syntax iii jack & ivy 2012.9.25. 5.1 english verbs 5.1.1 verb forms 5.1.2 the syntactic...
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Syntax III
Jack & Ivy
2012.9.25
5.1 English Verbs
• 5.1.1 Verb forms• 5.1.2 The syntactic environment• 5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence: the
perfect construction• 5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases• 5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs• 5.1.6 Structure of tensed clauses• 5.1.7The position of main verbs and auxiliaries
in the clausal structure• 5.1.8 Summary of verbs distribution
Verbs function as the head of Verb Phrases(P.258)
VP
V
laugh kiss
V DP
Juliet
Juliet
VP
V DP PP
P DPgiveflowers
to
VP
5.1 English Verbs5.1.1 Verb Forms
Non-finite verb forms
Infinitive to use to show
Participles: past participle used shown
passive participle used shown
present participle using showing
Finite verb forms
Past tense used showed
Present tense uses shows
• Verbs inflected for past or present tense and agreement are often referred to as finite verbs.
• The other verb forms as non-finite verbs.
5.1.2 The syntactic environment
The perfect auxiliary have co-occurs with a past participle.
a. Many students have liked Romeo and Juliet.
The passive auxiliary be co-occurs with a passive participle.
a. Juliet was loved by Romeo.
5.1.2 The syntactic environment
• Progressive be co-occurs with a present participle.
a. Many students are reading Romeo and Juliet.
Infinitives
As the complement of a modal
a. Many students could read Romeo and Juliet.
As the complement of a causative verb or a verb of perception.
a. They let Romeo and Juliet die.b. They saw Juliet kiss Romeo.
InfinitivesIn different types of infinitival complements
to-infinitivals
a. Many student try to read Romeo and Juliet.
for-to infinitivals
a. Many professors want very much for their students to read Romeo and Juliet.
Tensed clauses require tensed verbs inflected for past or present tense.
main clause
a. Romeo loved Juliet.
b.*Romeo loving/to love Juliet.
embedded clause
a. I believe that Romeo loved Juliet.
b. I don’t know if Romeo loved Juliet.
• Particular verbal forms co-occur with particular auxiliaries.
• Particular verbal forms co-occur with particular types of clauses.
Generalizations
5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
R1 (first version)
A sentence containing the perfect auxiliary have must contain a past participle.
Is this
hypothesis
correct ?
5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
Check
a. *Many students seen have Juliet.
b. *Seen many students have Juliet.
c. *Many students have see +V Juliet died+pp.
The past participles must
stay close to auxiliaries’ right
side.
5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
read
have VP2
V [+past participle] DP
Hamlet
VP1
5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
R2 (second version)
Have requires or demands a complement which contains a past participle.
Is it the precise
characterization to say a
complement which
contains a past
participle?
5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
Bad case
have VP
= complement of have
V VP
V
+past part
Good case
have VP
= complement of have
V +past part
Too Far
5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
VP
VP
This part of the structure must
contain the past participle
In other words, it needs a
immediate complement
.
5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction
R3 (third version)
Have requires or demands a past participle in its “immediate” complement.
Then, Why must have
contain the past
participle and the
label of constituent ?
5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
Heads determine the category of their projection in syntax.
VP
V
PP
P
AP
A
5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
• Heads in morphology– Suffixes c-select the morpheme that they
attach to.
-ize c-selcets N change N to V symbol-ize
-ment c-selcets V change V to N establish-ment
The category of the newly formed word is determined by the right most suffix
5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
• Compound have heads• In English, compounds are head-final.
V
N V
baby sit
N
A N
green house
A
AN
nation wide
5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
have VP [+past part]
V[v see +past part]
Since the past participle is the head of the VP complement, the VP projection is
marked +past participle.
5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases
R4 (final)
Have requires or demands (=selects) a past participle complement.
Building Larger Structures
a. (Passive) be requires a [+passive participle] complement.
b. (Progressive) be requires a [+present participle] complement.
Example:
This play should have been being read by the students.
(perfect have, progressive be, passive be, main V)
DP
V
have
VP + past part
V [+en] VP + present part
been V [+ing]
being
VP + passive part
V [+ed]
VP
read [e] this play
5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
For Kate to defy Petruccio takes courage.
The for DP to VP stringacts as a single constituent.
This constituent is
called infinitive CP
5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
to VP
To always combines with an infinitival VP
to its right.
To is a realization of the category
T (tense)
5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
• Conclude that TP contains two layers of structure:
a. one layer in which the head combines with a complement to its right, forming a constituent T’.
b. a higher layer where T’ combines with a specifier forming TP
5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
CP
For TP
DP T’
to VP
5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
Accusative subject pronouns can only appear if for is present.
a. For her (*she) to be loved.
5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs
• heads demand certain types of complements.
• the complement is the sister of the head.
Tensed clauses
A tensed clause demands a finite verb.
- main clause
a. Katherina defied (*defy/*to defy) Petruccio.
-embedded clause
a. Many students concluded that katherina defied
(*defy/*to defy) Petruccio.
Tensed clauses
CP
that VP [+T]
Katherina defied Petruccio
What does this reveal about the
mental grammar?
Main clauses require tensed verbs
CP
C + decl, +main VP [+T]
DP
V+T DPKatherina
defied Petruccio
The C node happens to be silent
in main tensed clause
A silent head exists in English
C [+decl, +main], c-selects +Tense, C is not pronounced.
C[+decl, +embedded], c-selects +Tense, C is pronounced as that.
Languages with an overt complementizer in all declarative clauses
Korean (nom= nominative, dec= declarative)
romio-ka culiet-kwa kicaŋ-e ka-ss-taRomeo-nom Juliet-with theater-to go-past-decl (matrix)
‘Romeo went with Juliet to the theater.’
The building blocks of syntax are heads which can be either silent or overt.
Comparing infinitives and tensed clauses
CP
TP[cfor]
DP
Katherina[+to] VP
V DPdefy P
CP
[cthat] VP[+T]
DP V’
V+T DPKatherina
defies P
Comparing infinitives and tensed clauses
a. Infinitive to is a free standing morpheme in T.
b. Finite tense is expressed as a suffix on the verb.
c. The subject in the infinitival is located in a different structural position than the subject of a tensed clause.
Enriching the structure of tensed complements
CP
TP[+T]for
DP
Katherina[Tto] VP[+inf]
V DPdefy P
CP
that TP[+T]
DP T’
R+Tense VP[+T]Katherina
V+T DP
T’
defies P
5.1.6 on the structure of tensed clauses
Auxiliaries:a. Juliet has gone to the nunnery.b. Juliet is sad.
Modalsa. Juliet will go to the garden.
Main verbsa. Juliet wrote to Romeo.
5.1.6 on the structure of tensed clauses
Auxiliaries and modals can precede the subject in yes-no questions.
a. Is she going to the garden?
b. Should she go the garden?
c. Has she gone to the garden?
VP ellipsis
Although Regan has not been a good daughter to Lear, Cordelia has. (been a good daughter to Lear)
This process that allows the VP to be silent
is referred as VP ellipsis
VP ellipsis
Although Regan has not been a good daughter to Lear, Cordelia has. (been a good daughter to Lear)
The pronounce part is referred as the remnant
of VP ellipsis
VP ellipsis
TP [+tense]
DP T’
VP [+T-ed]
DPV
defy P
VP ellipsis
This is incorrect
It needs support
!!
Do-support
TP [+tense]
DP T’
VP [ do+ [t-ed] ]
DPV
defy P
VP ellipsis
Insert do to support (=save) a stranded suffix
in T.
Affix-hoping
Input
T VP
-ed
V
defy
Affix-hoping Output
T VP
V
defy +ed
Head movement
T VP
V
defy
-ed
VP ellipsis for VP2
• [TPEmilia [[T-s] [VP1 be [VP2 listening to Iago]] too]]
VP ellipsis of VP2
It is impossible to
ellipsis of VP1
a. Finite forms of HAVE and BE are in tensed T.
b. Finite forms of MAIN VERBS are in VP.
5.1.7 The position of main verbs and auxiliaries in the clausal structure
• Not – not/n’t – finite forms of the auxiliaries have, be, and do
must precede not (and n’t)– non-finite forms of the auxiliaries follow not
5.1.7 The position of main verbs and auxiliaries in the clausal structure
He won’t have climbed the mountain yet
The Finite auxiliary (will) precedes not
Non-finite form auxiliary (have)
follow not
Distribution of adverbials
• certain adverbials intervene between T and the main V in English:
a. Olivia will probably leave tomorrow.
T Adv V(inf)
b. You must recently have read Macbeth.
T Adv V (pp)
Distribution of adverbials
• When the main verb is inflected, these adverbs precede the main verb:
a. Olivia probably left yesterday.
Adv V+T
b. You recently read Macbeth.
Adv V+T
Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
matrix yes-no questions start with either a modal, or a finite auxiliary (have, be or do)
a. Has Othello died?
b. Is Othello dying?
c. Did Othello die?
Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
embedded yes-no questions start with a particular C (complementizer), either if or whether:
(89)
a. I wonder if Othello died quickly.
b. I wonder whether Othello died quickly.
Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
• Subject-Aux-Inversion:– Subject-Aux-Inversion must apply in matrix yes-
no questions.
– Subject-Aux-Inversion cannot apply when there is an overt complementizer present in the C node.
Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
a. *I wonder if did Othello die quickly.
Incorrect !!C selects values
of T
No Need !!!
Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion
• The lexical complementizer if/whether and the inverted T are in complementary distribution
The C level: properties of individual complementizers
a. Othello thought THAT Desdemona lied.
b. Othello wondered IF Desdemona lied.
C+QIt is overt
C –QIt can be
silent
Why main Vs fail to move to +Q
a. Main verbs cannot appear in T[+T].b. Main verbs cannot appear in C[+Q].
•main V to T is a prerequisite for further movement to C
5.1.8 Summary of distribution of English verbs
• the distribution of verbs• C is a zero morpheme in main clause
declaratives and questions.• C is that in embedded declaratives.• C is whether or if in embedded yes-no
questions.
5.2 Cross-Linguistic Variation: Beyond English
• 5.2.1 The nature of linguistic variation• 5.2.2 Language variation and parameters• 5.2.3 C, T, and V across languages• 5.2.4 Other languages• 5.2.5 Languages with no visible change in
word order: VP ellipsis• 5.2.6 Further extensions: The noun
system: DP
5.2.1 The nature of linguistic variation
• Heads ( = morphemes)– the building blocks of syntactic structures– pronounced (overt material)
silent
– lexical categories (N, V, A, P)
functional categories (T, C, Q, …)
• Structure– local head-complement relations– Spec-head relations
• Movement– co-courrence restrictions between positions
(102)
- the VP level
- the T level
- the CP level
iDPtvTTTi e][ said e][ e][Juliet has What
• head-initial languages– ordering the head before the complement– VSO / SVO
• head-final languages– ordering the head after the complement– SOV
• parameters – options available to the language learners
• Movement
• Japanese: wh-in-situ• English: wh to Spec, CP
• wh-in-situwh-phrases occur in the same positions where DPs appear
• Chinese have in situ wh-elements• "John bought what?"
"John bought bread"• with what in the same position in the
sentence as the grammatical object would be in its affirmative counterpart
5.2.3 C, T, and V across languages
English (E) and French (F)
• the ordering of pre-VP adverbials and finite verbs(109)a. Romeo carefully words his lettersb. *Roméo soigneusement formule ses lettres
(110)a.*Romeo words carefully his lettersb.Roméo formule soigneusement ses lettres
• E: Adv-finite main V• F: Finite main V- Adv
English (E) and French (F)
(111)• English: Finite main V in VP
• French: Finite main V in tensed T
] T][V [ Adv e]DP[[ VPTTP
] e][[ Adv T]V NP[[ vVPTTP
English (E) and French (F)
When the sentence contains a finite auxiliary, they show the same order:(112)
a. Romeo has carefully worded his letters.b. Roméo a soigneusement formulé ses lettres.
English: Finite-AUX-Adv-ParticipleFrench: Finite-AUX-Adv-Participle
English (E) and French (F)
(113)• a. Romeo is often sick.• b. Jean est souvent malade.
(114)• a. In French, finite auxiliaries and main vs are in [+T]• b. (i) In English, finite auxiliaries are in [+T] (ii) In English, finite main verbs are in [+T]
English (E) and French (F)
• verb in different positions: • ( indicates the original position of V)
(115)• a. Roméo • b. Romeo
e][v
voisins]ses e][ vsisite][ v T
neighbors] his [visits e][T
English (E) and French (F)
negative sentences
• (116)• c. Roméo ne visite pas
• the V raises to T over negation pas
voisins]ses e][ [ v
English (E) and French (F)
• the differences in word-order patterns result from the position finite verbs occupy; they are in +T in French, but in T in English.
• (117) The position a particular head occupies is one source of language variation.
English and Germanic languages
(118)
matrix: [ [ CVf] [DP …
embedded: [ [ CC [DP Vf
• In matrix clauses, all finite verbs would raise to the C position.
• Embedded clauses always have an overt C, with the finite verb remaining in T.
Dutch
– verb-second:
the finite verb always follows a constituent in first position (the finite verb therefore is in second position in this clause type)
– (119)a. Morgen goat Juliet met Romeo naar de film
Tomorrow goes Juliet with Romeo to the movies
Dutch
– XP first in matrix clauses:
the initial position of certain types of root clauses in Dutch (say, Spec, CP) must always be filled with some constituent (otherwise the verb would be first!)
– XP first in matrix clauses:
Spec, CP (Matrix) must contain an overt constituent
5.2.4 Other languages
• language variation is due to variation in movement
– Vata
in Vata, V movement is quite transparent, because it results in word-order differences.
5.2.5 Languages with no visible change in word order: VP ellipsis
• the strict head-final nature of the projections in strictly head-final languages, like Japanese or Korean for example, no material can intervene between C, T, and V positions
Irish
• Irish shows VSO order in both matrix and embedded tensed sentences
Dúirt sé go dtiocfadh sé
say(past) he C come(condit) he
‘He said that he would come’
Irish• VSO order is a characteristic property of finite clauses: non-
finite clauses show either SVO order(125) or even SOV order(126)
• (125) SVO order
Bhreathnaigh mé uirthi agus í ag imeacht uaimlooked I on-her and her leave(prog) from-me‘I watched her as she was leaving me.
• (126) SOV order
Níor mhaith liom iad a chéile a phósadhI-would-not-like them each-other marry(inf)‘I would not like them to marry each other.’
Irish
• This suggests that the word order in tenses clauses is derived, with the verb in finite clauses moving out of the VP, to some position higher than the subject. As a result of this movement, the subject intervenes between the finite verb and its object.
• The finite verb cannot be in C, since it co-occurs with the finite complementizer: VSO order is a property of all tensed clauses, main or embedded. Therefore it is in T.
Irish
• (127) The finite verb in Irish is in T.
Irish• Support for V being outside VP comes from the
process of VP ellipsis in Irish. Irish has no words for yes, or no.
• (128)Question:Ar chuir tú isteach air?InterC put[PAST] you in on-it‘Did you apply for it?’
Answer:Chuir Níor chuirput[PAST] NEG put[PAST]‘Yes’ ’No’
Irish
• The part that disappeared is understood in the answer. Elliptical sentences occur in roughly the same range of contexts as English VP ellipsis:
• (129)Dúirt mé go gceannóinn é agus cheannaighsaid I C buy [Condit:S1] it and bought‘I said that I would buy it and I did.’
• (130)A: Chennaigh siad teach buy[PAST] they house ‘They bought a house.’
B: Níor cheannaigh NEG[PAST] bought ‘They did not.’
• Tag questions• (131)
Chennaigh siad teach, nár cheannaigh
bought they house NEG INTERR C buy[PAST]
‘They bought a house, didn’t they?’
• Thus, this looks like VP ellipsis, except for the fact that the remnant contains the finite main V! This situation can arise if the V is outside of the constituent on which silence is imposed.
• Since the V is not within the VP, but in T, it must be pronounced.
• The subjects in Irish must be silent as well.
English VS. Irish
English: they did!
CP
C TP
DP
T VP
V DP
They
(do) -ed
buy the house
Irish : bought
English VS. Irish
CP
C TP
DP
T VP
DP
V DP
buyi -ed
they
[e]i the house
• VP ellipsis thus provides an excellent argument for V to T movement in Irish!
DP occurs in different position
TP
DP
T VP
DP
English subjects
Irish subjects
5.2.6 Further extensions: The noun system: DP
• Just like clauses, DPs come in different kinds as well:– as definite (or specific) DPs (the men, these
women)– quantified DPs (two men, every man)– generic DPs (people)
• We can consider D as being the head of an NP
• (140)
a. the frequent visits to his parents (E)
b. les visites fréquentes á ses parents (F)
The N moves to Num in French, but not in English
DP
D NumP
Num
visites
NP
APfrequent
NPNPvisits
French Nouns
English Nouns
The Hebrew nouns move to D
DP
D NumP
Num
visites
NP
APfrequent
NPNPvisits
French Nouns
English Nouns
beyt
Hebrew Nouns
5.3 Summary
• the syntactic input consists of words, silent morphemes, and some inflectional morphemes
• the head-complement relation regulates the distribution of verbal forms, and forms the basic backbone of a clause.
• the property that distinguishes declarative clauses, questions, etc, is located at the C level
• TPs fall into different types depending on properties of the T head (-T=to, +T=tense)
• in English, tensed main verbs occur in VP, tensed auxiliaries and modals in +T, or, in certain contexts, in C
• languages have quite similar structures, with differences arising from ordering parameters, and lexical parameters