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Table of Contents

I. Definitions Page 2

II. Science Articles Page 3

III. Articles Page 14

IV. Science Books Page 14

V. Books Page 19

VI. Hearings and Events Page 20

VII. Additional Sources Page 22

VIII. 1,061 Institutions Represented Page 24 in Study on When Life Begins

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I. Definitions

1. "'Fertilization' is the process of union of two gametes (i.e., ovum and sperm) whereby the somatic chromosome number is restored and the development of a new individual is initiated"

o Definitions used by U.S. National Institute of Health, Medline Plus, and Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary, 20131

2. “Embryo: The developing individual between the union of the germ cells and

the completion of the organs which characterize its body when it becomes a separate organism. . . . At the moment the sperm cell of the human male meets the ovum of the female and the union results in a fertilized ovum (zygote), a new life has begun. . . . The term embryo covers the several stages of early development from conception to the ninth or tenth week of life"

o Definition of “Embryo” in Medical Embryology and Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia2

3. "Embryo: An organism in the earliest stage of development; is a man, from the

time of conception to the end of the second month in the uterus" o Definition of “Embryo” in the Harper Collins Illustrated Medical

Dictionary3

4. "Zygote. This cell results from the union of an oocyte and a sperm during fertilization. A zygote is the beginning of a new human being (i.e., an embryo). . . . [The zygote] marked the beginning of each of us as a unique individual"

o Definition of “Zygote” in The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology 4

5. "Zygote. This cell, formed by the union of an ovum and a sperm (Gr. zyg tos,

yoked together), represents the beginning of a human being. The common expression 'fertilized ovum' refers to the zygote"

1 Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 2 Langman, J., Medical Embryology, 3rd ed., Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1975, p. 3; Considine, D. (Ed.), Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia, 5th ed., New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1976, p. 943. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 3 Harper Collins Illustrated Medical Dictionary, New York: Harper Perennial, 1993, p. 146. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 4 Moore, K.L. & Persaud, T.V.N., The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology, 7th ed., Philadelphia: Saunders, 2003, pp. 2, 16. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf.

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o Definition of “Zygote” in Before We Are Born: Essentials of Embryology and Birth Defects5

6. "Embryo: The early developing fertilized egg that is growing into another

individual of the species. In man the term 'embryo' is usually restricted to the period of development from fertilization until the end of the eighth week of pregnancy"

o Definition of “Embryo” in Test-Tube Babies6

7. “Note on the meaning of scientific terminology for human development: "Organism" is the scientific name for a living human being. Only organisms undergo development. "Zygote" is the one-cell human organism produced by sperm-egg fusion. "Embryo" is a human organism during the first eight weeks of development”

o Definitions of “Organism”, “Zygote”, and “Embryo” in The Origin of Human Life at Fertilization: Quotes Compiled from Medical Textbooks and Peer-Reviewed Scientific Literature7

II. Science Articles

8. “Fertilization is the union of gametes to initiate development of a new

individual” o Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology Journal Article8

9. “Fertilization-the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism-is the

culmination of a multitude of intricately regulated cellular processes” o Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology Journal Article9

5 Moore, K.L. & Persaud, T.V.N., Before We Are Born: Essentials of Embryology and Birth Defects, 4th ed., Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1993, p. 1. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 6 Walters, W. & Singer, P. [Eds.], Test-Tube Babies, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1982, p. 160. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 7 Condic, M.L. The Origin of Human Life at Fertilization: Quotes Compiled from Medical Textbooks and Peer-Reviewed Scientific Literature, Bioethics Defense Fund, Last updated Nov. 2017, http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 8 Machaty, Z., Miller, A.R., & Zhang, L., Egg Activation at Fertilization, Adv Exp Med Biol, 2017, 953:1-47. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 9 Marcello, M.R., Singaravelu, G., & Singson, A., Fertilization, Adv Exp Med Biol, 2013, 757:321-50. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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10. “In multicellular organisms the fusion of two gametes with a haploid set of chromosomes leads to the formation of the zygote, the first cell of the embryo”

o Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology Journal Article10

11. "The oocyte-to-embryo transition refers to the process whereby a fully grown, relatively quiescent oocyte undergoes maturation, fertilization, and is converted into a developmentally active, mitotically dividing embryo, arguably one of the most dramatic transitions in biology"

o Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology Journal Article11

12. “In higher animals, the beginning of new life and transfer of genetic material to the next generation occurs in the oviduct when two distinct gametes cells unite resulting in the formation of a zygote.”

o Animal Reproduction Science Journal Article12

13. “A crucial step of fertilization is the sperm-egg interaction that allows the two gametes to fuse and create the zygote”

o Annual Review of Physiology Journal Article13

14. “At the end of oogenesis and spermatogenesis, both haploid gametes contain a single set of chromosomes ready to form the zygote, the first cell of the newly developing individual”

o Basic and Clinical Andrology Journal Article14

15. “We have discovered that a single sperm protein, phospholipase C-zeta (PLCζ), can stimulate intracellular Ca(2+) signalling in the unfertilized oocyte (‘egg’) culminating in the initiation of embryonic development.Upon fertilization by a

10 El Yakoubi, W. & Wassmann, K., Meiotic Divisions: No Place for Gender Equality, Adv Exp Med Biol, 2017, 1002:1-17. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 11 Robertson, S. & Lin, R., The oocyte-to-embryo transition, Adv Exp Med Biol, 2013, 757:351-72. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 12 Salilew-Wondim, D., Schellander, K., Hoelker, M., & Tesfaye, D., Oviductal, endometrial and embryonic gene expression patterns as molecular clues for pregnancy establishment, Anim Reprod Sci, 2012, 134(1-2):9-18. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 13 Evans, J.P., Sperm-egg interaction, Annu Rev Physiol. 2012, 74:477-502. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 14 Gat, I. & Orvieto, R. “This is where it all started” - the pivotal role of PLCζ within the sophisticated process of mammalian reproduction: a systemic review, Basic Clin Androl, 2017, 21;27:9. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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spermatozoon, the earliest observed signalling event in the dormant egg is a large, transient increase in free Ca(2+) concentration. The fertilized egg responds to the intracellular Ca(2+) rise by completing meiosis“

o Bioessays Journal Article15

16. "The traditional Western ethic has always placed great emphasis on the intrinsic worth and equal value of every human life regardless of its stage or condition. This ethic has had the blessing of the Judeo-Christian heritage and has been the basis for most of our laws and much of our social policy. The reverence for each and every human life has also been a keystone of Western medicine and is the ethic which has caused physicians to try to preserve, protect, repair, prolong and enhance every human life which comes under their surveillance. This traditional ethic is still clearly dominant, but there is much to suggest that it is being eroded at its core and may eventually even be abandoned. This of course will produce profound changes in Western medicine and in Western society. There are certain new facts and social realities which are becoming recognized, are widely discussed in Western society and seem certain to undermine and transform this traditional ethic… What is not yet so clearly perceived is that in order to bring this about hard choices will have to be made with respect to what is to be preserved and strengthened and what is not, and that this will of necessity violate and ultimately destroy the traditional Western ethic with all that this portends. It will become necessary and acceptable to place relative rather than absolute values on such things as human lives, the use of scarce resources and the various elements which are to make up the quality of life or of living which is to be sought… The process of eroding the old ethic and substituting the new has already begun. It may be seen most clearly in changing attitudes toward human abortion. In defiance of the long held Western ethic of intrinsic and equal value for every human life regardless of its stage, condition or status, abortion is becoming accepted by society as moral, right and even necessary. It is worth noting that this shift in public attitude has affected the churches, the laws and public policy rather than the reverse. Since the old ethic has not yet been fully displaced it has been necessary to separate the idea of abortion from the idea of killing, which continues to be socially abhorrent. The result has been a curious avoidance of the scientific fact, which everyone really knows, that human life begins at conception and is continuous whether intra- or extra-uterine until death. The very considerable semantic gymnastics which are required to rationalize

15 Nomikos, M., Swann, K., & Lai, F.A., Starting a new life: sperm PLC-zeta mobilizes the Ca2+ signal that induces egg activation and embryo development: an essential phospholipase C with implications for male infertility, Bioessays, 2012 Feb;34(2):126-34, doi: 10.1002/bies.201100127, Epub 2011. https://thefetalposition.com/conception/

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abortion as anything but taking a human life would be ludicrous if they were not often put forth under socially impeccable auspices. It is suggested that this schizophrenic sort of subterfuge is necessary because while a new ethic is being accepted the old one has not yet been rejected"

o California Medicine (aka Western Journal of Medicine) 1971 Editorial16

17. “Recognition between sperm and the egg surface marks the beginning of life in all sexually reproducing organisms”

o Cell Journal Article17

18. “Pronuclear/zygotic stage is the very first stage of life” o Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences Journal Article18

19. “The egg-to-embryo transition marks the initiation of multicellular

organismal development and is mediated by a specialized Ca(2+) transient at fertilization”

o Cell Calcium Journal Article19

20. "[F]ertilization is the process by which male and female haploid gametes (sperm and egg) unite to produce a genetically distinct individual"

o Cell Tissue Research Journal Article20

21. “Ca2+ signaling plays a crucial role in virtually all cellular processes, from the origin of new life at fertilization to the end of life when cells die”

16 "A New Ethic for Medicine and Society", Editorial, California Medicine 113, September 1970, pp. 67-68. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 17 Raj, I., Sadat, A.l., Hosseini, H., Dioguardi, E., Nishimura, K., Han, L., Villa, A., de Sanctis, D., & Jovine, L., Structural Basis of Egg Coat-Sperm Recognition at Fertilization, Cell, 2017, 169(7):1315-1326.e17. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 18 Okada, Y. & Yamaguchi, K., Epigenetic modifications and reprogramming in paternal pronucleus: sperm, preimplantation embryo, and beyond, Cell Mol Life Sci, 2017, 74(11):1957-1967. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 19 Nader, N., Kulkarni, R.P., Dib, M., & Machaca K. How to make a good egg!: The need for remodeling of oocyte Ca(2+) signaling to mediate the egg-to-embryo transition, Cell Calcium, 2013, 53(1):41-54. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 20 Signorelli, J., Diaz, E.S., & Morales, P., Kinases, phosphatases and proteases during sperm capacitation, Cell Tissue Res. 349(3):765, 2012. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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o Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences Journal Article21

22. “Mammalian embryo development begins when the fertilizing sperm triggers a series of elevations in the oocyte's intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration”

o Cell Tissue Research Journal Article22

23. “The fusion of sperm and egg membranes initiates the life of a sexually reproducing organism”; “Membrane fusion has an overarching influence on living organisms. The fusion of sperm and egg membranes initiates the life of a sexually reproducing organism.”

o Chemical Society Reviews Journal Article23

24. “It is intuitive that fertilization-the start of life-involves communication between a sperm cell and an egg”

o Communicative & Integrative Biology Journal Article24

25. “Mammalian life, with all its complexity comes from a humble beginning of a single fertilized egg cell”

o Current Opinion in Genetics & Development Journal Article25

26. “Activation of the egg by the sperm is the first, vital stage of embryogenesis” o Development Journal Article26

21 Santella, L., Ercolano, E., Nusco, G.A., The cell cycle: a new entry in the field of Ca2+ signaling, Cell Mol Life Sci. 2005. 62(21):2405-13. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 22 Machaty, Z., Signal transduction in mammalian oocytes during fertilization, Cell Tissue Res. 2016. 363(1):169-83. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 23 Marsden, H.R., Tomatsu, I., & Kros, A., Model systems for membrane fusion, Chem. Soc. Rev. 40(3):1572, 2011. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf and https://thefetalposition.com/conception/. 24 Asano, A., Nelson-Harrington, J.L., Travis, A.J., Membrane rafts regulate phospholipase B activation in murine sperm, Commun Integr Biol, 2013, 6(6):e27362. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 25 Leung, C.Y. & Zernicka-Goetz, M. Mapping the journey from totipotency to lineage specification in the mouse embryo, Curr Opin Genet Dev, 2015, 34:71-6. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 26 Hachem, A., Godwin, J., Ruas, M., Lee, H.C., Ferrer Buitrago, M., Ardestani, G., Bassett, A., Fox, S., Navarrete, F., de Sutter, P., Heindryckx, B., Fissore, R., & Parrington J., PLCζ is the physiological trigger of the Ca2+ oscillations that induce embryogenesis in mammals but conception can occur in its absence, Development,

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27. “New parents anticipate their job begins at birth. Little do they know they have been exerting control within the baby’ s first cell since fertilization”

o Genetics Journal Article27

28. “Since a new individual is derived from the fusion of a single sperm and egg, we tested...”

o Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics Journal Article28

29. “Fertilization is a complex process comprised of numerous steps. During fertilization, two highly specialized and differentiated cells (sperm and egg) fuse and subsequently trigger the development of an embryo from a quiescent, arrested oocyte”

o Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Journal Article29

30. “Oocyte maturation is an essential cellular differentiation pathway that prepares the egg for activation at fertilization leading to the initiation of embryogenesis”

o Journal of Cellular Physiology Journal Article30

31. “In sexual organisms, division of the zygote initiates a new life cycle” o Journal of Integrative Plant Biology Journal Article31

32. “The time of our conception is when we are most vulnerable to survival and

growing as a healthy human being”

2017, 144(16):2914-2924. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 27 Chu, D., Parental Control Begins at the Beginning, Genetics, 2016, 204(4):1377- 1378. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 28 Wilding, M., Coppola, G., De Icco, F., Arenare, L., Di Matteo, L., & Dale, B., Maternal non-Mendelian inheritance of a reduced lifespan? A hypothesis, J Assist Reprod Genet, 2014, 31(6):637-43. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 29 Marcello, M.R. & Singson, A., Fertilization and the oocyte-to-embryo transition in C. elegans, BMB Rep, 2010, 43(6):389-99. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 30 Machaca, K., Ca2+ signaling differentiation during oocyte maturation, J Cell Physiol, 2007, 213(2):331-40. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 31 Yang, K.J., Guo, L., Hou, X.L., Gong, H.Q., & Liu, C.M., ZYGOTE-ARREST 3 that encodes the tRNA ligase is essential for zygote division in Arabidopsis, J Integr Plant Biol, 2017, 59(9):680-692. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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o Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Journal Article32

33. “Fertilization is the process that leads to the formation of a diploid zygote from two haploid gametes”

o Mammalian Genome Journal Article33

34. “As representatives of the 60 trillion cells that make a human body, a sperm and an egg meet, recognize each other, and fuse to create a new generation”

o Methods in Molecular Biology Journal Article34

35. “Mammalian life begins with a cell-cell fusion event, i.e. the fusion of the spermatozoid with the oocyte”

o Methods in Molecular Biology Journal Article35

36. “Sperm are remarkably complex cells with a singularly important mission: to deliver paternal DNA and its associated factors to the oocyte to start a new life”

o Molecular Cell Proteomics Journal Article36

37. “In mammals, egg activation is initiated by multiple cytosolic Ca(2+) transients (Ca(2+) oscillations) that are triggered following delivery of a putative sperm factor from the fertilizing sperm. The identity of this 'sperm factor' thus holds much significance, not only as a vital component in creating a new life, but also for its potential therapeutic and diagnostic value in human infertility”

32 Norman, R.J. & Aust, N.Z., 2015 RANZCOG Arthur Wilson Memorial Oration 'From little things, big things grow: The importance of periconception medicine', J Obstet Gynaecol. 2015. 55(6):535-40. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 33 Lorenzetti, D., Poirier, C., Zhao, M., Overbeek, P.A., Harrison, W., & Bishop, C.E., A transgenic insertion on mouse chromosome 17 inactivates a novel immunoglobulin superfamily gene potentially involved in sperm-egg fusion, Mamm Genome, 2014, 25(3-4):141-8. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 34 Inoue, N. & Okabe, M., Sperm-egg fusion assay in mammals, Methods Mol Biol, 2008, 475:335-45. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 35 Willkomm, L. & Bloch, W. State of the art in cell-cell fusion, Methods Mol Biol. 2015, 1313:1. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 36 Wu, T.F. & Chu, D.S., Sperm chromatin: fertile grounds for proteomic discovery of clinical tools, Mol Cell Proteomics, 2008, 7(10):1876-86. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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o Molecular Human Reproduction Journal Article37

38. “Aging is a developmental process that begins with fertilization and ends up with death involving a lot of environmental and genetic factors”

o Molecular Neurobiology Journal Article38

39. “The seminal question in modern developmental biology is the origins of new life arising from the unification of sperm and egg”

o Molecular Reproductive Development Journal Article39

40. “When sperm meets egg: the spark of new life” o Molecular Reproductive Development Journal Article40

41. “Our data suggest that activation of LINE- 1 regulates global chromatin

accessibility at the beginning of development and indicate that retrotransposon activation is integral to the developmental program”

o Nature Genetics Journal Article41

42. "The life cycle of mammals begins when a sperm enters an egg." o Nature Journal Article42

37 Kashir, J., Nomikos, M., Swann, K., & Lai, F.A., PLCζ or PAWP: revisiting the putative mammalian sperm factor that triggers egg activation and embryogenesis, Mol Hum Reprod, 2015, 21(5):383-8. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 38 Ahmed, M.S., Ikram, S., Bibi, N., & Mir, A. Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome: A Premature Aging Disease, Mol Neurobiol. 2017. doi: 10.1007/s12035-017- 0610-7. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 39 Evsikov, A.V. & Marin de Evsikova, C., Gene expression during the oocyte-to-embryo transition in mammals, Mol Reprod Dev. 2009. 76(9):805-18. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 40 Wozniak, K.L., Luque, G.M., & Ahn, S.H., When sperm meets egg: the spark of new life, Mol Reprod Dev. 2017. doi: 10.1002/mrd.22857. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 41 Jachowicz, J.W., Bing, X., Pontabry, J., Boskovic, A., Rando, O.J., Torres-Padilla, M.E., LINE-1 activation after fertilization regulates global chromatin accessibility in the early mouse embryo, Nat Genet, 2017, 49(10):1502-1510, [referring to events in the zygote]. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 42 Okada, Y., Yamagata, K., Hong, K., Wakayama, T. & Zhang, I., A role for the elongator complex in zygotic paternal genome demethylation, NATURE, 463(7280):554-8, 2010. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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43. “Representing the 60 trillion cells that build a human body, a sperm and an

egg meet, recognize each other, and fuse to form a new generation of life” o Nature Journal Article43

44. “Fertilization occurs when sperm and egg recognize each other and fuse to form

a new, genetically distinct organism” o Nature Journal Article44

45. “When mammalian eggs and sperm come into contact in the female oviduct, a

series of steps is set in motion that can lead to fertilization and ultimately to development of new individuals”; “Fertilization is defined as the process of union of two gametes, eggs and sperm. When mammalian eggs and sperm come into contact in the female oviduct, a series of steps is set in motion that can lead to fertilization and ultimately to development of new individuals”

o Natural Cell Biology Journal Article45

46. “[Since I’ve been directly involved in over 60,000 abortions, I have] increasing certainty that I had in fact presided over 60,000 deaths"

o New England Journal of Medicine Journal Article46

47. “Fertilization is the culminating event in sexual reproduction and requires the recognition and fusion of the haploid sperm and egg to form a new diploid organism”

o Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences Journal Article47

43 Inoue, N., Ikawa, M., Isotani, A., & Okabe, M., The immunoglobulin superfamily protein Izumo is required for sperm to fuse with eggs, Nature, 2005, 434(7030):234-8. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 44 Bianchi, E., Doe, B., Goulding, D., & Wright, G.J., Juno is the egg Izumo receptor and is essential for mammalian fertilization, Nature, 2014, 508(7497):483-7. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 45 Wassarman, P.M., Jovine, L, Litscher, E.S., A profile of fertilization in mammals. Nat Cell Biol. 2001.3(2):E59-64. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf and https://thefetalposition.com/conception. 46 Nathanson, B., Deeper Into Abortion, New England Journal of Medicine 291, 1974, 1189D90. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 47 Bianchi, E. & Wright, G.J., Cross-species fertilization: the hamster egg receptor, Juno, binds the human sperm ligand, Izumo1, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci,

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48. “A proper dialogue between spermatozoa and the egg is essential for conception of a new individual in sexually reproducing animals. Ca(2+) is crucial in orchestrating this unique event leading to a new life”

o Physiological Reviews Journal Article48

49. “Fertilization is a process involving multiple steps that lead to the final fusion of one sperm and oocyte to form the zygote”

o Protein & Cell Journal Article49

50. “Human life begins with sperm and oocyte fusion” o Reproduction Journal Article50

51. "The oviduct or Fallopian tube is the anatomical region where every new life

begins in mammalian species. After a long journey, the spermatozoa meet the oocyte in the specific site of the oviduct named ampulla, and fertilization takes place."

o Reproduction Journal Article51

52. “In sexually reproducing organisms, embryogenesis begins with the fusion of two haploid gametes”

o Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology Journal Article52

2015, 370(1661):20140101. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 48 Darszon A., Nishigaki, T., Beltran, C., & Trevino, C.L., Calcium channels in the development, maturation, and function of spermatozoa, Physiol Rev. 2011, 91(4):1305-55. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 49 Sun, T.T., Chung, C.M., & Chan, H.C. Acrosome reaction in the cumulus oophorus revisited: involvement of a novel sperm-released factor NYD-SP8, Protein Cell, 2011, 2(2):92-8. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 50 Soygur, B. & Sati, L., The role of syncytins in human reproduction and reproductive organ cancers, Reproduction, 2016, 152(5):R167-78. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 51 Coy, P., Garcia-Vazquez, F.A., Visconti, P.E., & Aviles, M. Roles of the oviduct in mammalian fertilization, Reproduction 144(6):649, 2012. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 52 Tscherner, A., Gilchrist, G., Smith, N., Blondin, P., Gillis, D., & LaMarre, J., MicroRNA-34 family expression in bovine gametes and preimplantation embryos, Reprod Biol Endocrinol, 2014, 12:85. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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53. “Fertilization is the sum of the cellular mechanisms that pass the genome from one generation to the next and initiate development of a new organism”

o Science Journal Article53

54. “At fertilization, eggs unite with sperm to initiate developmental programs that give rise to development of the embryo. Defining the molecular mechanism of this fundamental process at the beginning of life has been a key question in cell and developmental biology”

o Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology Journal Article54

55. “At the time of fertilization, an increase in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) underlies egg activation and initiation of development in all species studied to date”

o The Journal of Cellular Physiology Journal Article55

56. “As the start of a new life cycle, activation of the first division of the zygote is a critical event in both plants and animals”

o The Plant Journal Journal Article56

57. “The fusion of a sperm with an oocyte to form new life is a highly regulated event”

o Theriogenology Journal Article57

58. “Most readers of this review originated from a sperm-egg fusion event”

53 Primakoff, P. & Myles, D.G. Penetration, adhesion, and fusion in mammalian sperm-egg interaction. Science. 2002. 296(5576):2183-5. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 54 Sato, K., Fukami, Y., & Stith, B.J., Signal transduction pathways leading to Ca2+ release in a vertebrate model system: lessons from Xenopus eggs, Semin Cell Dev Biol, 2006. 17(2):285-92. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 55 Wakai, T., Vanderheyden, V., Yoon, S.Y., Cheon, B., Zhang, N., Parys, J.B., & Fissore, R.A., Regulation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor function during mouse oocyte maturation, J Cell Physiol, 2012, 227(2):705-17. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 56 Guo, L., Jiang, L., Zhang, Y., Lu, X.L., Xie, Q., Weijers, D., & Liu, C.M., The anaphase-promoting complex initiates zygote division in Arabidopsis through degradation of cyclin B1, Plant J, 2016, 86(2):161-74. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 57 Gadella, B.M. & Boerke, A., An update on post-ejaculatory remodeling of the sperm surface before mammalian fertilization, Theriogenology, 2015, 85(1):113-24. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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o Trends in Cell Biology Journal Article58

III. Articles

59. "When fertilization is complete, a unique genetic human entity exists” o Mayo Clinic Ethicist Dr. Christopher Hook, M.D.59

60. "Life begins with fertilization and abortion is legalized destruction of life… We

tell her exactly how it is . . . when they abort, they'll be aborting a small baby" o Abortion Doctor Dr. Arthur Morris, Jr.60

61. “When a human being begins to exist as a single-cell organism is an essential

and relevant scientific fact of life that everyone can and should know, because there is a simple, well-established answer. For 75 years the field of human embryology (the branch of biology that specializes in the beginning of human life and early development) has documented when a human life begins in the Carnegie Stages of Early Human Embryonic Development and the Carnegie Chart”

o Science Educator Brooke Stanton61

IV. Science Books

62. "[T]he evidence no longer allows a discussion as to if and when and in what month of ontogenesis a human being is formed. To be a human being is decided for an organism at the moment of fertilization of the ovum. For this reason we have to regard the intrinsic quality of the fertilized ovum as an essential prerequisite, decisive for all future ontogenesis".

o German anatomist and embryologist Dr. Erich Blechschmidt, M.D.62

63. “[T]he fertilized egg (zygote) is the beginning of a new diploid individual.” 58 Oren-Suissa, M. & Podbilewicz, B., Cell fusion during development, Trends Cell Biol, 2007, 17(11):537-46, Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 59 Hook, C. Mayo Clinic, as quoted by Richard Ostling in an AP news story, 9.24.99. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 60 Asheville Citizen-Times, April 4, 1976. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 61 Stanton, B., Science tells us when life begins. Why isn't it taught in the class room?, Washington Examiner, 2018, https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/ science-tells-us-when-life-begins-why-isnt-it-taught-in-the-classroom. 62 Blechschmidt, E. Beginnings of Human Life, New York, Heidelberg, and Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1977. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf.

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o Biology Professor Dr. Richard E. Jones, Ph.D.63

64. “Human development begins at fertilization when an oocyte (ovum) from a female is fertilized by a sperm (spermatozoon) from a male... Embryology is concerned with the origin and development of a human being from a zygote to birth”

o Medical School Professor Dr. Keith L Moore, Ph.D., D.Sc.64

65. “Human development begins at fertilization, when a sperm fuses with an oocyte to form a single cell, the zygote. This highly specialized, totipotent cell (capable of giving rise to any cell type) marks the beginning of each of us as a unique individual.”

o Medical School Professor Dr. Keith L Moore, Ph.D., D.Sc.65

66. “The main results of fertilization are as follows: Restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes, half from the father half from the mother. Hence, the zygote contains a new combination of chromosomes different from both parents. Determination of the sex of the new individual. An X-carrying sperm produces a female (XX) embryo and a Y-carrying sperm produces a male (XY) embryo. Therefore, the chromosomal sex of the embryo is determined at fertilization”

o Embryologist Dr. T.W. Sadler, Ph.D.66

67. “All of us were once human embryos, so the study of human embryology is the study of our own prenatal origins and experiences.” (p. 2); “Fertilization, the uniting of egg and sperm, takes place in the oviduct. After the oocyte finishes meiosis, the paternal and maternal chromosomes come together, resulting in the formation of a zygote containing a single diploid nucleus. Embryonic development is considered to begin at this point.” (p.14)

63 Jones, R. E. Human Reproductive Biology, 4th edition. Waltham, MA. Elsevier, Academic Press, 2014, p. 169. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 64 Moore, K.L. Before We Are Born: Essentials of Embryology, 9th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 2016. p. 1. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 65 Keith L. Moore, The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology, 10th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 2016. p. 11. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 66 Sadler, T.W. Langman's Medical Embryology, 13th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2015. p. 42 (emphasis added). Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf.

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o Medical School Professor Dr. Gary C. Schoenwolf, Ph.D. 67

68. "[T]he evidence no longer allows a discussion as to if and when and in what month of ontogenesis a human being is formed. To be a human being is decided for an organism at the moment of fertilization of the ovum. For this reason we have to regard the intrinsic quality of the fertilized ovum as an essential prerequisite, decisive for all future ontogenesis".

o German anatomist and embryologist Dr. Erich Blechschmidt, M.D.68

69. "Today it is known that the early stages of human development are strikingly different from the early developmental stages of all other species. . . . Ontogeny is phenogenesis. We talk of human development not because a jumble of cells, which is perhaps initially atypical, gradually turns more and more into a human, but rather because the human being develops from a uniquely human cell. There is no stage in human development prior to which one could claim that a being exists with not-yet-human individuality. On the basis of anatomical studies, we know today that no development phase exists that constitutes a transition from the not-yet-human to the human. . . In short, a fertilized human egg (conceptus) is already a human being. . . . The following important statement is valid: that which changes during development is only the phenotype but not the essence"

o German anatomist and embryologist Dr. Erich Blechschmidt, M.D.69

70. "Almost all higher animals start their lives from a single cell, the fertilized ovum (zygote). . . . The time of fertilization represents the starting point in the life history, or ontogeny, of the individual"

o Embryologist and Biology Professor Dr. Bruce M. Carlson, M.D., Ph.D.70

71. "No physician can say with certainty: if this pregnancy is not terminated promptly, the mother will die or her health be seriously impaired. On the other

67 Schoenwolf, G. C. Larsen’s Human Embryology, 5th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, Saunders, 2015. p. 2, 14. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 68 Blechschmidt, E. Beginnings of Human Life, New York, Heidelberg, and Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1977. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 69 Blechschmidt, E. & Freeman, B (Ed.), The Ontogenic Basis of Human Anatomy: A Biodynamic Approach to Development from Conception to Birth, Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic, 2004. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 70 Carlson, B.M., Patten's Foundations of Embryology, 6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996, p. 3. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf.

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hand, he cannot say with certainty: if this pregnancy is terminated promptly by abortion, the mother will live. A physician has a clear duty to preserve human life, but by what principle can one demonstrate that he is the arbiter of life and death and can therefore decide to kill one human being in order that another may live? [All doctors (except abortionists) feel that the principles of the sanctity of human life held since the time of the ancient Jews and Hippocrates and stubbornly defended by the Catholic Church are correct, and we are pained when placed before the necessity of sacrificing it. At the present time, when rivers of blood and tears of innocent men, women and children are flowing in most parts of the world, it seems almost silly to be contending over the right to live of an unknowable atom of human flesh in the uterus of a woman. No, it is not silly. On the contrary, it is of transcendent importance that there be in this chaotic world one high spot, however small, which is safe against the deluge of immorality and savagery that is sweeping over us. That we, the medical profession, hold to the principle of the sacredness of human life and the rights of the individual, even though unborn, is proof that humanity is not yet lost and that we may ultimately attain salvation. - ed.]"

o Dr. Joseph B. DeLee, M.D. & Dr. J.P. Greenhill, M.D.71

72. “Sexual reproduction occurs when female and male gametes (oocyte and spermatozoon, respectively) unite at fertilization.”

o Medical School Professor Dr. Ronald W. Dudek, Ph.D.72

73. "Development of the embryo begins at Stage 1 when a sperm fertilizes an oocyte and together they form a zygote"

o Medical School Professor Dr. Marjorie A. England73

74. "The zygote thus formed represents the beginning of a new life" o Dr. J.P. Greenhill, M.D. & Dr. Emanuel A. Friedman, M.D., DMedSci74

75. “The basic fact is simple: life begins not at birth, but conception"

71 DeLee, J.B. & Greenhill, J.P. (Eds.), 1940 Yearbook of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chicago: Yearbook, 1941, pp. 68, 69. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 72 Dudek, R.W. Embryology, 4th edition. Philadelphia, PA. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2008, p. 1. Cited by: http://bdfund.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Condic-Sources-Embryology.pdf. 73 England, M.A., in Life Before Birth, 2nd ed., London: Mosby-Wolfe, 1996, p. 31. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 74 Greenhill, J.P. & Friedman, E.A., Biological Principles and Modern Practice of Obstetrics, Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1974, p. 17. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf.

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o Harvard University Geneticist Dr. Ashley Montagu, Ph.D.75

76. "Human development begins after the union of male and female gametes or germ cells during a process known as fertilization. . . . Fertilization is a sequence of events that begins with the contact of a sperm (spermatozoon) with a secondary oocyte (ovum) and ends with the fusion of their pronuclei (the haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum) and the mingling of their chromosomes to form a new cell. This fertilized ovum, known as a zygote, is a large diploid cell that is the beginning, or primordium, of a human being"

o Medical School Professor Dr. Keith L Moore, Ph.D., D.Sc.76

77. "It is the penetration of the ovum by a spermatazoan and resultant mingling of the nuclear material that constitutes the culmination of the process of fertilization and marks the initiation of the life of a new individual"

o Embryologist and Medical School Professor Bradley M. Patten, Ph.D.77

78. "Although life is a continuous process, fertilization… is a critical landmark because, under ordinary circumstances a new, genetically distinct human organism is formed when the chromosomes of the male and female pronuclei blend in the oocyte"

o Medical School Professors Dr. Ronan O’Rahilly, M.D. & Dr. Fabiola Müller, M.D.78

79. "The development of a human begins with fertilization, a process by which the

spermatozoon from the male and the oocyte from the female unite to give rise to a new organism, the zygote"

o Embryologist Dr. T.W. Sadler, Ph.D.79

80. "[A]nimal biologists use the term embryo to describe the single cell stage, the two-cell stage, and all subsequent stages up until a time when recognizable humanlike limbs and facial features begin to appear between six to eight weeks

75 Montagu, A. Life Before Birth, New York, Signet, 1977. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 76 Moore, K.L., Essentials of Human Embryology, Toronto: B.C. Decker, 1988, p. 2. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 77 Patten, B.M., Human Embryology, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968, p. 43. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 78 O'Rahilly, R. & Muller, F. Human Embryology and Teratology, 3rd ed., New York: Wiley-Liss, 2001, p. 8. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 79 Sadler, T.W., Langman's Medical Embryology, 7th ed., Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1995, p. 3. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf.

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after fertilization...”; "[A] number of specialists working in the field of human reproduction have suggested that we stop using the word embryo to describe the developing entity that exists for the first two weeks after fertilization. In its place, they proposed the term pre-embryo...”; “I'll let you in on a secret. The term pre-embryo has been embraced wholeheartedly by IVF practitioners for reasons that are political, not scientific. The new term is used to provide the illusion that there is something profoundly different between what we nonmedical biologists still call a six-day-old embryo and what we and everyone else call a sixteen-day-old embryo”; “The term pre-embryo is useful in the political arena -- where decisions are made about whether to allow early embryo (now called pre-embryo) experimentation -- as well as in the confines of a doctor's office, where it can be used to allay moral concerns that might be expressed by IVF patients. 'Don't worry,' a doctor might say, 'it's only pre-embryos that we're manipulating or freezing. They won't turn into real human embryos until after we've put them back into your body.”

o Princeton University Professor Dr. Lee M. Silver, Ph.D.80

V. Books

81. "Perhaps the most straightforward relation between you and me on the one hand and every human fetus from conception onward on the other is this: All are living members of the same species, homo sapiens. A human fetus, after all, is simply a human being at a very early stage in his or her development"

o Philosophy Professor David Boonin, Ph.D.81

82. "A human fetus is not a nonhuman animal; it is a stage of human being" o Philosophy Professor Wayne Sumner, Ph.D.82

83. “Modern technologies have convinced us that beyond question the unborn

child is simply another human being, another member of the human community, indistinguishable in every way from any of us"

o Abortion Doctor Dr. Bernard Nathanson, M.D.83

80 Silver, L.M., Remaking Eden: Cloning and Beyond in a Brave New World, New York: Avon Books, 1997, p. 39. Cited by: https://www.princeton.edu/~prolife/articles/embryoquotes2.html. 81 Boonin, D. A Defense of Abortion, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 20. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 82 Sumner, W. Abortion and Moral Theory, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981, p. 10. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 83 Bernard Nathanson, B. Aborting America, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1979. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf.

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84. “I accept what is biologically manifest, that human life commences at the time of conception”

o Obstetrician-Gynecologist Dr. Landrum Shettles84

VI. Hearings and Events

85. “Physicians, biologists, and other scientists agree that conception marks the beginning of the life of a human being—a being that is alive and is a member of the human species. There is overwhelming agreement on this point in countless medical, biological, and scientific writings.”

o The Official Senate report on Senate Bill 158 (the “Human Life Bill”)85

86. "Pro-abortionists, though invited to do so, failed to produce even a single expert witness who would specifically testify that life begins at any point other than conception or implantation. Only one witness said no one can tell when life begins"

o A prominent physician pointed out at 1981 Senate hearings on the “Human Life Bill” (S-158, 97th Congress, 1st Session, 1981)86

87. "I have learned from my earliest medical education that human life begins at

the time of conception. . . . I submit that human life is present throughout this entire sequence from conception to adulthood and that any interruption at any point throughout this time constitutes a termination of human life. . . . I am no more prepared to say that these early stages [of development in the womb] represent an incomplete human being than I would be to say that the child prior to the dramatic effects of puberty . . . is not a human being. This is human life at every stage"

84 Shettles, L. Rites of Life, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, p. 103. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 85 S-158, 97th Congress, 1st Session, 1981; “Background on the Committee testifiers: A group of internationally-known biologists and geneticists appeared to speak on behalf of the scientific community on the subject of when a human being begins. They all presented the same view and there was no opposing testimony. Among those testifying: Dr. Micheline M. Mathews-Roth, Harvard medical School, Dr. Jerome Lejeune (“Father of Modern Genetics”), Dr. McCarthy de Mere, medical doctor and law professor, University of Tennessee, Dr. Alfred Bongiovanni, Professor of Pediatrics and Obstetrics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Dr. Richard V. Jaynes, Dr. Landrum Shettles, sometimes called the "Father of In Vitro Fertilization", Professor Eugene Diamond, Gordon, Hymie, M.D., F.R.C.P., Chairman of Medical Genetics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester” (https://www.face book.com/notes/716620865136847/?__tn__=H-R). 86 S-158, 97th Congress, 1st Session, 1981. https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604. exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf.

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o Medical School Professor of Pediatrics and Obstetrics Dr. Alfred M. Bongiovanni, M.D.87

88. "[A]fter fertilization has taken place a new human being has come into being .

. . not a metaphysical contention, it is plain experimental evidence. . . . Each individual has a very neat beginning, at conception"; "The human nature of the human being from conception to old age is not a metaphysical contention, it is plain experimental evidence"

o Medical School Professor Dr. Jerome LeJeune, M.D.88

89. "By all the criteria of modern molecular biology, life is present from the moment of conception"

o Mayo Clinic Medical School Professor Dr. Hymie Gordon, M.D.89

90. "It is incorrect to say that biological data cannot be decisive… It is scientifically correct to say that an individual human life begins at conception… Our laws, one function of which is to help preserve the lives of our people, should be based on accurate scientific data"

o Harvard University Medical School Professor Micheline Matthews-Roth90

91. "The beginning of a single human life is from a biological point of view a simple

and straightforward matter, the beginning is conception. This straightforward biological fact should not be distorted to serve sociological, political, or economic goals"

o Medical School Professor Dr. Watson A. Bowes91

92. "[A]bortion terminates the life of a unique, whole, living human being” o Conclusion of Report of The South Dakota Task Force to Study

Abortion92

87 S-158, 97th Congress, 1st Session, 1981. https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604. exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 88 S-158, 97th Congress, 1st Session, 1981. https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604. exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 89 S-158, 97th Congress, 1st Session, 1981. https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604. exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 90 S-158, 97th Congress, 1st Session, 1981. https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604. exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 91 S-158, 97th Congress, 1st Session, 1981. https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604. exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf. 92 Report of The South Dakota Task Force to Study Abortion, Submitted to the Governor and Legislature of South Dakota, p. 13, 2005. https://www.dakotavoice.com/Docs/South%20

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93. "The changes occurring between implantation, a six-week embryo, a six-month fetus, a one-week-old child, or a mature adult are merely stages of development and maturation. The majority of our group could find no point in time between the union of sperm and egg, or at least the blastocyst stage, and the birth of the infant at which point we could say that this was not a human life"

o Conclusion from the First International Symposium on Abortion93

VII. Additional Sources

1. Berry, S., Study: 96% of 5,577 Biologists Affirm Human Life Begins at Fertilization, Breitbart, July 11, 2019, https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019 /07/11/study-96-of-5577-biologists-affirm-human-life-begins-at-fertilization.

2. Condic, M.L. When Does Human Life Begin? The Scientific Evidence and

Terminology Revisited, 8 U. ST. THOMAS J.L. & PUB. POL’Y 44-81, 2013, http://www.embryodefense.org/MaureenCondicSET.pdf.

3. Hammer, J., HAMMER: A World-Renowned University Suppressed Important Abortion Research. Here’s The Full Story, Daily Wire, July 2, 2019, https://www.dailywire.com/news/hammer-world-renowned-university-suppres sed-josh-hammer.

4. House Resolution No. 214, https://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?151+ful +HR214+pdf.

5. Irving, D.N. What Human Embryo?: Funniest Mental Gymnastics from Medicine and Research, Catholic Culture, https://www.catholicculture.org/cult ure/library/view.cfm?recnum=6373.

6. Jacobs, S., Biologists' Consensus on 'When Life Begins' (July 25, 2018). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3211703.

7. Jacobs, S., I Asked Thousands of Biologists When Life Begins. The Answer Wasn’t Popular, Quillette, October 16, 2019, https://quillette.com/2019/10/16/i-asked-thousands-of-biologists-when-life-begins-the-answer-wasnt-popular.

8. Jacobs, S.A. Balancing Abortion Rights and Fetal Rights: A Mixed Methods

Mediation of the U.S. Abortion Debate, KNOWLEDGE@UCHICAGO, 2019, https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/1883.

Dakota%20Abortion%20Task%20Force%20Report.pdf. 93 Abortion Questions and Answers, Cincinnati, OH: Hayes, 1988, p. 42. Cited by: https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?161+ful+HR19+pdf.

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9. Life Begins at Fertilization, Princeton University, https://www.princeton.edu/ ~prolife/articles/embryoquotes2.html.

10. Life Begins at Fertilization – Peer Reviewed Scientific Sources, The Fetal

Position, May 29, 2019, https://thefetalposition.com/conception.

11. Smith, D. Pro-Choice Concedes: Prominent Abortion Proponents Concede The Barbarity Of Abortion, HUMAN DEFENSE INITIATIVE, November 7, 2018, https://humandefense.com/prochoice-concedes.

12. The Carnegie Stages of Human Embryonic Development, Contend Projects,

https://contendprojects.org/the-science/carnegie-stages

13. The Science of the Unborn, Pro-Life Atheists, October 20, 2015, https://www. facebook.com/notes/716620865136847/?__tn__=H-R.

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VIII. 1,061 Institutions Represented in Study on When Life Begins

These are the academic institutions of the biologists who affirmed that a human’s life begins at fertilization in the recent international study on when a human’s life begins. Aarhus University Denmark Abilene Christian University USA Adelphi University USA Agnes Scott College USA Aix-Marseille University France Alabama State University USA Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg Germany Albion College USA Alcorn State University USA Allegheny College USA Alma College USA Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna Italy American Museum of Natural History USA American University USA Amherst College USA Anderson University USA Angelo State University USA Appalachian State University USA Arcadia University USA Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Greece Arizona Christian University USA Arizona State University USA Arkansas State University USA Arkansas Tech University USA Armstrong State University USA Ashland University USA Assumption College USA Auburn University USA Augsburg College USA Augusta University USA Augustana College USA Austin College USA Australian National University Australia Ave Maria University USA

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Azusa Pacific University USA Babson College USA Baldwin Wallace University USA Ball State University USA Bangor University USA Bard College USA Barnard College USA Barrow Neurological Institute USA Barry University USA Barton College USA Bates College USA Bay Path College USA Belmont Abbey College USA Belmont University USA Beloit College USA Ben Gurion University of the Negev Israel Bennington College USA Berea College USA Bethel College USA Bethel University USA Bethune-Cookman University USA Biola University USA Birkbeck, University of London England Birmingham-Southern College USA Bismarck State College USA Black Hills State University USA Blackburn College USA Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania USA Bluffton University USA Boehringer Ingelheim Germany Boise State University USA Boston College USA Boston College of Medicine USA Boston University USA Bowie State University USA Bowling Green State University USA Bradley University USA Brandeis University USA Brenau University USA Bridgewater College USA

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Bridgewater State University USA Brigham Young University USA Brigham Young University - Idaho USA Brooklyn College USA Brookyln College USA Brown University USA Bryan College USA Bryn Mawr College USA Bucknell University USA Buena Vista University USA Buffalo State USA Cal Poly USA California Institute of Technology USA California Lutheran University USA California Maritime Academy USA California State University USA Calvin College USA Cameron University USA Campbell University USA Canisius College USA Capital University USA Cardiff University USA Carleton College USA Carnegie Mellon University USA Carson-Newman College USA Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies USA Case Western Reserve University USA Catholic University USA Cedar Crest College USA Central College USA Central Michigan University USA Central South University China Central Washington University USA Centre College USA Chalmers University of Technology Sweden Chaminade University of Honolulu USA Champlain College USA Chapman University USA Charles University Czech Republic Charleston Southern University USA

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Chatham University USA Chestnut Hill College USA Chicago Botanic Garden USA Chicago State University USA Chico State University USA China Medical University Taiwan Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong Chowan University USA Christian Albrechts University zu Kiel Germany Christian Brothers University USA Christopher Newport University USA Chulalongkorn University Thailand Citadel Military College USA City University of Hong Kong Hong Kong Clark University USA Clarkson University USA Clayton State University USA Clemson University USA Cleveland State University USA Coastal Carolina University USA Coe College USA Coker College USA Colby College USA Colgate University USA College at Brockport USA College of Charleston USA College of Idaho USA College of New Jersey USA College of St. Scholastica USA College of Staten Island USA College of the Atlantic USA College of William & Mary USA College of Wooster USA Colorado Christian University USA Colorado College USA Colorado Mesa University USA Colorado State University USA Columbia University USA Columbus State University USA Concordia College USA

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Concordia University USA Connecticut College USA Converse College USA Cornell College USA Cornell University USA Covenant College USA Creighton University USA CUNY USA CUNY - Baruch College USA CUNY - Brooklyn College USA CUNY - CCNY USA CUNY - Graduate Center USA CUNY - Hunter College USA CUNY - Queens College USA CUNY - The Graduate Center USA CUNY - York College USA Curry College USA D'Youville College USA Daemen College USA Dalhousie University Canada Dartmouth College USA Davidson College USA Davis & Elkins College USA Deakin University Australia Delaware State University USA Delaware Valley College USA Delta State University USA Denison University USA DePaul University USA DePauw University USA DeSales University USA Desert Botanical Garden USA Dickinson College USA Dixie State University USA Doane College USA Dominican College USA Dominican University USA Drake University USA Drew University USA Drexel University USA

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Dublin City University Ireland Duke University USA Duquesne University USA Durham University England Earlham College USA East Stroudsburg University USA East Tennessee State University USA East Texas Baptist University USA Eastern Connecticut State University USA Eastern Illinois University USA Eastern Kentucky University USA Eastern Mennonite University USA Eastern Michigan University USA Eastern New Mexico University USA Eastern University USA Eberhard Karls Universitat Tubingen Germany Eckerd College USA Ecole Normale Superieure de Lyon France Ecole Normale Superieure Paris France Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne Switzerland Edinboro University USA Eindhoven University of Technology Netherlands Elmhurst College USA Elmira College USA Elms College USA Emmanuel College USA Emory University USA Emporia State University USA Endicott College USA Eotvos Lorand University Hungary Erasmus University Rotterdam Netherlands Eureka College USA Evergreen State College USA Fairfield University USA Fairleigh Dickinson University USA Field Museum USA Flinders University Australia Florida A&M University USA Florida Atlantic University USA Florida Institute of Technology USA

30

Florida International University USA Florida State University USA Fordham University USA Fort Hays State University USA Fort Lewis College USA Fort Valley State University USA Framingham State University USA Francis Marion University USA Franklin and Marshall College USA Fredonia USA Freie Universitaet Berlin Germany Fresno Pacific University USA Fresno State University USA Friedrich-Alexander-Universitat Erlangen Nurnberg Germany Furman University USA Gallaudet University USA Gannon University USA Genome Institute of Singapore Singapore George Fox University USA George Mason University USA George Washington University USA Georgetown University USA Georgia College USA Georgia Institute of Technology USA Georgia Southern University USA Georgia Southwestern State University USA Georgia State University USA Georgia Tech University USA Georgian Court University USA Gettysburg College USA Ghent University Belgium Gonzaga University USA Gordon College USA Goshen College USA Grace College USA Grambling State University USA Grand Valley State University USA Grand View University USA Great Basin College USA Green Mountain College USA

31

Griffith University Australia Grinnell College USA Guilford College USA Gustavus Adolphus College USA Gwynedd Mercy University USA Hampden-Sydney College USA Hampton University USA Harding University USA Hartwick College USA Harvard University USA Harvey Mudd College USA Haskell Indian Nations University USA Haverford College USA Hawaii Pacific University USA Hebrew University of Jerusalem Israel Heidelberg University Germany Henderson State University USA High Point University USA Hiram College USA Hobart & William Smith Colleges USA Hofstra University USA Hokkaido University Japan Hollins University USA Holy Cross USA Hong Kong University of Science and Technology USA Hood College USA Hope College USA Houston Baptist University USA Howard University USA Humboldt State University USA Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin Germany Huntingdon College USA Idaho State University USA Illinois College USA Illinois Institute of Technology USA Illinois State University USA Imperial College London England Indian Institute of Technology Bombay India Indiana State University USA Indiana University - Bloomington USA

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Indiana University of Pennsylvania USA Indiana Wesleyan University USA Institut Pasteur France Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russia Institute of Molecular Biology - Boehringer Ingelheim Foundation Germany Iowa State University USA IPFW USA Ithaca College USA IUPUI USA Jackson State University USA Jacksonville State University USA Jagiellonian University Poland James Madison University USA Jawaharlal Nehru University India Jefferson USA Johannes Gutenberg Universitat Mainz Germany John Brown University USA Johns Hopkins University USA Judson University USA Julius Maximillians Universitat Wurzburg Germany Juniata College USA Kansas State University USA Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Germany Karolinska Institutet Sweden Kean University USA Keene State College USA Kennesaw State University USA Kent State University USA Kentucky State University USA Kentucky Wesleyan College USA King Abdullah University of Science and Technology Saudi Arabia King University USA King's College London England Knox College USA Kobe University Japan Korea University South Korea KU Leuven Belgium Kutztown University USA Kyoto University Japan

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Kyushu University Japan La Roche College USA La Salle University USA La Trobe University Australia Lafayette College USA LaGrange College USA Lake Erie College USA Lake Superior State University USA Lancaster University England Lander University USA Laval University Canada Le Moyne College USA Lee University USA Lees-McRae College USA Lehigh University USA Lehman College USA Leiden University Netherlands Lenoir-Rhyne University USA Lewis & Clark College USA Lewis University USA Liberty University USA Lincoln Park Zoo USA Lincoln University USA Linkoping University Sweden Loma Linda University USA Lomonosov Moscow State University Russia London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine England Long Island University USA Longwood University USA Loras College USA Louisiana State University USA Louisiana State University - Baton Rouge USA Louisiana Tech University USA Loyola Marymount University USA Loyola University - Chicago USA Loyola University Maryland USA Loyola University New Orleans USA Lubbock Christian University USA Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich Germany Lund University Sweden

34

Luther College USA Lynchburg College USA Lynn University USA Maastricht University Netherlands Macalester College USA Macquarie University Australia Mahidol University Thailand Malone University USA Manchester University USA Manhattan College USA Marist College USA Marlboro College USA Marquette University USA Mars Hill University USA Marshall University USA Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg Germany Marywood University USA Masaryk University Czech Republic Massachusetts Institute of Technology USA Massey University New Zealand McDaniel College USA McGill University Canada McMaster University Canada McMurry University USA McNeese State University USA Medical University of Graz Austria Memorial University of Newfoundland Canada Mercer University USA Meredith College USA Messiah College USA Miami University USA Michigan State University USA Michigan Technological University USA Middle Tennessee State University USA Millersville University USA Millikin University USA Millsaps College USA Minnesota State University USA Minot State University USA Misericordia University USA

35

Mississippi College USA Mississippi State University USA Mississippi University for Women USA Missouri Botanical Garden USA Missouri Southern State University USA Missouri State University USA Missouri University of Science and Technology USA Missouri Western State University USA Moffitt Cancer Center USA Molloy College USA Monash University Australia Montana State University USA Montana Tech USA Montclair State University USA Monterey Peninsula College USA Moravian College USA Morningside College USA Mount Holyoke College USA Mount Saint Mary College USA Mount St. Joseph University USA Mount St. Mary's College USA Mount St. Mary's University USA Muhlenberg College USA Murdoch University Australia Murray State University USA Museum fur Naturkunde Berlin Germany Nagoya University Japan Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Singapore National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Greece National Chiao Tung University Taiwan National Taiwan University Taiwan National University of Ireland Galway Ireland National University of Singapore Singapore National Yang Ming University Taiwan Nazareth College USA NC A&T USA Neumann University USA Nevada State College USA New College of Florida USA New Jersey City University USA

36

New Jersey Institute of Technology USA New Mexico Highlands University USA New Mexico State University USA New Mexico Tech USA New Paltz USA New York University USA Newcastle University England Newman University USA Niagara University USA Nicholls State University USA Norfolk State University USA North Carolina Central University USA North Carolina State University USA North Central College USA North Dakota State University USA North Greenville University USA North Park University USA Northeastern Illinois University USA Northeastern State University USA Northeastern University USA Northern Arizona University USA Northern Illinois University USA Northern Kentucky University USA Northern Michigan University USA Northern New Mexico University USA Northwest Missouri State University USA Northwest Nazarene University USA Northwestern College USA Northwestern University USA Norwegian University of Science and Technology Norway Notre Dame of Maryland University USA Notre Dame University USA NYC College of Technology USA Oakland University USA Oberlin College USA Occidental College USA Ohio State University USA Ohio University USA Ohio Wesleyan University USA Oklahoma Christian University USA

37

Oklahoma State University USA Old Dominion University USA Olivet Nazarene University USA Oral Roberts University USA Oregon State University USA Oregon Zoo USA Osaka University Japan Oxford Brookes University England Pacific Lutheran University USA Pacific University USA Peking University China Penn State University USA Pennsylvania State University - University Park USA Pepperdine University USA Philadelphia University USA Philander Smith College USA Philipps Universitat Marburg Germany Plymouth State University USA Point Loma Nazarene University USA Pomona College USA Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile Chile Portland State University USA POSTECH South Korea Princeton University USA Principia College USA Providence College USA Purdue University USA Purdue University - West Lafayette USA Pusan National University South Korea Queen Mary University of London England Queen's University at Kingston Canada Queen's University Belfast Ireland Queensland University of Technology Australia Quincy University USA Quinnipiac University USA Radboud University Netherlands Radford University USA Ramapo College of New Jersey USA Randolph College USA Randolph-Macon College USA

38

Reed College USA Regis University USA Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute USA Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat Bonn Germany Rhodes College USA Rice University USA Rider University USA Ripon College USA Rivier College USA Roberts Wesleyan College USA Rochester Institute of Technology USA Rockefeller University USA Rockford College USA Rocky Mountain College USA Rogers State University USA Roosevelt University USA Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology USA Rowan College USA Rowan University USA Royal Holloway England Ruprecht-Karls-Universitat Heidelberg Germany Rush University Medical Center USA Russell Sage College USA Rutgers USA Rutgers University USA Rutgers University - New Brunswick USA Rutgers University - Newark USA RWTH Aachen University Germany Sacramento State USA Saginaw Valley State University USA Saint Anselm College USA Saint Augustine's University USA Saint John's University USA Saint Joseph's College of Maine USA Saint Joseph's University USA Saint Louis University USA Saint Martin's University USA Saint Mary's College of California USA Saint Mary's University of Minnesota USA Saint Michael's College USA

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Saint Peter's College USA Saint Petersburg State University Russia Saint Xavier University USA Salem College USA Salve Regina University USA Samford University USA San Diego State University USA San Jose State University USA Sapienza University of Rome Italy Seattle Pacific University USA Seattle University USA Seton Hall University USA Seton Hill University USA Shanghai Jiao Tong University China Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute Russia Shenandoah University USA Shepherd University USA Shippensburg University USA Siena College USA Simmons College USA Simon Fraser University Canada Simpson College USA Skidmore College USA Slippery Rock University USA Smith College USA Sonoma State University USA South Dakota State University USA Southeastern Louisiana University USA Southern Nazarene University USA Southern Oregon University USA Southern Utah University USA Southern Wesleyan University USA Southwestern Oklahoma State University USA Southwestern University USA Spelman College USA Spring Hill College USA Springfield College USA St. Ambrose University USA St. Andrews University USA St. Bonaventure University USA

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St. Catherine University USA St. Cloud State University USA St. Edward's University USA St. Francis College USA St. John Fisher College USA St. John's University USA St. Joseph's College USA St. Lawrence University USA St. Louis University USA St. Mary's College USA St. Norbert College USA St. Olaf College USA Stanford University USA Stellenbosch University South Africa Stephen F. Austin State University USA Stevens Institute of Technology USA Stevenson University USA Stockholm University Sweden Stockton University USA Suffolk University USA Sungkyunkwan University South Korea SUNY - Binghamton University USA SUNY - Cortland USA SUNY - Geneseo USA SUNY - Oneonta USA SUNY - Oswego USA SUNY - Plattsburgh USA SUNY - Potsdam USA SUNY - Purchase USA SUNY - Stony Brook University USA SUNY - University at Albany USA SUNY - University at Buffalo USA Susquehanna University USA Swarthmore College USA Sweet Briar College USA Syracuse University USA Tabor College USA Taipei Medical University Taiwan Tarleton State University USA Technical University of Denmark Denmark

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Technical University of Munich Germany Technion Israel Institute of Technology Israel Technische Universitat Darmstadt Germany Technische Universitat Dresden Germany Tel Aviv University Israel Temple University USA Texas A&M University - College Station USA Texas A&M University - Corpus Christi USA Texas A&M University - Kingsville USA Texas Christian University USA Texas Tech University USA Texas Woman's University USA Thomas Jefferson University USA Thomas More College USA Tiffin University USA Tokyo Institute of Technology Japan Touro College USA Towson University USA Translyvania University USA Trinity College USA Trinity College - Dublin Ireland Trinity University USA Trinity Washington University USA Truman State University USA Tsinghua University China Tufts University USA Tulane University USA U.S. Geological Survey USA UC Merced USA Umea University Sweden UMES USA UNC Charlotte USA UNC Pembroke USA Union College USA Union University USA UNIST - Korea South Korea Univerisite libre de Bruxelles Belgium Universidad Autonoma de Madrid Spain Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina Universidad de Chile Chile

42

Universidad de Sevilla Spain Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Mexico Universidad San Francisco de Quito Ecuador Universidade de Sao Paulo Brazil Universita degli Studi di Pavia Italy Universita di Padova Italy Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona Spain Universitat Bielefeld Germany Universitat de Barcelona Spain Universitat Duisburg-Essen Germany Universitat Frankfurt am Main Germany Universitat Hamburg Germany Universitat Jena Germany Universitat Leibzig Germany Universitat Pompeu Fabra Spain Universitat Potsdam Germany Universitat Regensburg Germany Universitat Stuttgart Germany Universite catholique de Louvain Belgium Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1 France Universite de Montpellier France Universite de Montreal Canada Universite de Sherbrooke Canada Universite de Strasbourg France Universite Grenoble-Alpes France Universite Laval Canada Universite Nice Sophia Antipolis France Universite Paris-Sud France Universite Pierre et Marie Curie France Universiti Malaya Malaysia Universiti Sains Malaysia Malaysia Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Malaysia University College Cork Ireland University College Dublin Ireland University College London England University Complutense Madrid Spain University North Carolina - Greensboro USA University of Aberdeen Scotland University of Adelaide Scotland University of Akron USA

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University of Alabama USA University of Alabama - Birmingham USA University of Alabama - Huntsville USA University of Alaska USA University of Alaska Fairbanks USA University of Alberta Canada University of Amsterdam Netherlands University of Antwerp Belgium University of Arizona USA University of Arkansas USA University of Arkansas - Monticello USA University of Auckland New Zealand University of Baltimore USA University of Bari Italy University of Basel Switzerland University of Bayreuth Germany University of Bergen Norway University of Bern Switzerland University of Birmingham United Kingdom University of Bologna Italy University of Bordeaux France University of Bristol England University of British Columbia Canada University of Calgary Canada University of California - Berkeley USA University of California - Davis USA University of California - Irvine USA University of California - Los Angeles USA University of California - Riverside USA University of California - San Diego USA University of California - San Francisco USA University of California - Santa Barbara USA University of California - Santa Cruz USA University of Cambridge England University of Canterbury New Zealand University of Cape Town South Africa University of Central Arkansas USA University of Central Florida USA University of Central Missouri USA University of Chicago USA

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University of Chinese Academy of Sciences China University of Cincinnati USA University of Cologne Germany University of Colorado - Boulder USA University of Colorado - Colorado Springs USA University of Colorado - Denver USA University of Connecticut USA University of Crete Greece University of Dallas USA University of Debrecen Hungary University of Delaware USA University of Denver USA University of Dubuque USA University of Dundee Scotland University of Dusseldorf Germany University of East Anglia England University of Edinburgh Scotland University of Erlangen-Nuremberg Germany University of Evansville USA University of Exeter England University of Findlay USA University of Florence Italy University of Florida USA University of Geneva Switzerland University of Georgia USA University of Glasgow Scotland University of Gothenburg Sweden University of Gottingen Germany University of Granada Spain University of Groningen Netherlands University of Guelph Canada University of Hartford USA University of Hawaii USA University of Hawaii - Hilo USA University of Hawaii - Manoa USA University of Helsinki Finland University of Houston USA University of Hyderabad India University of Idaho USA University of Illinois - Chicago USA

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University of Illinois - Springfield USA University of Illinois - Urbana-Champaign USA University of Indianapolis USA University of Iowa USA University of Jamestown USA University of Kansas USA University of Kentucky USA University of KwaZulu-Natal South Africa University of Lausanne Switzerland University of Leeds England University of Leicester England University of Lisbon Portugal University of Liverpool England University of Louisiana USA University of Louisiana - Lafayette USA University of Louisiana - Monroe USA University of Louisville USA University of Maine USA University of Maine at Augusta USA University of Maine at Machias USA University of Manchester England University of Manitoba Canada University of Marburg Germany University of Mary Hardin-Baylor USA University of Mary Washington USA University of Maryland USA University of Maryland - Baltimore County USA University of Maryland - College Park USA University of Massachusetts USA University of Massachusetts - Amherst USA University of Massachusetts - Boston USA University of Massachusetts - Lowell USA University of Melbourne Australia University of Memphis USA University of Miami USA University of Michigan - Ann Arbor USA University of Michigan - Dearborn USA University of Michigan - Flint USA University of Milan Italy University of Minho Portugal

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University of Minnesota - Duluth USA University of Minnesota - Morris USA University of Minnesota - Twin Cities USA University of Missouri USA University of Missouri - Kansas City USA University of Missouri - St. Louis USA University of Montana USA University of Montevallo USA University of Mount Union USA University of Munster Germany University of Naples - Federico Il Italy University of Nebraska - Lincoln USA University of Nebraska - Omaha USA University of Nevada - Las Vegas USA University of Nevada - Reno USA University of New Hampshire USA University of New Haven USA University of New Mexico USA University of New Orleans USA University of Newcastle England University of North Carolina - Asheville USA University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill USA University of North Carolina - Charlotte USA University of North Carolina - Greensboro USA University of North Carolina - Wilmington USA University of North Dakota USA University of North Florida USA University of North Georgia USA University of Northern Colorado USA University of Northern Iowa USA University of Notre Dame USA University of Nottingham United Kingdom University of Oklahoma USA University of Oregon USA University of Oslo Norway University of Otago New Zealand University of Ottawa Canada University of Oulu Finland University of Oxford England University of Pennsylvania USA

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University of Pisa Italy University of Pittsburgh USA University of Porto Portugal University of Pretoria South Africa University of Puerto Rico Puerto Rico University of Puerto Rico - Rio Piedras Puerto Rico University of Queensland Australia University of Reading England University of Redlands USA University of Rhode Island USA University of Richmond USA University of San Diego USA University of San Francisco USA University of Saskatchewan Canada University of Scranton USA University of Sheffield England University of South Alabama USA University of South Australia Australia University of South Carolina USA University of South Dakota USA University of South Florida USA University of Southampton England University of Southern California USA University of Southern Denmark Denmark University of Southern Indiana USA University of Southern Maine USA University of Southern Mississippi USA University of St. Francis USA University of St. Thomas USA University of Sussex England University of Sydney Australia University of Tasmania Australia University of Technology Sydney Australia University of Temple USA University of Tennessee - Chattanooga USA University of Tennessee - Knoxville USA University of Tennessee - Martin USA University of Texas - Austin USA University of Texas - Dallas USA University of Texas - El Paso USA

48

University of Texas - San Antonio USA University of the Pacific USA University of the Sciences USA University of the Witwatersrand South Africa University of Tokyo Japan University of Toronto Canada University of Tromso Norway University of Tsukuba Japan University of Tubingen Germany University of Turin Italy University of Turku Finland University of Utah USA University of Vermont USA University of Vienna Austria University of Virginia USA University of Warsaw Poland University of Warwick England University of Washington USA University of Waterloo Canada University of West Alabama USA University of West Georgia USA University of Western Australia Australia University of Western Ontario Canada University of Wisconsin - Green Bay USA University of Wisconsin - La Crosse USA University of Wisconsin - Madison USA University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee USA University of Wisconsin - Oshkosh USA University of Wisconsin - Platteville USA University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point USA University of Wisconsin - Whitewater USA University of Wollongong Australia University of Wurzburg Germany University of Wyoming Germany University of York England University of Zurich Switzerland University Ulm Germany Uppsala University Sweden UQAC Canada UQAM Canada

49

UQAR Canada UQTR Canada Utah State University USA Utah Valley University USA Utica College USA Utrecht University Netherlands UW Bothell USA Valdosta State University USA Valparaiso University USA Vassar College USA Victoria University of Wellington New Zealand Villanova University USA Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University USA Virginia Tech USA Virginia Wesleyan College USA Wagner College USA Wake Forest University USA Warner Pacific College USA Wartburg College USA Washburn University USA Washington & Jefferson College USA Washington College USA Washington State University USA Washington University in St. Louis USA Wayne State University USA Weber State University USA Webster University USA Weizmann Institute of Science Israel Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute England Wellesley College USA Wells College USA Wesleyan College USA Wesleyan University USA West Chester University USA West Virginia University USA Western Carolina University USA Western Illinois University USA Western Kentucky University USA Western New England University USA Western Oregon University USA

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Western State Colorado University USA Western Washington University USA Westfalische Wilhelms Universitat Munster Germany Westmont College USA Wheaton College USA Wheeling Jesuit University USA Whitman College USA Wichita State University USA Widener University USA Wilkes University USA Willamette University USA William Jewell College USA William Paterson University USA Williams College USA Winona State University USA Winthrop University USA Wisconsin Lutheran College USA Worcester Polytechnic Institute USA Wright State University USA Wuhan University China Xavier University USA Xi'an Jiaotong University China Yale University USA Yavapai College USA York College USA York University Canada Youngstown State University USA