table of contents - finance...

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Table of ContentsTable of Contents.....................................................................................................1List of Abbreviations.................................................................................................2List of Tables............................................................................................................3

1.0 Introduction..........................................................................................41.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management............................................................41.4 Aim and Objectives.......................................................................................61.5 Methodology Followed..................................................................................71.6 Structure of the Report.................................................................................8

2. Municipal Solid Waste Management and Best Practices........................92.1 History of Municipal Solid Waste Management in India...............................92.2 Components of Municipal Solid Waste Management.................................102.3 Best Practices in Municipal Solid Waste Management..............................112.4 Conclusions................................................................................................23

3. Waste Management Schemes in India..................................................253.1 Introduction.................................................................................................253.2 Technologies Available for Municipal Waste Disposal...............................253.4 Decentralised Waste Management and Composting – Bangalore.............303.5 Bio-Methanation Plant: Lucknow................................................................333.6 Bio-Methanation Facility – Nagpur..............................................................363.7 Waste-to-Energy Plant: Vijaywada.............................................................383.8 Pelletisation Plant – Hyderabad..................................................................393.9 Cost of Waste-to-Energy Options...............................................................413.10 Environmental Sustainability of WTE Options............................................433.11 Cost Workout for Pilot Project.....................................................................44

4. Solid Waste Management in Urban India..............................................474.1 MSW Generated in India............................................................................474.2 Cost for Provision of Municipal SWM.........................................................524.3 Status of Municipal SWM in India...............................................................64

5. Financial Support for Solid Waste Management...................................725.1 Introduction.................................................................................................725.2 Centrally Financed Support........................................................................725.3 Waste-to-Energy Sector.............................................................................745.4 International Donor Support........................................................................765.5 Private Sector Financing.............................................................................76

References.....................................................................................................77

Annexure........................................................................................................79Annex 1: Financial Outlay for Mega Cities Scheme...............................................79

Management of Solid Waste in Indian Cities 1

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List of Abbreviations BDA Bangalore Development AuthorityBMP Bangalore Mahanagara PalikeBMTC Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation BOO Build Operated and TransferBWSSB Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage BoardCBO Community Based Organisation CEE Centre for Environment Education CPCB Central Pollution Control Board CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environmental

Engineering Organisation cu.m. Cubic metre DWCUA Development of Women and Children in Urban

AreasEE Environment education Exnora EXcellent, NOvel and RAdical IdeasGoI Government of India GoUP Government of Uttar Pradesh HUDCO Housing and Urban Development Corporation IDFC Infrastructure Development Finance Corporation ISWM Integrated solid waste management IUEIP Integrated Urban Environment Improvement ProjectKPTC Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation LDA Lucknow Development Authority LNN Lucknow Nagar Nigam MNES Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy SourcesMoEF Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of

IndiaMoUD Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India MSW Municipal Solid WasteNEDANGO Non Government Organisation NMMC Navi Mumbai Municipal CorporationNWMC National Waste Management CouncilO&M Operation and Maintenance SJRSY Swarn Jayanti Shehri Rojgaar YojanaSPV Special Purpose Vehicle Sq.km. Square Kilometres sq.km. Square kilometreSWM Solid Waste Management TERI Tata Energy Research Institute TFC Twelfth Finance Commission TIDCO Tamil Nadu Industrial Development CorporationTIDE Technology Informatics Design Endeavour


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ULBs Urban Local Bodies UPPCB Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board UPPCL Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited VMC Vijayawada Municipal CorporationWTE Waste-to-Energy

List of Tables Table 3.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Waste Disposal Systems (in Indian Scenario) – Composting.....................................................................28

Table 3.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Waste Disposal Systems (in Indian Scenario) – Waste-to-Energy..............................................................29

Table 3.3: Cost of WTE Options in India.......................................................41

Table 3.4: Indicative Parameters for Bio-Methanation Based Power Plant...43

Table 4.1: Number of Urban Centres (State-wise and Category-wise), India48

Table 4.2: MSW Generation for Urban Centres in India (State-wise and Category-wise) based on CPCB Norms........................................................50

Table 4.3: MSW Generation for Urban Centres in India (State-wise and Category-wise) based on CPHEEO/Planning Commission Norms...............53

Table 4.4: Cost Model 1 – Cost Estimation for Municipal SWM using ORG (1989) Norms (at 2004 prices).......................................................................56

Table 4.5: Cost Model 2 – Cost Estimation for Municipal SWM using Planning Commission (1983) Norms (at 2004 prices)..................................................58

Table 4.6: Cost Model 3 – Cost Estimation for Municipal SWM using Planning Commission/Xth Five Year Plan (2002) Norms...............................................60

Table 4.7: Cost Model 4 – Cost Estimation for Municipal SWM using Average Planning Commission/Xth Five Year Plan (2002) Norms................................62

Table 4.8: Comparative Findings of Four Cost Models.................................64

Table 4.9: Typical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste.............................64

Table 4.10: Chemical Characteristics of Landfill Leachate............................65

Table 4.11: Status of Waste Collection, Transportation and Disposal in Urban India...............................................................................................................66

Table 4.12: Characteristics of MSW having Direct Impact on WTE Initiatives68

Table 4.13: WTE Potential in Urban Centre in India (State-wise), 2004........68

Table 5.1: Financing Norms for IREDA.........................................................75


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1.0 Introduction Urban solid waste includes, household garbage and rubbish, street sweeping, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residues, trade and industrial refuse and bio-medical solid waste (CPCB, 2000). Solid waste management (SWM) has three basic components, namely, collection, transportation and disposal.

The quantity and the content of municipal solid waste (MSW) vary according to the socio-economic status and cultural habits, prevailing climate, location, urban structure, density of population and extent of non-residential activities (IPE, 2004; CPCB, 2000). The collection methods currently adopted by urban local bodies (ULBs) are primitive and lacking in specific standards or guidelines which are required for designing and siting of collection centres. Although the Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (2000) takes a positive step in this direction, much still remains desired for. The Manual also identifies lack of technical, managerial, administrative and financial resources and weak institutional structure of ULBs as the prime reason for poor SWM in urban India. Lack of long-term sustainable planning to reach to a long-term economic solution has also been listed as one of the major deterrents for effective SWM in India.

1.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management

The objective of SWM is to reduce the quantity of solid waste disposed off on land by recovery of materials and energy from solid waste in a cost effective and environment friendly manner. However, this is a problem which Indian cities have been grappling with since long. According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the average waste generated comes to about 490 grams per capita per day. Out of this, average collection ranges from 50% to 90% of the total solid waste generated, while 94% of the wastes are disposed unscientifically. The typical rate of increase of waste generation in Indian cities has been estimated at around 1.3% annually (TERI). The expected generation of MSW in 2025 will therefore be around 700 grams per capital per day. Considering that the urban population of India is expected to grow to 45% of total (World Bank) from the prevailing 28%, the magnitude of problem is likely to grow to even larger proportions unless immediate steps are taken to control waste generation, ensure better collection and sustainable disposal.

Disposal of the waste generated is driven by the institutional and fiscal capacities of the city governments. According to a CPCB study, about 94 percent of the cities resort to indiscriminate dumping of domestic, commercial, industrial and medical wastes. This results in contamination of ground and surface water by leachate. Burning of waste as well leads to air pollution. Moreover, sanitary landfill based disposal system as well does not seem to be a sustainable system largely as land is


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becoming scarce in urban settlement besides the implications of this method of disposal for pollution of ground water and air pollution.

The cities are therefore looking for a system of disposing the solid wastes that could be free from the hazards mentioned above and should as well be cost effective. Concerns for environmental risks have driven some of the cites to adopting newer ways of waste disposal that are neither hazardous nor unaffordable. The two leading innovative mechanisms of waste disposal being adopted in India include composting (aerobic composting, anaerobic, vermi-composting, etc.) and waste-to-energy (bio-methanation, pelletisation, incineration, pyrolysis/gasification).

1.2 Composting of Solid Waste

Composting is achieved by de-composting the organic solid waste either in the presence of oxygen (aerobic composting) or in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic composting). By far, about 35 composting projects have either emerged or are finalised in different cities in the country. The installed capacity of these projects ranges from 80-700 tons per day. Funds required for such projects vary from Rs. 30 million to Rs. 75 millions. Mostly the compost plants have come up with private sector participation on different formats of privatisation.

A key risk associated with composting relates to the end product – compost that is free from environmental hazards. If composting is not based on segregation at source, the end product becomes generally contaminated. The quality also affects the marketability of the compost. If a higher degree of segregation is achieved, quality of compost is usually higher and less toxic. Effective source segregation, therefore, becomes an important pre-requisite for successful composting. However, the concept of source segregation has still to catch on in India. Although some cities have initiated the concept of source segregation following Hon’ble Supreme Court orders, most of these cities lack the infrastructure, resources and technical expertise to make optimum utilisation of segregated wastes. The quality of segregation at source also is very poor due to lack of awareness and enforcement.

1.3 Waste-to-Energy Projects

Waste-to-energy (WTE) projects for disposal of solid waste are a relatively new concept in India. Although these have been tried and tested in developed countries with positive results, these are yet to get off the ground in the country largely because of the fact that financial viability and sustainability is still on test. Many environmentalists argue that environmental costs incurred in these projects are far higher than the returns. While a number of cities have opted for WTE plants, such as Hyderabad, Vijaywada, Lucknow, etc., most of these have been unsuccessful experiments till now, primarily due to the composition of waste in India and lack of market for end products. Although, recent WTE plants have involved the private sector in their installation and O&M, most are heavily dependent on subsidies


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provided by the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) and financing institutions such as HUDCO. Policy makers now need to take a decision on sustainability of WTE projects in India and clearly indicate the steps which need to be taken to ensure optimum outputs from WTE plants. The MNES has already taken a step in this direction by preparing a Master Plan on Waste-to-Energy for India, which is currently being finalised.

Urban local bodies are spending a very high percent of their budget on cleaning and waste disposal. These cost increases are exacerbated by poor vehicle routing, lack of proper infrastructure and inadequate maintenance. Increasing land prices and reduced availability of suitable disposal options in and around urban centres steadily make safe waste disposal more difficult and costly. Despite many good practices from around the world being available, most ULBs in India select inappropriate technologies. There is a need to understand these good practices and identify local context which led to their success as well as identify major constraints faced during project preparation and implementation. Simultaneously, there is a need to identify and address the resource gap faced by ULBs for effective SWM.

1.4 Aim and Objectives

In view of the above-mentioned initiatives for disposal of solid waste, it is proposed to look at these initiatives (including the composting projects) for gaining insights into costs and environmental hazards. This will provide useful insights for their feasibility and replication in other cities. The proposed study will specifically examine the following:

1. Review the existing best practices in India/abroad.

2. Explore innovative successful practices like waste-to-energy, segregation leading to composting and recycling and waste-to- energy for applicability to Indian cities.

3. Review the quantum of support given by the earlier Finance commissions in this sector to the urban local bodies.

4. Estimate costs and financing options that could be suggested for fiscal devolution by the Twelfth Finance Commission.

5. Examine the existing schemes and planned support in this sector and explore the possibility of converging the support with the support which may be considered by the 12th Finance commission.

6. Examine environmental sustainability especially of waste-to-energy projects.


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1.5 Methodology Followed

The study will be a combination of desk research, discussions with functionaries of MNES, and visits to some of the innovative composting and waste-to-energy plants in the country. Visits will provide insights into project costs and environmental sustainability of projects.

The methodology adopted for this study included a combination of desk research, interactions with experts working on innovative composting and WTE plants and discussions with experts in government agencies including Central Pollution Control Board and the Ministry of Non Conventional Energy Resources.

1.5.1 Data Collection

Data collection was undertaken in two stages. The first stage included collection and collation of secondary data directly relating to the requirements of the project. The second stage included development of a citywide inventory for solid waste. These inventories were sent to respective city managers (Commissioner/Senior Engineers). Visits to cities were also undertaken wherever a gap data was envisaged.

1.5.2 Data Processing

The data collected from the above sources were compiled and analysed using computer.

1.5.3 Assumptions and Limitations

All studies of international good practices are based exclusively on secondary literature studies (sources quoted in report). No contact was made with respective (international) organisations to validate authenticity of data.

In case data received from the cities/secondary sources did not tally with the data of Census report 2001, the population figures and areas as per the Census report 2001 have been considered for analysis.

Seasonal variation of solid waste collection has not been considered for the study as most cities did not have reliable data for these.

Most corporations/respective city organisations did not have separate data for generation of household, commercial and industrial waste; instead an equated data was available. For purpose of this study, the data as provided by the concerned organisation/department has been accepted.

The 2001 Census identifies some of the cities undertaken for studies as urban agglomerations. The urban agglomerations may consist of two or more lesser grade municipalities. In such cases, since only the municipal corporation were contacted, which are not concerned with the agglomeration, population and other


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data figures for only the city has been considered. No efforts were made to contact other agencies which may be involved in SWM in the agglomeration area.

It was also attempted to calculate the economic value of the waste being generated at the city level. However, most cities were unable to furnish such information, in which case, these were assessed using average of reliable data available. Sources of all these data have been referenced to wherever quoted in the report.

In case of WTE plants, data as made available by the Plant Operator/city Corporation has been assumed to be true. In case of missing information, data provided by MNES/available on their website has been used. Otherwise, similar data available from research papers/articles/documents have been used; these too have been referred to in the report wherever used.

1.6 Structure of the Report

Following the Introduction, Chapter 2 identifies and reviews some of the best practice in India and abroad. It focuses on innovative waste disposal techniques such as composting, recycling, WTE and their applicability to the Indian situation.

Chapter 3 studies some of the existing waste management schemes/projects in India and assesses the environmental sustainability of these schemes/projects with special emphasis on WTE plants.

Chapter 4 outlines the status of solid waste management in Indian cities. It also identifies the revenue demand for municipal SWM in urban India.

Chapter 5 reviews the quantum of support extended by the previous central finance commission in this sector. It further identifies the extent of planned support and existing schemes available in SWM sector in India.


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2. Municipal Solid Waste Management and Best Practices

2.1 History of Municipal Solid Waste Management in India

Solid waste management in India is a part of public health and sanitation, and according to Indian Constitution, falls within purview of the State list. Since this activity is non-exclusive, non-rivalled and essential, the responsibility for providing the service lies within the public domain. The activity being of local nature is entrusted to the ULBs. The ULB undertakes the task of solid waste service delivery with its own staff, equipment and funds. In some cases, works are contracted out to private enterprises.

Scientific and integrated SWM is a relatively new concept in India, although the initiatives of Government of India (GoI) began as early as in the 1960s when the Ministry of Food and Agriculture offered soft loans to ULBs for SWM. Further imitative was taken by the GoI in terms of planned support by providing black grants and loans to state governments for setting up MSW composting facilities under the fourth five-year plan (1969-74). This initiative was taken further in 1974 when the GoI modified this scheme for specific support to cities above 30 lakhs. However, a number of reasons led to failure of the above initiatives.

In 1975, the GoI set up a high-level committee for review of problems of urban waste in India. The committee, in its report made 76 recommendations, covering eight important areas of waste management. Between 1975 and 1980, ten mechanical compost plants were set up in the country; only one is presently in operation. In 1990 GoI constituted the National Waste Management Council (NWMC). One of the objectives of NWMC was to improve MSW and it provided fiancnial assistance to 22 municipalities to undertake surveys to assist them in improving SWM situation. However, in 1994, the whole of India woke to the magnitude of problem of urban waste management after outbreak of an epidemic in Surat. Consequently, a high-powered committee was constituted in 1995, under the chairmanship of Prof. J.S. Bajaj. This Committee gave a number of suggestions including need for source segregation, community-based door-to-door collection and transportation to municipal dhalaos; charge of user-fees, standardisation of design for municipal vehicles for transportation, need for composting of waste as the most feasible alternative for disposal, and private sector participation in waste management.

Post-Surat scenario saw a burst in SWM related activities at the policy as well as at round level. In 1995, The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) and the CPCB organized an interaction meet with municipal authorities and other concerned ministries to evolve a strategy for the management of MSW. Since 1995, over 50 waste treatment facilities have been set up across the country, mostly with private sector participation. In this period, increased awareness among urban residents saw


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a number of public interest litigations being filed. Responding to these, the Hon’ble Supreme Court set up a committee to review the MSW conditions in Class I cities. The MoEF meanwhile issued draft rules on Municipal Waste (Management and Handling) Rules. These rules mandated all cities to set up waste treatment facilities by 2001 and specified standards for segregation, collection, storage, transportation and disposal. In 1996, the MNES initiated a pilot programme to promote waste-to-energy projects in India, which may be considered as the birth of the new era of waste-to-energy programmes in India.

The Municipal Waste Rules of 1999 was complemented by a Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management which was developed by the CPHEEO under aegis of the MoUD. This manual was prepared by an Expert Group and lays down guidelines and procedures for ULBs to improve SWM in their cities. Recently, under directions from the Hon’ble Supreme Court, a Technology Advisory Group (TAG) has been set up to improve SWM in the country and oversee implementation of innovative technologies of waste management in the country. Recently, the MoEF has constituted an Expert Group for preparation of guidelines for SWM in religious towns/cities in India (2004).

2.2 Components of Municipal Solid Waste Management

The Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (2000) groups activities associated with management of MSW into six functional elements: (a) waste generation; (b) waste handling and sorting, storage and processing at source; (c) collection; (d) sorting, processing and transformation; (e) transfer and transport; and (f) disposal.

However, for purpose of this study these have been broadly generalised in to three categories, namely, collection, transportation and disposal. Collection includes segregation of waste at source (if undertaken), transportation from households to nearest transfer station, sorting and on-site storage at transfer stations. Transportation includes transfer and transportation of wastes from transfer stations to disposal sites. Disposal includes various alternatives including composting, recycling, landfill, incineration, etc. Disposal options also depend on type of waste and usually a city aiming for good waste management has to look at several parallel solutions for MSW disposal. For example, all bio-degradable wastes should be composted, all recyclable wastes should be sent to respective recycling industries, all bio-medical wastes should be either incinerated or dumped in sanitary land fills, other wastes (such as construction debris, etc.) can be taken to land fills. These can be complemented with alternative technologies such as waste-to-energy (pelletisation, bio-methanation, etc.), waste-to-material (bricks constructed from fly-ash), etc. Alternative technologies are usually source specific and require detailed viability studies before being constructed. Brief write-ups on composting and waste-to-energy facilities have been included in Annex 1.


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2.3 Best Practices in Municipal Solid Waste Management

While alternative means of SWM have been tried and tested in India in the last decade or so, many of them have not been successful due to a number of reasons. However, there are examples which have not only been successful but can also be replicated in other cities with adaptation according to local needs. Some of these ‘good’ and ‘best’ practices have been outlined below. Along with national experience, some international experiences have also been identified and studies, especially in areas of integrated SWM and alternative technologies for waste disposal.

2.3.1 Chennai – Community Waste Management

Chennai is the capital city of Tamil Nadu and is the commercial and business hub for South India. The Corporation of Chennai serves an area of approximately 174 sq.km, catering to a population of about 4.2 million including 0.75 million slum population.1

The estimated MSW generation is about 3200 MTs (excluding 500 MTs of building debris).2 Of this, around 68% is residential waste, 14% commercial, 12% institutional and 2% industrial. The Corporation envisages that the city will produce around 4000MT of waste by 2005. The city is served by two dumping ground, Kodungaiyur and Perungudi, both incidentally located on wetland areas.

Efforts to improve SWM in the city were undertaken as early as in 1996, when the Corporation hired a consulting firm to develop a SWM plan and identify areas for private sector involvement through assistance from Tamil Nadu Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO). A private sector operator was contracted the work of procurement of vehicles/machines/dust bins, deployment of dust bins/container bins/community bins, collection from collection points, collection of market wastes and transferring and transporting wastes to disposal sites.

Following these initiatives, three major problems were identified. One was that most households were not throwing their wastes into the community bins provided; wastes were being thrown on roadside. The second problem was that many local bins were at most of the times overflowing which caused serious health problems. Thirdly, rag pickers were now poaching on these bins and retrieving recyclable wastes and spilling wastes around the bin area.

To resolve this problem, the Corporation tied up with a local NGO called Exnora (EXcellent, NOvel and RAdical Ideas). Exnora arrived at a system of waste management, which addressed both the problems mentioned above which functioned through the Civic Exnoras (CBOs), which was entirely based on people’s co-operation and participation. Exnora employed and trained the rag pickers (they were given names of city beautifiers) to undertake door-to-door collection of waste and transport them to community bins. All city beautifiers are given a monthly income and provided with a tri-cycle cart and a uniform. These Street Beautifier went from 1 Census of India, 2001, Final Population Tables2 Corporation of Chennai, 2002


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door to door collecting the waste stored inside the houses in the tri-cycle cart and

transported it to the transfer stations (secondary collection points), from where it was cleared by the Municipal Corporation. This new system ensured that waste was not disposed onto the streets, or even into the Municipal dustbins, and hence ensured cleanliness and hygiene of the surroundings. Within first couple of years around 1000 Civic Exnoras were functioning in the city. Households shared the cost of monthly income of city beautifiers; the cost per household came to around Rs.10 per month. The City Beautifier was also able to augment his salary by about Rs.400/- a month, by selling recyclable wastes segregated from the garbage.

While the community-based system of collection reaped rich rewards in terms of

cleanliness and increasing peoples’ participation, it also led to other problems. First of these was the increased pressure on secondary system of collection and transportation. Since wastes were now being collected from households on daily basis, local/community bins started overflowing as the Corporation was not able clear wastes everyday. Secondly, since wastes were being collected and dumped in unsegregated format, the two dumping grounds reported leacheate pollution of soil, ground water contamination (being located on wetland area) and land air pollution threatening the human and animal life in its surrounding areas.

The Corporation then propagated the concept of at-source segregation. All households, industries, etc., were directed to segregate wastes at source from where City Beautifiers would collect it in segregated format and transfer them to transfer points in a segregated format. Different colour codes were given for different types of wastes and a massive public awareness system was developed to ensure cooperation of Chennai citizens on this. While all recyclable wastes were to be sold, all biodegradable wastes were to be composted, returns from which could be


Street Beautifiers in Waste Collection ‘Street Beautifiers’, are paid a monthly salary, which is subscribed by the community. Each of the about 3000 Civic Exnoras, employs a street beautifier, who is paid a salary of about Rs.750. Hence, on an average the government saves a staggering sum of Rs. 270 lakh (3000 x 750 x 12) annually, which is the sum spent by the people directly on solid waste management. We can very well imagine the tremendous contribution to the country’s GNP, if each of the several lakh ragpickers, who comb the streets daily in our country is inducted into the formal system.

Community Composting: Akshaya Colony Civic Exnora - ChennaiThe households in this street have formed a Civic Exnora. Every house segregates their waste at source. The Civic Exnoras has distributed a green colour basket to every household, into which the residents store organic wastes. The street beautifier collects these wastes in one compartment of his tricycle, and the other inorganic recyclable waste in another. The organic wastes are converted to manure through aerobic composting, which is used in their own gardens. The street beautifier sells inorganic waste to waste buyers and earns an additional income. A small quantity of waste that cannot be recovered is transported to secondary collection points for collection by the Municipal authorities.

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pumped into the SWM process. However, the level of segregation was not very high; around 30% of the wastes were found to be mixed. To solve this problem, the Corporation introduced the concept of zero-waste. All wastes were carried to a zero-waste centre where they were sorted using various technologies. These segregated wastes were then sent to respective disposal sites. As part of community level initiatives vermi-composting and aerobic composting of bio-degradable wastes was propagated by Exnora.

In order to oversee functioning of Civic Exnoras, a public grievance system has also been set up the Corporation of Chennai. All grievances have been categorised and are catered to within a specified time period.

2.3.2 Hyderabad – Private Sector Participation

Hyderabad is the capital city of Andhra Pradesh which is known for its software industry and electronic boom. It has a population of around 3.5 million of which 0.6 million are residing in slum areas.3 Hyderabad has a per capita waste production of 0.382 kg/day4 and the total waste generation is estimated at 1337 MT per day. Of this treatment of only 100MT of waste is done per day while 94% of the wastes are disposed by dumping. Hyderabad produces around 40% biodegradable wastes and 10% recyclable waste. Around 50% wastes constitute of ash, fine earth and other wastes.

In order to tackle the nuance of SWM, the Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad (MCH) has privatised SWM in 58 areas of the city, catering to over 1 million population. Hyderabad is one of the first urban centres which has effectively experimented with a wide range of contracting system, starting from leasing to management contracting. Private sector involvement has been tried in primary collection, street sweeping, transportation and disposal of solid waste in the city. Hyderabad is probably one of the few cities in India where the approach to contracting for SWM has been developed systematically within a citywide perspective (Mehta 1999).

The MCH introduced a voluntary garbage collection scheme in 1994 and it has been functioning since then. The scheme provides a full subsidy to voluntary agencies and resident associations to undertake house-to-house collection of garbage. The association submits a signed list of households it will serve. The subsidy covers a tricycle for every 100-150 households. The association is responsible for appointing and supervising staff. The tricycle puller must be paid at least Rs 750 per month with every household contributing at least Rs 10. Under this scheme, about 600 localities, representing about 20 per cent of the population, have been covered. While the scheme is also operational for slum areas, the participating associations are mainly from middle-income areas.

3 Census of India, 2001, Final Population Tables4 CPCB, 2000, Solid Waste Generation, Collection, Treatment and Disposal in Metro Cities


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In 1995, the Corporation began to contract out solid waste related services; 27 different localities were identified and divided them into two sectors for two separate one-year contracts. The contracts were awarded through competitive bidding to local firms and co-operatives that possessed the required manpower, vehicles, equipment and experience. An internal evaluation revealed that some improvements were necessary for the effective functioning of this system. These improvements included better monitoring of contractors, a plan for movement of the vehicles, standardizing the payments by linking them to the quantity of garbage removed, use of a computerized weighing station at the dump sites, and assurance that minimum wages are paid to the workers. Following this evaluation in 1996 and a study of Surat's approach, the Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad decided to increase the contracts for sweeping, collection and transportation of garbage to the official dumping sites. It awarded contracts to clean seven municipal wards and another four for cleaning the main roads at night. Apart from contracting, Hyderabad also approach financial institutions such as HUDCO for financing of SWM components such as fleet augmentation, upgradation of trenching grounds, development of transfer stations and landfill sites and an incinerator for disposal of hospital and animal waste

In 1998 MCH introduced a new unit-based system for private sector participation that integrated the two types of contracts – for road cleaning at night and for sweeping, collection, and transportation by day. Under this system the city has been divided into 266-day units and 50 night units. About 40 percent of the day units have been reserved for the MCH staff and the rest have been given out to private contractors. One hundred contractors have been awarded day units and around 25 contractors night units. A provision has been made for monitoring performance through community action. Five men and five women constitute an informal community in each unit; their daily certification is mandatory for the payment to the contractor.


Solid Waste Management Projects – Loans from Financial Institutions The Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) has sanctioned seven Solid Waste Management Projects at a cost of Rs.4176 lakhs. Out of this, the loan component by HUDCO is Rs.2696.92 lakhs. These projects are solid waste management for the twin cities of Hyderabad and Sikendrabad at a total cost of Rs.1487.46 lakhs, Solid Waste Management Scheme for Cochin at a cost of Rs.1031 lakhs, solid Waste Management Scheme for Calicut at Rs.627.75 lakhs, bio conversion of municipal garbage of Vijayawara at Rs.145 lakhs, demonstration of comprehensive solid waste management system at Panaji at Rs.65.74 lakhs, solid waste and sewer management for Rajkot at Rs.103.85 lakhs and Management of Solid Waste including Hospital Waste of Varanasi at Rs.715.2 lakhs.

The projects involve equipment for storage, collection and transportation, development of sanitary landfills, compost plant, comprehensive project including collection, transportation and disposal components, sewer maintenance equipment and incinerators for hospital waste. HUDCO has prepared solid waste management project reports for the pilgrim towns of Thrissur and Guruvayur in Kerala. Besides, HUDCO has completed recently a major consultancy for waste management around nine selected defence airfields.

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According to MCH estimates, these latest reforms saw the collection increase to about 90%. Overall about 60 percent of the work is contracted out.

In 1999, Hyderabad set up a waste-to-energy plant for producing 105 tpd fuel pellets from municipal solid wastes (MSW). The pellets produced from this project are being used an industrial fuel and for generation of power.

2.3.3. Viijaywada – Involvement of Women, Children and Not-for-Profit Organisations in Waste Management

The Vijayawada Municipal Corporation (VMC) has used the DWCUA (Development of Women and Children in Urban Areas) groups, for improving sanitation in the city


Contracts for Solid Waste Management – Municipal Corporation of HyderabadMeasures under taken by Hyderabad Municipal Corporation have spanned private sector involvement in primary collection, street sweeping, transportation and disposal of solid waste in the city. There is a clear effort to move towards a simple system that responds to the local private sector and HMC capacity to monitor. This process suggests the need to continually review and adapt the process to local contexts.

Item 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99Scope of Contracts

Only for sweeping, collection and transportation of garbage

Separate contracts for areas and main roads with inclusion of transportation

Contracts reforms into “Day Units” for areas and “Night Units” for main roads.

Procurement process

Procured through lowest bid for a monthly rate for given quantity of work in specified areas

Procured through lowest bids for a rate per quantity of garbage delivered

Procured through technical capacity and past experience at a fixed price for a defined unit which represents equal quantity of work.

Coverage of the Arrangement

27 areas covering about 40000 population and a distance of 27 km.

For main roads a length covering 153.5 km in 4 contracts. For other areas, 7 municipal wards with about 30 percent coverage of city

Planning for the entire city by dividing into day and night units. About 60 percent of total work is contracted out.

Provision for Penalties

Penalty linked to ‘unsatisfactory’ work at 2 percent of the contract amount

Penalty linked to 15 percent of the assessed value of ‘unsatisfactory’ work.

Penalties based on performance monitoring system using detailed input and output criteria.

Monitoring Systems

Limited role of communities, weak municipal monitoring

Enhanced role of communities and increased participation of women. Strengthened municipal systems and introduction of computerized weigh bridges.

Role of communities made more extensive with informal committees Computerized monitoring with the Daily Deduction System.

Note: The procurement process has changed to a lottery, and is no longer based on competition. Source: Mehta Meera (1999). “A Review of Public-Private Partnerships in the Water and Environmental Sanitation in India”, Water and Environmental Sanitation Group. DFID, India.

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by giving contracts for waste collection and other sanitation services to these groups. DWCUA groups are area-based community groups organised as a part of Swarn Jayanti Shehri Rojgaar Yojana (SJSRY). The Corporation facilitates the formation of these groups comprised of women and children.

VMC supports these groups by arranging finances for sanitation vehicles and equipment. The Corporation gives these groups the responsibility to sweep, clean, collect and transport garbage from their neighbourhood area. The community group is also responsible for cleaning streets and drains, by desilting and removing garbage, in their area. Each community group member is paid Rs. 55 per day towards labour charge and Rs. 5 per day towards a group corpus fund. The corpus fund is used for purchase of uniforms, shoes and implements that are used by the workers. Since the community groups belong to thee neighbourhood, they are able to put peer pressure on those not complying with general norms. This also works vice-versa; when community groups do not report to work, problems are sorted out at the community level itself.

VMC arranges finances for sanitation vehicles and implements by acting as an intermediary to facilitate bank borrowing. While the group uses its tractor and trailor in their specified area for garbage lifting, VMC pays Rs.350/- per day towards its rental which includes Rs. 75/- per day towards direct charges, 10 litres diesel per day and bank loan repayment amount of about Rs. 150/- per day. However, out of the rentals Rs. 350/- per day or Rs. 10,500/- per month, Rs. 4500/- is deducted at VMC level and paid directly to the bank towards loan repayment. Since VMC repays directly on behalf of the group, the confidence of banks in lending for garbage vehicle unit is more and as a result, arranging bank loan has not been a problem. A garbage vehicle unit consisting of a tractor and a trailor costing about Rs.2.60 lakhs was acquired under this initiative. This was financed under the SJSRY of which Rs.1.25 lakhs was provided as subsidy, 45% as bank loan and 5% as group contribution.

The scheme has resulted in cost savings for the Corporation as well as better service performance because of local community involvement. This program has also helped eliminate caste bias associated with such activities. Women from various communities are coming forward to participate in the scheme.5

The VMC also has tie-ups with not-for-profit making agencies/institutions for waste disposal. The most well known is the Autonagar Sanitation Scheme. VMC has a tie-up with the Residents Association of Autonagar to share the cost of sanitation based on their needs as also their ability to pay. The Association pays 50% of overall cost of waste disposal and sanitation in the area. They also closely monitor and supervise the working of the scheme resulting in improved sanitation and hygiene.

5 Source: Kirti Devi and V. Satyanarayana (2001)


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VMC has also tied-up with the Indian Medical Association (IMA) as a follow up of the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India's order in W.P.No.888 of 1996. Under this tie-up, IMA ensures that all clinics, nursing homes, hospitals contribute towards disposal of bio-medical waste. The Vijaywada chapter of IMA has agreed to bear the entire cost of collection and disposal of bio-medical waste on scientific basis.

2.3.4 Bangalore – Decentralised Waste Management and use of GIS

Bangalore, the Garden City of India, is also a commercial and business hub with strong international linkages. Solid waste in the city is managed by the Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BMP) catering to a population of 5.7 million6. On a city-basis, around 45% of the waste generated is compostable (CPCB, 2000). Of this, 75% of the domestic waste is organic in nature (Mani and Verghese, 2002), based on which the BMP initiated the Swaccha7 Bangalore programme in 2001.

The Swaccha Bangalore programme looks at generating and integrating community based initiatives for waste management at local level. Prior to this initiative, around 45 community-based waste management schemes were operating in Bangalore (Rosario 2002) which basically involved door-to-door collection in segregated format, sorting of waste and selling of recyclables, composting of biodegradable wastes at neighbourhood level and transfer of remaining wastes to BMP transfer stations. These functions were undertaken by the local scavengers who were trained, managed and supervised by local CBOs/NGOs with assistance from the residents. The initial costs for these small-scale schemes generally came from donor agencies, while O&M costs were recovered from the community themselves using a fixed monthly payment. The Swaccha Bangalore programme formalised this system and integrated similar efforts across the city at no additional costs to the residents. As a result an integrated and self-sustainable system of waste management exists in the BMP area today.

However, for areas in the Bangalore Metropolitan Area which is not falling under the BMP jurisdiction conditions of SWM were not as good as inside the city. According to a survey done in 2001, around 67% of the population in BMA did not have access to SWM facilities (IMRB, 2001) while 600 MT of wastes was being dumped in open and

6 Census of India, 2001, Final Population Table (Urban Agglomeration figure)7 Swaccha translated in English means ‘Clean’.


Power from Biogas at Distillery

About 12000 cum. biogas per day being produced from Bio-methanation plants installed for treating distillery wastewater (Spent wash) at M/s K M Sugar Mills (Distillery) Faizabad, U.P. is being utilized for generating power through the steam-turbine route for meeting the total electricity requirement of their distillery as well as that of their residential colony. The project has been performing satisfactorily for last four years and has been generating an average of about 4 lakh units of electricity every month. The payback period for such a project works out to be about 3-4 years.

Source: MNES, 2004

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uncontrolled manner along the arterial roads of Bangalore (Mani and Verghese, 2002). To mitigate this situation, the Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) launched the Integrated Urban Environment Improvement Project (IUEIP) with support from the Norwegian Government.

The IUEIP looked at development of environmental management plans for four layouts promoted by BDA spanning an area of 16 sq.km. The project was designed as a community-based initiatives with support from local NGOs, including TERI, CEE, TIDE, etc. The system set up in these areas also include segregated door-to-door collection, sorting, selling of recyclables, composting of biodegradable wastes in localized composting units, and transportation of remaining wastes to transfer stations for secondary pick-up. Residents were organised into forming of Waste Management Committee (WMC) for each layout. WMCs have been trained by NGOs to undertake and manage the projects on their own. WMCs are responsible for overall management and O&M of the facilities. While capital costs for setting up of the compost plants was largely contributed by BDA and the Dutch Government, running costs are recovered from residents entirely. Profits from selling of manure and other means are used for community activities. One of the main buyers of this compost is the Horticulture Wing of BDA which uses it in its open space management programmes.

A full-fledged Geographic Information System (GIS) of the four layouts was also designed and developed and is being used for effective management of the projects. The information put into the system is also available to the residents and ensures regular updating of data to ensure correctness of information.

2.3.5 Navi Mumbai – Private Sector Contracting System

Navi Mumbai is located on the northern outskirts of Mumbai designed as a city to decongest the largest commercial metropolis of the country. Spread over an area of 344 sq.km., it is the fully planned largest new city in the world. Navi Mumbai provides state of art infrastructure to its residents and business clients. Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation (NMMC) looks after solid waste management in 82 zones through private contractors using two approaches. One is the use of sanitation contractors, who sweep roads and footpaths, and collect and transfer garbage to street containers. The second is transport contractors who then transport the garbage, using NMMC vehicles, from containers to disposal sites. As per the guidelines of Honourable Supreme Court of March 1999 and Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules September 2000, norms were formulated as 700 running metre road sweeping and 500 running metre drain cleaning per sanitary worker. Specific areas have been allotted to each worker.

For lifting and transfer of wastes, mechanical bin lifters are being used. MSW from areas excluding Vashi is collected using 23 refuse compactors. For this, 1050 collection bins of size 1 cu.m. each have been placed in these five nodes. Solid


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waste from Vashi is collected using 15 dumper placers. For this, 81 bins each of 5 cu.m. capacity have been kept. Each solid waste collection bin has been numbered and time of waste lifting has been recorded on the bins. Signature of designated local resident is taken by the contractor after lifting solid waste. Solid waste from village and slum areas is collected by refuse compactor. For this, around 400 round bins and 150 hanging bins have been provided in these areas. From NMMC area about 400 MT solid waste is collected per day. This waste is disposed in sanitary landfill developed at Koparkhairane. While disposing solid waste bio-culture and AFM is sprayed to minimize fly and odour nuisance. Security guards have been appointed to avoid stray dogs and unauthorised dumping.

NMMC has the right to levy penalties for unsatisfactory work or in the case of complaints from the community, and if work is continuously unsatisfactory, the Chief Health Officer is authorized to terminate contracts with three days notice. A security deposit of 5% of contract value is kept as a guarantee, which is returned without interest at the completion of the contract. Estimates show that the use of private contractors results in a cost reduction of 40%, and has eliminated the need to hire and manage 450-500 sanitary workers.

2.3.6 Mumbai – Waste-to-Energy using Solar Power

A team of scientists and technical experts have developed a solar powered biogas plant to convert ordinary kitchen waste into fuel at the Bhabha Atomic research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai. The plant, installed at the Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, has been taking care of all the kitchen waste in the BARC canteens estimated at 600 kilograms daily. The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) has already shown interest in this technology. The plant works on the same principle as gobar gas plants - the bacterial breakdown of waste produces energy - but with modifications, which improve its output. These include a mixer and pre-digester which helps break down the waste into sludge before it runs down into the main tank where it is converted into methane gas. The gas is used in one of the BARC canteens. Fertilizer is also produced as a by-product. The plant requires no electricity. Even the pre-digester, which mixes hot water into the sludge to help decomposition, uses only solar power to heat up the water. The estimated cost of a 1 tonne plant is around Rs.5 lakhs and it takes about 300 sq.m. of area.

The BMC is considering installing of a similar plant with a capacity of processing 5 tonnes of garbage a day. A 5 tonne plant is estimated to cost BMC about Rs. 8 Lakhs. These costs can be recovered in two years since 5 tonnes of waste will generate 10 cylinders of gas.8 However, success of this initiative depends entirely on the extent of segregation of biodegradable wastes. Such an initiative requires an almost 95% segregated waste, which itself has its cost implications.

8 Source: Times of India, Mumbai, March 7, 2002.


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2.3.7 Santa Catarina (Spain) – Integrated Solid Waste Management Plant

To minimize the environmental impacts caused by inadequate final disposal of solid waste, 6 municipalities created a Consortium for Urban Solid Waste Management CIRSURES. None of the six municipalities had either land for safe disposal of municipal wastes, nor the resources and technical expertise to undertake such an action. However, the combined efforts of these six municipalities with support from regional institutions for technical inputs helped serve a cause for all six towns.

The consortium looked at development of an integrated solid waste management (ISWM) program, construction of a sanitary landfill and a waste recycling warehouse, remediation of the current garbage dumps and development of a plan for the social inclusion of waste pickers. The following steps were undertaken as part of their initiative:

Formulation of objectives and strategies: political and community leaders held a meeting to raise awareness concerning the garbage problem and to search for joint solutions. As decision was taken to create an inter-municipal consortium, the conditions were set, through a participatory process, to formulate objectives and strategies for action. A diagnosis of the current operational, administrative, legal and financial structure for solid waste in the CIRSURES Municipalities was undertaken followed by a survey of waste generated and collected by municipalities. Following this, an awareness programme was designed and launched to ensure participation of entire society. The next step was acquisition of plot form final waste disposal and installation of sanitary landfill.

Mobilization of resources: the financial resources were obtained from the National Environmental Fund and the six CIRSURES member Municipalities. Federal Savings Bank, responsible for transferring the resources, provided technical and administrative consultancy to operationalise the project. Several partners’ institutions were responsible to provide the needed technical and human resources. The Federal University in Santa Catarina (UFSC) and the Agricultural and Livestock Research and Rural Extension Company (EPAGRI) provided technical and scientific orientation in the elaboration of the ISWM Plan, as part of the inter-institutional working group. All social mobilization and environmental education activities were undertaken by neighborhood associations and schools in the six Municipalities, thus ensuring familiarity with the project throughout local society.

Elaboration of the integrated and participatory solid waste management plan: providing for a survey of information, description of the solid waste produced in the area and community participation, elaboration of norms and standards and the development of an Action Plan involving environmental education and waste recycling.


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The program had a highly significant cost-benefit ratio, since considering all the investments (including remediation of the old garbage dumpsites) the per capita cost is approximately US$2.78. The operational cost of the sanitary landfill is less than US$0.07 per capita/month. Considering the landfill’s lifespan - estimated at 20 years – and the environmental and public health benefits from the appropriate disposal of solid waste, this investment was seen to have a high social and environmental return which would not be possible without society’s participation and involvement.

In order for the population to support any action, it must participate all the way from the original project concept and design to its final execution. People’s awareness concerning a given issue develops slowly and time should be given for the group to be able to “digest” the idea, in order to later incorporate it into daily practice. We often underestimate the force of organized society and are pushed by it.

2.3.8 Anapolis Royale (Canada) – Zero Waste System through Decentralised System

The town of Annapolis Royal embarked on an ambitious plan in 1998 to reduce waste using locally based, low-cost and low-tech strategies to achieve Zero Waste by 2005. The goal of Zero Waste is to have waste reduction programs in place and purchasing options available that will allow residents and businesses to be waste-free with a minimum of personal effort. A central feature of Zero Waste involves the treatment of organic waste, which represents over 30% of the MSW through composting of all organic waste, both residential and commercial, within town limits. Composting was propagated at three levels:

1. Backyard residential, employing backyard composters and food waste digesters (Green Cones): designed for the homeowner, these inexpensive aerobic digesters can compost all household organics, including meats, bones, dairy products and other kitchen waste not normally backyard composted;

2. Neighbourhood composters (low-tech multi-household composting facilities located throughout town): designed for multi-family shared use, these larger low-tech composting bins have three compartments and can handle virtually the same organic waste as Green Cones; and

3. Earth Tubs serving restaurants, grocery stores and other commercial organic waste producers: can handle up to 200 pounds of organic waste per day.

This resulted in a 53% diversion of wastes from landfills to organic composting, which compounded with reduced negative environmental impact of trucking led to an improved environmental situation in the city. Very soon, most Canadian towns started adopting similar practices. This initiative ensured local sustainability with a high level of community participation; currently around 80% of town population act as volunteers in decentralised organic composting. All parts of the initiative were low-cost, low-tech and locally managed, giving it a local ownership.


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As a small town with a limited tax base, Annapolis Royal faced major financial challenges in implementing SWM. Realizing that transportation and tipping costs associated with the curbside collection and central composting of organic wastes are quite high, citizens in the Annapolis County Environmental Protection Association (ACEPA) researched alternatives that could save the town considerable resources. ACEPA produced a plan to handle MSW on a local (rather than regional) scale. ACEPA invited the public to attend general information meetings. Speakers (such as environmental activists and waste management professionals) explained alternatives that would cost less, be earth-friendly, and permit a high degree of local control. The town formed an Environment Committee with community representatives, including a representative from ACEPA. This Committee handled much of the transition to a new system of local waste management, and continues to guide the programs now in place. The Environmental Committee also propagated segregation of waste at source and a four-way segregation has been adopted to collect: (i) recyclable beverage containers, (ii) clean paper waste, (iii) organic waste and (iv) residual waste.

The Zero Waste is a practical approach to a long-term sustainable initiative because all technological components (Green Cones, Neighbourhood Composters, Earth Tubs) pay for themselves in a relatively brief period of time, and the town is better able to budget for the future. The uncertainty of budgeting for increased tipping fees and rising fuel costs are avoided by keeping the initiative local, low-cost and low-tech

2.3.9 Hangzhou (China) – Waste-to-Energy Initiative

Hangzhou is located in the Yangtze River delta in the southeast part of China, a coastal region relatively developed for its economy. MSW in the city is taken to sanitary landfills with a daily capacity of 2300 to 5000 tons of solid waste, which comply to state environmental norms. However, it was decided to tap this waste and convert it into energy. Subsequently, a landfill-gas-to-energy power plant with an output of 1940 KW was set up. The power plant of phase 1 makes an annual profit of RMB 7.2 million (approximately Rs.37 million at 1999 rates) and reduces landfill gas pollution by about 12 million cubic meters (9 million cu.m. of CH4, 3 million cu.m. of CO and 4000 cubic meters of H2S). The plant has the option of expanding upto 5280 KW in Phase II.

Funds were mainly raised through levying a local tax called the urban construction and maintenance tax, which accounts for 72.3% of the total cost of the project. The remaining capital was made up by foreign investment. Experts from across the country were invited to provide necessary technical and scientific inputs. The advanced technology of gas-to-energy recovery was imported from abroad.

2.4 Conclusions

Study of these national and international best practices in SWM highlights the need for the following:


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1. Need for development of integrated solid waste management plans: the concept of ISWM plan derives from the necessity to look at alternative sources of collection, transportation and most importantly, disposal to ensure a health living environment in urban centres. The goal of any ISWM plan is the recovery of more valuable products from the waste with the use of less energy and more positive environmental impact (McDougall et.al., 2001).

2. Development of ISWM Plans at various levels: ISWM plans need to be developed at the city level, as well as at the local level.

(i). At city level, ISWM plans need to identify various strategies to reduce volume and toxicity of waste and identify best possible means to dispose them in an environment friendly manner. The city level study will also tackle the issue of the market demand for end product in case end product based disposal options are opted for. The plan should also focus on creating awareness and information dissemination among residents.

(ii). At local level, ISWM plans should focus on reducing wastes being transferred to centralised disposal options (such as landfill, incineration, etc.) through options such as recycling, localised composting and reuse at an acceptable cost to the community.

3. Public awareness: all good practices show that success of SWM has been possible in only those areas where the community was mobilised and willing to contribute to the cause of waste reduction. Creating public awareness thus, becomes an important, if not the most important, criteria for successful SWM.

4. Need for source segregation: segregation of waste is a catalyst to success of alternative means of waste disposal. The quality of the end product (manure in case of compost, pellets in case of WTE) and the cost involved has a direct dependence on the quality of segregation. Many cities in India having compost and WTE facilities are facing problems simply because of poor quality of segregation, and therefore, poor quality of end product which has no market demand. This is supported by the directive to Hon’ble Supreme Court to residents of all metro cities to undertake segregation of waste at source.

5. Capacity Building of ULB: most ULBs suffer from lack of technical, financial and managerial capacity to undertake alternate waste management options. The step of the central/state government, therefore, should be to build capacity of ULBs to ensure improved SWM. Most of the good practices show that ULBs have fulfilled the technical and managerial gap by tying up with well known institutions/NGOs.

6. Decentralisation of options such as composting and recycling/reuse: almost all cases demonstrate that decentralised composting, i.e., composting at neighbourhood/community level has a far greater chance of success than a centralised composting system. Similarly separation of waste stream at primary level for recycling and reuse holds advantage for waste collectors, local market as well as the ULB. Decentralised systems have the following benefits:


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(i). Reduced waste quantity entering the secondary waste stream, creating lesser pressure on ULBs resources and city environment;

(ii). O&M of facilities are generally done through community resources, again reducing burden on ULB resources. However, initial seed/capital for construction of infrastructure has to be provided by ULB either in form of a subsidy or loan. Similar assistance can be availed from donor agencies (JICA, DFID, etc.) and financing institutions (HUDCO, etc.);

(iii). Lesser secondary waste collection means lesser environmental costs (burning of petrol) and lesser infrastructure costs (less number/size of vehicles, staff, etc.); and

(iv). Ensures sustainability of the project at the local level itself.

7. Need for step-by-step approach for WTE: a step-by-step approach towards WTE is more likely to give better results. Also WTE alone cannot be the only means of MSW disposal; they need to be complemented with other alternatives such as composting, etc. The example from China very clearly shows that the first step taken by the concerned agency was to improve the condition of sanitary landfill (including conversion of landfill into sanitary landfill). The next step was to install a low capacity plant and assess/create the market need for the final product. Once this was done, expansion of the WTE plant can be done.


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3. Waste Management Schemes in India 3.1 Introduction

This chapter studies in details six ongoing waste management schemes/programmes/projects in India. While two of these projects concentrate on composting and recycling, four concentrate on waste-to-energy projects. The earlier study includes the Bangalore model and the Jaipur model. For waste-to-energy projects, facilities in Lucknow, Hyderabad, Vijaywada and Nagpur have been studied. The studies also highlights on the environmental and cost sustainability of these projects/programmes. Inputs from these studies have been used to develop pilot cases, along with their cost and financing options; these are outlined in the following chapter. In order to facilitate understanding of the technologies used in these eight cities, short write-ups on some of the technologies used/available have been outlined below. Merits and demerits of some of these technologies are also outlined to assist any policy maker in identifying the best alternate solution to waste disposal depending on local conditions.

3.2 Technologies Available for Municipal Waste Disposal

3.2.1 Composting

Composting is defined as a controlled process involving microbial degradation of organic matter (MoEF, 1999). There are various types of composting, but they can be categorised into three major segments – aerobic composting, anaerobic composting and vermicomposting.

Anaerobic Composting

In this form of composting, the organic matter is decomposed in the absence of air. Organic matter may be collected in pits and covered with a thick layer of soil and left undisturbed for 6-8 months. The compost so formed may not be completely converted and may include aggregated masses (CEE, 2000).

Aerobic Composting

A process by which organic wastes are converted into compost or manure in presence of air, aerobic composting may be of different types. The most common is the Heap Method where organic matter needs to be divided into three different types and need to be placed in a heap one the other, covered by a thin layer of soil or dry leaves. This heap needs to be mixed every week and it takes about 3 weeks for conversion to take place.

In the Pit Method the same process as above in done, but in pits specially constructed/dug out for this purpose. Mixing has to be done every 15 days and there


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is no fixed time in which the compost may be ready (depends on soil moisture, climate, level of organic material, etc.). The Berkley Method uses a labour intensive technique and has precise requirements of the material to be composted. Easily biodegradable material, such as grass, vegetable matter, etc., are mixed with animal matter in the ratio of 2:1. This is piled and mixed at regular intervals. Compost is usually ready in 15 days (CEE, 2000).

Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting involves use of earthworms as natural and versatile bio-reactors for the process of conversion. Vermicomposting is done in specially designed pits where earthworm culture also need to be done. As compared to above, this is a much more precision-based option and requires overseeing of work by an expert. It is also a more expensive option (especially O&M costs are high). However, unlike the above two options, it is a completely odour less process making it a preferred solution in residential areas. It also has an extremely high rate of conversion and so quality of end product is very high with rich macro and micro nutrients. The end product also has the advantage that it can be dried and stored safely for longer period of time.

3.2.2 Waste-to-Energy: Thermo-Chemical Conversion

Incineration

Incineration is the process of controlled combustion at around 800oC for burning of wastes and residue, containing combustible material. The heat generated during this process can be recovered and utilised for production of steam and electricity. This method is usually used to achieve maximum volume reduction, especially where there is a shortage of landfill facilities. It is also usually a cost effective method o disposal (CPCB, 2000). However, in Indian conditions, it is not always very successful due to the low calorific value of Indian wastes (low combustible material). Also it is not classified by the MNES as an innovative practice and so looses out on many incentives otherwise provided by the MNES for WTE plants.

Pelletisation

This refers to creation of fuel pellets (also called refuse derived fuel or RDF) from MSW. Pelletisation generally involves segregation of incoming waste in to low and high calorific material followed by separate shredding. Different heaps of shredded wastes are mixed together in suitable proportions and solidified to produce RDF pellets. Pellets are small cylindrical pieces with a calorific value of 400Kcal/kg. Since this is quite close to calorific value of coal, it can be used as a substitute. However, calorific value of the pellets completely depend on the calorific value of the waste stream which needs to be sorted in Indian conditions to allow only the right type of waste to come through.


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Pyrolysis/Gasification

In this process, combustible material is allowed to dry/dewater and is then subjected to shredding. These are then incinerated in oxygen deficient environment (pyrolysis). Gas produced from this process can be stored and used as combustible source when required. However, quality of the gas also depends largely on quality of waste stream and requires high calorific value waste inputs. Different types of pyrolysis/gasification systems are available which can be used depending on local conditions; some of these include Garrets Flash Pyrolysis process, ERCB process, Destrugas Gasification process, Plasma Arc process, Slurry Carb process, etc. Recent studies for Indian scenario clearly show that while net power generation for thermo-chemical conversion processes is around 14.4 times the quantity of waste input (in kW), the same for bio-chemical conversion process is 11.5 times the waste inputs (provided 50% of waste inputs are volatile solids). However, in terms of environmental impact, the later is far safer option than the previous.

Bio-Methanation

While bio-methanation is generally classified as a WTE process, unlike the previous three alternatives, which use thermo-chemical conversion, this uses bio-chemical conversion similar to composting process. It basically taps the methane gas generated from the bio-chemical reaction in wastes dumped in aerobic digesters.

Landfill Gas Recovery

Similar in principal to the bio-methanation option, this process taps and stores gas produced in sanitary landfills. Typically, landfill gas production starts within a few months after disposal of wastes and generally lasts till 10 years or more depending on composition of waste and availability/distribution of moisture.

3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Options

Table 4.1 and 4.2 highlight some of the advantages and disadvantages of various options discussed have been outlined in the following page.


Energy Recovery from Waste-to-Energy Plants

Recent studies for Indian scenario clearly show that while net power generation for thermo-chemical conversion processes is around 14.4 times the quantity of waste input (in kW), the same for bio-chemical conversion process is 11.5 times the waste inputs (provided 50% of waste inputs are volatile solids). However, in terms of environmental impact, the later is far safer option than the previous.

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Table 3.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Waste Disposal Systems (in Indian Scenario) – Composting

S.No Item Aerobic Composting Anaerobic Composting Vermicomposting1. Foul odour in process Yes Yes No

2. Quality of End Product Moderate Moderate to Good Good to Excellent

3. Time for Composting 2-3 weeks 6-8 months (minimum) 6 months (minimum)

4. Use for production of gas (CH4) No Yes (in controlled environment) No

5. Attracts rodents, pests, dogs, etc. Yes No No

6. Need for Constant Monitoring Low High Very High

7. Storage capacity of end product Low Low High

8. Market demand Moderate Moderate High (for agriculture)

9. Power requirements Yes (if mechanised) No Yes

10. Intensity of skilled labour requirement Low Moderate High

11. Land requirement Low Moderate High

12. Quality of waste segregation Moderate High Very high

13. Leachate pollution High High Low

14. Contamination of aquifers (large scale) High Moderate to high Low

15. Capital Investment Moderate Moderate High

16. O&M Costs Moderate Moderate High


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Table 3.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Waste Disposal Systems (in Indian Scenario) – Waste-to-Energy

S.No Item Incineration Pelletisation Pyrolysis Bio-Methanation Landfill Gas Recovery 1. Requirement for segregation High Very High High High

2. Energy recovery (in optimum conditions)

Around 14 times waste stream





3. Direct Energy Recovery Yes No Yes No No

4. Overall efficiency in case of a small set up

Low Low Moderate High Low

5. Efficiency in case of high moisture Very low Very low Low Moderate Moderate to High

6. Land requirement Low Low Moderate Low to Moderate High to very high

7. Transportation costs Moderate High High High Very high (depends on location of landfill)

8. Ability to tackle bio-medical and low-hazard waste

Yes No Yes (to some extent)

No No

9. Concerns for toxicity of product High NA NA NA Moderate to High

10. Leachate Pollution None None None High (in case of no protection layer)

High (Landfill) Low (Sanitary Landfill)

11. Concern for Atmospheric Pollution High (not easy to control)

Moderate Moderate (easy to control)

Low Moderate

12. Sustainability of source/ waste stream

Moderate Low Low Low High

13. Capital Investment High Very High Very High Very High High

14. Power requirements


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3.4 Decentralised Waste Management and Composting – Bangalore

Background

This study concerns entirely with the Integrated Urban Environment Improvement Project (IUEIP). The IUEIP was launched in areas falling under jurisdiction of Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) in 1998 and was piloted in 4 BDA schemes. Supported by the Norwegian Embassy (NORAD), this project was designed as a collaborative effort of NGOs, government agencies and resident groups. The IUEIP addressed four main components:

Integrated plan for environment management.

Preparation of GIS.

Open space management.

Creation of a project secretariat.

This study focuses on the first component only. Close to the beginning of the new millennium, the BDA recognised the need to adopt alternative means for environmental improvement as an integral part of entering the new millennium. In 1998 it designed an alternative approach to developing and maintaining civic amenities through an integrated urban environment plan. The plan was based on a holistic approach, with an in-built system for coordination between various agencies, and with the local residents as the focus of activity. The adopted a ‘stakeholder’ approach, drawing in resources of NGOs and local residents to address specific issues in the areas, thereby creating and building community awareness of neighbourhood management.

Stakeholders/Partnerships

Primary Stakeholders: Residents of the 4 target schemes and BDA were the primary stakeholder with an overall objective of handing over the area to BMP with an existing plan in place.

Funding Agency: NORAD (Government of Norway)

Technical Stakeholders: Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), Myrthri Sarva Seva Samiti and Technology Informatics Design Endeavour (TIDE).

Other Stakeholders: resident associations, waste scavengers, BMP, BWSSB, KPTC, Bangalore City Police, BMTC, other civic and emergency services of city.

Description of the Project

The SWM component of the IUEIP focussed on development of local level plans for segregation at source, reduction of waste at primary levels, decentralised composting


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and marketing of end products, recycling, and transfer of wastes to secondary collection points.

The first step included a detailed study and survey of the four schemes to generate information on quantity and quality of waste, water sources, sewerage and drainage systems, existing waste practices in waste management, and identification of suitable land for setting up of composting facilities. This information was used to develop an action plan which was discussed with the residents and approved.

Before execution of the plan, a thorough environmental education (EE) programme was undertaken and all residents, commercial users, servants, etc., were covered. Different technique of EE were used depending on socio-cultural lifestyles of target groups. Most important component of EE was need for quality segregation at source.

Simultaneously waste management committees were set up to monitor and manage the programme. Members of WMCs were trained by the technical experts. Door-to-door segregated collection was initiated in August 1998. All wastes were transferred in specially designed low-cost rickshaws. Localised compost plants were constructed and all biodegradable wastes were transferred to the compost facility. All recyclables were sold by the waste collectors (erstwhile rag pickers, scavengers, etc.) which added to their monthly remunerations. The monthly remunerations of the waste collectors was fixed. Remaining waste (low quantities of recyclables, soiled wastes, and hazardous wastes) are transferred to secondary collection points of BDA.

Compost Facilities

Localised compost facilities were set up in the residential area. Usually an open ground or buffer area was preferred. Eight compost facilities were installed for the first two layout schemes. Although composting facilities originally used aerobic decomposition, they are now being converted to vermicomposting technology with special microbial cultures obtained from the University of Agriculture Sciences, Bangalore in a step-to-step process. This switch will take time since vermicomposting is a more expensive option and requires large capital and O&M investments. The compost pits are of the size of 9 x 4 x 3 ft and it takes an average of 60 days for a compost to be ready, which is then sieved to retrieve the finer compost, while the coarser compost is put back into the pits with fresh garbage. All compost pits are lined with bricks and waterproof material and have sheds over them to protect them from rain and sun. Mesh wires have been provided around the facility to keep away stray animals (see picture).


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Financial Outlay

The IUEIP has a three-year time span for execution. The budgetary provision included Rs.363.28 lakhs with funding from NORAD accounting for Rs.290 lakhs (around 80% of the budget) and the remaining Rs.73.28 lakhs contributed from implementing agencies. The O&M costs are recovered from residents and sale of compost to residents and outsiders.

Cost Recovery

Households need to pay Rs.15 per month to the WMC which manages the bank account jointly with CEE. Composts are sold at Rs. 2/- per kg to residents and Rs. 6/- per kg to outsiders. Vermicompost, which has a large market demand, is sold at Rs.7.50/- per kg. One of the biggest purchasers of this compost has been the Horticulture Wing of BDA which uses it in its parks, medians, buffers, etc.

Management Issues

The management of the entire project lies with the WMCs with support from the local NGOs. The monthly remuneration for the workers, overhead charges, and O&M costs from running the project as well as the compost facilities are managed by the WMC from the monthly charges collected from residents and shopkeepers.

Environmental Hazards

This is a low environmental hazard procedure. It results in waste reduction at primary level, which have a direct environmental benefit. This reduces the load on the landfills as well as reduce transportation costs and thus, environmental costs from lesser fuel usage. The negative side effects of aerobic composting (foul odour) has been done away with time and shifting in parts to vermicomposting. Use of lined pits (lined with brick and waterproof) ensures that there is no leaching, especially during rainy season. These pits have been covered to protect them from direct rain and fenced to protect them from stray animals. Over a period of time a ‘green screen’ consisting of trees and bushes have been created to visually cut off the compost facilities from surrounding areas (see picture).

Marketability Issues


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The compost produced from these facilities is of good quality; they are being used by neighbouring agriculture farmers (who use the coarse compost as it is better suited for rice produce), organic farming industry, floral industry, etc. The Horticulture Wing of BDA is another major buyer of this compost and uses it for improving greenery on medians, buffers, parks, etc. (see picture). Improved SWM in these colonies have also had an impact on cost recovery for other services, with residents more willing to pay for water supply, sewerage and drainage services. Real estate values of these areas have also gone up.

Sustainability Issues

Although the IUEIP is over, SWM in the target areas is still ongoing managed by WMCs. In fact, WMCs have been able to recover enough money from residents and sale of compost not only for sustainable management, but also for shifting from aerobic form of composting to vermicomposting, which is a more costly, though environment-friendly, option. Following the demonstration of success of this initiative, many other colonies/schemes in Bangalore have taken up similar initiatives on their own. Therefore, at a decentralised level, this is a sustainable project and this technology/process can be easily transferred to other cities in India.

3.5 Bio-Methanation Plant: Lucknow

Background

The Lucknow Nagar Nigam (LNN) faces major threat from disposed wastes as its two landfills are overflowing. Lucknow produces around 1800 MT of MSW daily. Inability to identify a suitable area in proximity forced LNN policy managers to look for other alternatives. The city also faces a huge crisis in terms of energy requirements,


Operating Parametres of the Composting Plant of m/s Excel Industries, Mumbai

Volume of Garbage: 450 m3/day Weight of Garbage: 300 TPDQuality of Garbage: Unsegregated Total Land Requirement: 6 Ha.Capital Investment (excluding land cost: Rs. 2.5 croreValue of Product: Rs.1300/ton Net Return per ton of Garbage Processed:

Rs.100-120

Source: FEC & Delphi, 1997

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