ta212 the technology of music steve wells. producing musical sounds ta212: block 3, chapter 1
TRANSCRIPT
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TA212The Technology of Music
Steve Wells
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Producing Musical Sounds
TA212: Block 3, Chapter 1
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Musical Instruments
instrumentsstrings
wind
woodwind
brass
plucked
bowed
percussion
tuneduntuned
electronicstruck
flute clarinet
keyboard
tuba
recorder
trumpet
piano
trombone
guitarharp
violin
cello
side drum
tom tom
xylophone tubular bells
synthesiser
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Musical Instruments
• Something which produces sound– Compressions and rarefactions in the air
• Predictable output– Pitch– Volume– Rhythm
• Controllable by a player
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Sound Production
• Need to be able to put energy into the system (excitation)– No energy – no noise!
• Something to resonate– Primary vibrator provides pitch
• String, air column– Secondary vibrators
• The rest of the instrument
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Sound Excitation
• Putting in energy to make a sound– Blowing into a wind instrument– Plucking a string– Bowing a string– Beating a drum
• Energy in a burst– Transient sound
• Energy continuous– Sustained sound
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Nodes and Antinodes
• Waves can “interfere” producing locations where there is no change
• These locations are fixed despite the fact that the waves are moving
• A place where Nothing is changing is called a Node• An Antinode is where something is changing
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Types of Node
• A place where Nothing is changing is called a Node• Two types of Node:
– A Pressure Node occurs where there is no change of pressure• for example, at the open end of a wind instrument
– A Displacement Node occurs where there is no displacement (movement) of the vibrating medium• for example, at the bridge of a stringed instrument
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Standing Waves
• The sequence of nodes and antinodes form a standing wave
• When a string is vibrating:
displacement node
displacement node
displacement antinode
A NN
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Standing Waves
• The sequence of nodes and antinodes form a standing wave
• When an air column is is vibrating:
displacement antinode
displacement antinode
displacement node
A AN
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Woodwind Instruments
TA212: Block 3, Chapter 2
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Wind Harmonicsopen pipe stopped pipe
NOTE: A conical pipe (such as an oboe) behaves like a pipe open at both ends
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
“Bernoulli” Principle
Air blowing over a surface creates suction
…either the air moves... …or the surface moves!
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Oboe Reedair air air
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Recorder Mouthpiece
air
air
Suction due to the Bernoulli Effect.
The air stream passes to one side of the edge, is sucked onto the edge and overshoots.
This repeats...
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Wind Pitch
• Length of the pipe determines the pitch– (also temperature)
• Change pitch by:– Changing the length
• Brass instruments– Finger holes
• Woodwind
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Wind Pitch
• Pitch of a pipe depends on two things:– Length (L) : shorter = higher– Speed of Sound (v) : higher temperature = higher
• For a pipe open at both ends:
• For a stopped pipe (open at one and closed at the other):
L
vf
21
L
vf
41
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Fingerholes
Effective length depends on the position and size of the hole
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Fingerholesphysical end of the pipe
displacement antinodes
no fingerhole
small fingerhole
large fingerhole
The displacement antinodes are at different possible positions due to different end effects.
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
Recorder Mouthpiece
displacement antinode
Due to end effects, the displacement antinode is effectively inside the air channel
air
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
End Correction
• Effective length of a pipe is greater than the physical length of the pipe.
effective length
physical length
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
End Correction
radius (r)
end correction (e)
re 6.0
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TA212 - Block 3
Question: Length of a Pipe
A pipe stopped at one end sounds the note A4 (440Hz) as its first harmonic. If the pipe has a diameter of 20mm, what is the physical length of the pipe?
Assume the speed of sound to be 340m/s.
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Brass Instruments
TA212: Block 3, Chapter 3
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What is a Brass Instrument
• Not always made of brass!!• Key idea is the way the sound is made
– Lip reed– Players lips vibrate within the mouthpiece to excite the
air column– Similar to the way a reed excites the air column in and
oboe or clarinet
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Brass Instruments
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Parts of a Brass Instrument
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Brass Instruments
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Types of Brass Instrument
• Mainly Cylindrical– Natural Trumpets and Trombones
• Mainly Conical– Horns
• Combination of Cylindrical and Conical– Trumpet– Cornet
(A Cornet has a longer conical section than a Trumpet)
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Brass Instruments
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The Air Column
• The bell is open• The mouthpiece behaves like a closed end• However...
– Fundamental not used (usually out of tune)– The flare on the bell raises the pitch of the lower
harmonics– The mouthpiece lowers the pitch of the upper
harmonics• The effect is to get an almost complete harmonic
series (the fundamental is missing)
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Brass Instruments
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Tuning
• Harmonics are used more than with woodwind– Bugle only uses harmonics
• Tuning – Slide– Valve– Finger holes
• like woodwind• not used in modern orchestral instruments
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Brass Instruments
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Valves
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Brass Instruments
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Stringed Instruments
TA212: Block 3, Chapter 3
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
String Harmonics
• Many different standing waves • The sounds they produce are the harmonics of the
string.
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 1 - Producing Musical Sounds
String Pitch
• Pitch of a string depends on three things:– Length (L) : shorter = higher– Tension (T) : tighter = higher– Mass per unit length ( ) : lighter = higher
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TA212 - Block 3
Question: String Tension
A Fender Stratocaster has a string length of 648mm. The sixth string (lowest pitch) has a mass per unit length of 6.79x10-3 kg/m. It is tuned so that its first harmonic is E2 (82.4Hz).
What is the tension in the string?
f1 frequencyT tensionL lengthµ mass per unit length
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Violin Family
• Many medieval instruments were bowed– Rebec– Vielle
• The modern violin appears in late 17th century• Four sizes
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Stringed Instruments
Lowest note Tuned in
Violin G3 Fifths
Viola C3 Fifths
Cello C2 Fifths
Double Bass E1 Fourths
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Violin Bridge
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Stringed Instruments
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Lutes and Guitars
• Descended from arabic instrumets– Through Moorish Spain or, perhaps, the Crusades– “Lute” comes from “al‘ud”
• Plucked and Strummed• Strings stretched along a neck
– Usually fretted• Many variations throughout the Middle and Far East
– Long and short necks– “2” to “12 or more” strings
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Stringed Instruments
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Classical Guitar
• Modern form developed in 19th
– Torres developed the larger body and fan strutting– Tarrega and, later, Segovia showed what the
instrument was capable of• Six strings
– E3, A3, D4, G4, B4, E5
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 3 - Stringed Instruments
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Percussion
TA212: Block 3, Chapter 5
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Drum Vibration Modes
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Drum Frequencies
1.591 2.13
2.29 2.65 2.91
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Other Drums
• Bass Drum– Two heads– Often one head is tighter than the other so that the
frequencies do not correspond– Untuned
• Snare Drum– Wires across one head causes a rattle as the head
moves
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Simple Gongs and Cymbals
• Modes of Vibration similar to a circular drum skin• Low frequencies dominate first, then higher
frequencies take over• Untuned
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Circular Plate Vibration Modes
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Circular Plate Frequencies
1 3.912.331.73
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Oriental Gong
• Shape forces the first two harmonics to have a frequency ratio of 2:1
• Other harmonics effectively not present
• Tuned
TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Vibrating Bars
• Glockenspiel, Xylophone etc
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Vibrating Bars
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Vibrating Bars
The instrument is “tuned” because felt supports go here to damp all but the fundamental mode of vibration
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TA212 - Block 3
Question: Rectangular Bar
A glockenspiel bar is made out of steel whose Young’s Modulus is 201x109 N/m2 and whose density is 7800 kg/m3. The bar is 5mm thick and 111mm long.
What frequency will it sound?
21 03.1L
tEf
f1 frequencyE Young’s modulus densityt thicknessL length
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 5 - Percussion
Percussion Pitch
• Modes of vibration do not form a harmonic series• No well defined pitch, but...
– Timpani• Air damping within the instrument shifts the modes of
vibration to produce a harmonic series– Glockenspiel
• Supports damp out the unwanted modes of vibration– Oriental Gong
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Keyboard Instruments
TA212: Block 3, Chapter 6
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Keyboards
• Standard interface to many different ways to make a sound– clavichord– harpsichord/virginal/spinet– piano– organ– piano accordion– electronic keyboard– celesta
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Clavichord
• Unfretted Clavichord - one string for each note• Fretted Clavichord - several notes on each string
fulcrum
tangent
bridge
damping
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Plucked Strings
Virginal
Spinet
Harpsichord
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Piano
• Hammers hit the string• The hammer needs to:
– hit the string at a controllable speed– have a clean rebound– not hit the string twice
• Modern mechanism invented by Cristofori in 1720
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Piano Key Leversforce
effectf e
force
effect
f
e
effect
f
e
forcefe
factor speed
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Cristofori Action
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Organ
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Organ
air in
valve
tracker
pipe
windchest
key
roller
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 6 - Keyboard Instruments
Organ Stops
• An Organ Stop selects a bank of pipes• The length is an indication of pitch, not physical
length
– 8ft is normal pitch (A4=440Hz)
– 4ft sounds an octave higher• A stop labelled “8ft stopped”
– normal pitch made with stopped pipes– NOT 8ft pipes stopped to produce the effect of 16ft
pipes.
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TA212 - Block 3
Question: Organ Stops
A pipe organ is tuned in concert pitch. The key normally sounding the A above middle C (A4) is pressed.
What note will sound when each of the following stops are used.
8’ diapason4’ diapason16’ stopped
Why will the tone of the 16’ stopped pipes differ from the others?
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The Voice
TA212: Block 3, Chapter 7
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 7 - The Voice
Anatomy
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 7 - The Voice
Voice and Clarinet
sound source pitch timbre
clarinet reed air column fixed
voice vocal folds vocal folds Variable(vocal tract)
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 7 - The Voice
Graphic Equaliser
• The vocal tract can emphasise different frequencies
• Like a graphic equaliser…• Different vowels are
produced by emphasising different frequencies
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 7 - The Voice
Vowels
• Shape of the vocal tract
• Each shape emphasises different frequencies• The frequencies which are emphasised are called
Formants
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 7 - The Voice
Spectrogram
time
freq
uenc
y formants
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 7 - The Voice
Formant Chart
first formant
seco
nd f
orm
ant • Vowels can be
characterised by the frequencies of the first two formants
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 7 - The Voice
Singer’s Formant
• Formants pulled closer together create an increase in loudness– not more energy– more efficient use of existing energy
• Distorts the vowels– consonants become important for intelligibility
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Electronic Instruments
TA212: Block 3, Chapter 8
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 8 - Electronic Instruments
Types of Electronic Instrument
• Electroacoustic– sound source is mechanical (string of electric guitar)
• Electromechanical– replays physical representations of sounds (Hammond
organ)• Electronic
– sound is created from an electronic circuit (synthesiser)
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 8 - Electronic Instruments
Electromagnetic Induction
• Given any two, the third is produced
electricity + magnetism = motion (electric motor)
magnetism + motion = electricity (generator)
electricity
magnetism motion
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 8 - Electronic Instruments
Electric Guitar
• Electroacoustic• Electromagnetic induction
– “movement + magnetism = electricity”
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 8 - Electronic Instruments
Hammond Organ
• Electromechanical• Electromagnetic induction
– “movement + magnetism = electricity”– the lobes on the spinning wheel disturb the magnetic
field creating a current in the wire
magnetspinning wheel
wire
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 8 - Electronic Instruments
Moog Synthesiser
• Electronic• No moving parts!• Analogue
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TA212 - Block 3 - Chapter 8 - Electronic Instruments
BBC Radiophonic Workshop
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TA212 The Technology of Music
Contacting Me
• Phone
01454-850379• Email
[email protected]• Web
http://www.stevesphotosite.co.uk/ta212
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TA212 The Technology of Music
Questions
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