermeability of type II also depends on the quality of the work. Type III can become very impermeable, but this depends very much on the construction. One crack is enough to destroy the impermeability. In the beginning type IV will have a very good water impermeability. But, bentonite is very sensitive to shrinkage when drying out. It is possible that after rewetting of the bentonite, the permeability will be worse than before shrinkage. As said, bentonite can be used for repair the watertighness by sprinkling. The impermeability of the bitumen lining of type VI depends very much on the quality of the work, which should be carried out by skilled workers. A brickwork or concrete lining (type VI) can give very good results. But settlements and differential settlements may cause cracks, thus affecting the permeability and the durability of the tank. If properly constructed type VII can give a very good water impermeability. The lining is protected by the sausages and therefore less sensitive to cracks.

99

9.2. Execution/quality of the workskill

For type II to IV and VII relatively unskilled labour is sufficient, but larger tanks of the these types require supervision of skilled labour too.

9.3. Frost resistance

Types III, VI and VII are not frost resistant. For types III and VII the foil will crack when frozen; for type VI the brickwork or concrete may break. Types I and IV will have the best frost resistance.

9.4. Resistance to changes in humidity, temperature and light intensity

Type VI: Immediately after trowelling the tankwall (after each day) the finished parts of the tank must be protected against weather influences. Therefore, these parts should be moistened or covered during at least the first week. In tropical areas it is advisable to continue moistening for another week. All the tanks described have good resistance to changes in humidity and temperature. Type III+VII (foil) must be protected against powerful light. Type III: Immediately after laying the PVC sheet on the base of the tank, the PVC has to be covered with a layer of sand (thickness approx. 0.25 m). The PVC sheet on the slopes has to be covered with fibre mats. Type VII: After laying the polythene sheets on the base of the tank, the polythene has to be covered with a layer of sand sausages and the polythene sheets on the slopes have to be covered with sand/cement sausages.

9.5. Area required

Types I, III and V demand the largest area. The circular form fits in best with the type of earth bund. Type II can be built on the smallest surface area in different forms (in relation to its capacity) The size of the rectangular forms depends on the width of the sheeting available.

9.6. Chances of pollution by the lining material used

Some kinds of foil may pollute the water. The bentonite lining or the bitumen lining may also give pollution problems (when the water is used as drinking-water).

100

9.7. Dependability/reliability/durability

The dependability and reliability of all the tanks described is reasonable good, but depends on the construction methods. A well protected lining against all kinds of influences will give a high durability.

9.8. Possibility for repair

Types III, V, VI and VII are not easy to repair (cracks or holes are difficult to find). The protection layer must be removed. Type IV (bentonite) is easy to repair (see "notes and recommendations"). Types I and II are hard to repair, because the permeability is no local problem, but concerns the complete tank. One may try to improve the complete ground surface as referred to in the "worksequence and description".

9.9. Cleaning possibilities/need for maintenance

The variants with a smooth surface offers the best cleaning possibilities. In sharp corners dirt may stick together and attract snails, mosquitoes and other disease-spreading insects. A smooth surface can be found in type I and IV, while the protecting toplayer in type I, II, III and IV can be cleaned or changed.

9.10. Resistance to use and damage by animals

The area around the tank has to be fenced to protect it against animals (see chapter on fencing). Nevertheless the slopes of the clay walls of 1 : 1 give a reasonable protection against cattle. Where foil is used, it may be eaten by goats. The wooden framework may be demolished by termites.

9.11. Resistance to vegetation

Perforation of the lining by roots, weed, cane, etc. may affect the impermeability, especially of thinner linings. The linings of clay or bentonite have a good resistance to vegetation.

C-889/83

9.12. Summary Properties Type I Type II

Impermeability + +

execution quality of work Q +

resistance changes in humidity, temperature and light int. + + D

area required little=++ much= + ++

resistance to pollution by the lining material used ++ ++

dependability/ reliability + D durability

possibility for repair

cleaning possibilities need for maintenance D D

resistance, use and damage by animals ++ +

resistance to vegetation ++ ++

frost-resistance + •

- = poor D = reasonable + = good

Type III Type IV Type V Type VI Type VII

++ ++ + ++ ++

+ + + a +

+ + a a

D - a +

D a a ++ •

D + + a a

a + D a •

D D + +

+ + +

++ - D

D + D

++ = very good

102

ANNEX 1

SIZES OF WIRES AND STEEL RODS

A. Gauge Numbers and Millimeter Equivalents of Wires

Gauge no.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15

Wire diameter in.

0.300 0.284 0.259 0.238 0.220 0.203 0.180 0.165 0.148 0.134 0.120 0.109 0.095 0.083 0.072

mm

7.620 7.214 6.579 6.045 5.588 5.156 4.572 4.191 3.759 3.404 3.048 2.769 2.413 2.108 1.829

Gauge no.

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Wire diameter

in.

0.065 0.0S8 0.049 0.042 0.035 0.032 0.028 0.025 0.022 0.020 0.018 0.016 0.014 0.013 0.012

mm

1.651 1.473 1.245 1.067 0.889 0.813 0.711 0.635 0.559 0.508 0.457 0.406 0.356 0.330 0.305

B. Common Sizes of Steel Rods Used for Skeletal Steel

Size in.

3/16 0.200 1/4 0.276 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2

Rod diameter in.

0.187 0.200 0.250 0.276 0.312 0.375 0.437 0.500

mm

4.749 5.080 6.350 7.010 7.924 9.525

11.099 12.700

Cross-sectional area

in?

0.027 0.031 0.049 0.059 0.076 0.110 0.150 0.196

mm2

17.419 19.999 31.612 38.064 49.032 70.967 96.774

126.451

Perimeter in.

0.587 0.628 0.785 0.867 0.980 1.178 1.373 1.571

mm

14.909 15.951 19.939 22.021 24.892 29.921 34.874 39.903

Weight per ft lb !

0.094; 0.1071

0.1671

0.203 0.261 0.376 0.511 0.688

perm tg

0.042 0.O48 0.075 0.092 0.118 0.170 0.231 0.312

103

ANNEX 2

CONVERSION OF COMMON UNITS

Metric and SI (International Systta) Unto

Length

I in. (inch) I in. (inch) I in. (inch) I ft (foot) 1 yd (yard) I mile (mile) I n mile (nautical mite)

A m

I in.2 (square inch) I ft* (square foot) I yd' (square yard) 1 acre (acre) I sq mile (square mile)

Volume

I in.J (cubic inch) I ft2 (cubic foot) 1 yd' (cubic yard)

Force

I lb (pound) I kg (kilogram) I ton (ton)

25.4000 mm 2.3400 cm 0.02S4 m 0.3048 m 0.9144 m 1.6093 km 1.8S31 km

(millimeter) (centimeter) (meter) (meter) (meter) (kilometer) (kilometer)

645.1600 tnnr1 (square millimeter) 0.0929 m' (square meter) 0.8361 nr2 (squire meter)

4,046.8600 m2 (square meter) 2.5899 km2 (square kilometer)

16.3871 cm* (cubic centimeter) 0.0283 nr1 (cubic meter) 0.7645 nr* (cubic meter)

4.4482 N (Newton) 9.8066 N (Newton) 9.9640 kN (kilo Newton)

tor tana)

1 lb in. (pound inch) 1 lb ft (pound foot) I ton ft (ton foot)

Maa I I (gram) 1 lb (pound) 1 lb (pound) I ton (too) I kg (kilogram)

0.1129 Nm (Newton meter) 1.3558 Nm (Newton meter)

. 3.0370 k Nm (kilo Newton meter)

28.35 oz (ounce) 453.5929 g (gram)

0.4536 kg (kilogram) 1,000.00 kg (kilogram)

12046 lb (pound)

Deastrr ( a n t Mr a n rotaw)

1 lb/in? (pound per cubic inch)

1 lb/ft' (pound per cubic foot)

1 ton/yd1 (ton per cubic yard)

1 lb/yd1 (pound per cubic yard)

I of liquid

11 (liter) 1 1 (liter) 1 gal (gallon) 1 gal/min (gallon per minute)

27.6799 g/cm2 (gram per cubic centimeter)

16.0185 kg/m2 (kilogram per cubic meter)

1,32894 kg/m1 (kilogram per cubic meter)

0.5933 kg/m1 (kilogram per cubic meter)

0.2200 Imperial gallon 0.2642 U.S. gallon 0.0038 cu m (cubic meter) 0.0038 cu m/min (cubic meter per

minute)

Force (»eighl)/unit length

1 lb/in. (pound per inch) I lb/ft (pound per foot) I ton/ft (ton oer foot)

0.1751 N/nun (Newton per millimeter) 14.5939 N/m (Newton per meter) 32.6903 kN/m (kilo Newton per meter)

Prctssre, stren, strength (force per unit area)

1 lb/in? (pound per square inch, psi)

1 lb/in? (pound per square inch, psi)

1 lb/ft2 (pound per square foot, psf)

I lb/ft2 (pound square foot, psf)

1 ton/in? (ton per square inch)

1 ton/ft2 (ton per square foot)

1 N/m2 (Newton per square meter) 1 kg/cm2 (kilogram per square centimeter

0.6895 N/cm2 (Newton per square centimeter)

6,894.7600 N/m2 (Newton per square meter)

47.8303 N/m2 (Newton per square meter)

4.8820 kg/m2 (kilogram per square meter)

15.4443« 10«N/m2(Newtonper-square meter)

107.2520 kN/m2 (kilo Newton per square meter)

I Pa (Pascals) . 0.09S1 MPa (Mega Pascals)

104

ANNEX 3

Bioliography

Maddocks, David.

"Methods of creating low cost waterproof membranes for use in the construe tion of rainwater catchment and storage systems" ITDG London, 1975

"The introduction of rainwater catchment tanks and micro-irrigation to Botswana. ITDG London, 1969

Barneaud, J.C., and Martin, P. "Recueil et stockage de l'eau de pluie". TOOL Amsterdam, 1977.

Karunaratne, A.D.M., and Mueller, Alexander "Ferro-soilcrete tanks, a construction manual" Water Resources Board, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 1982

Costa, J., de Lange, J., Pieck, C. "Irrigation water storage tanks made of brickwork" A manual for design and construction. SWD/TWO Amersfoort, 1981

Costa, J., de Lange, J., Pieck, C. "Irrigation water storage tanks made of ferrocement" A manual for design and construction. SWD/TWO Amersfoort, 1982.

Figee, A., "Terrein verkennen" Leergang civiele techniek in ontwikkelingslanden TH Delft, 1978

Povel, H. "Dammen" Vraagbaak III, nr. 3 1975

New England College Henniker Hampshire "Safety of small dams" American Society of Civil Engineers New York, 1975

105

Fowler, John P., "The design and construction of small earth dams" Appropriate Technology Vol. 2 no. 4 1977

"Ingenieursgeologie voor Ingenieurs" Deel II TH Delft, 1978

swd - irc · 2014-03-07 · t o impervious fai r t poo higpoor h inorganic days of high plasticity,...

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