Tackle the Science TAKS

Why study this?Why study this?

•You have slept a few hundred times since you took biology.

•We believe that you need an intensive review.

Why are you here?Pas

sing TAKs

=

TAKS Test Information30% Nature of Science

Graphs, Scientific Method, & Safety

15% Living systemsCells, Genetics, & Taxonomy

15% EnvironmentCycles, Pyramids, Chains, & Webs

20% Properties of MaterAtoms, Molecules, & Elements

20% PhysicsMotion, Forces, & Energy

Nature of Science?a.k.a. “Can You Look at Pictures

and Read a Graph?”age of population (millions)

0

20

40

60

80

100

decades

tota

l # Series1

age of population (millions)

0 - 10

teens

20's

30's

40's

50's

60's

70's

80's

90's

100's

What’s on the “X” axis?

What is it telling you?

Which graph is better at showing the information?

1. Many doctors recommend 800 μg of folate, 400 μg of vitamin B12, and 50 mg of vitamin B6 per day to improve cardiovascular health. Based on this information and the nutrition label, the cardiovascular health benefit of a 1-ounce serving of this cereal is —

A doubtful because it provides insufficient folate and vitamin B6 and lacks vitamin B12B superb because it contains only 22 g of carbohydrates and 75 mg of sodiumC excellent because it provides all needed vitamins and is low in fat and cholesterolD poor because it raises blood cholesterol levels with its high fat and cholesterol content

Hint: Does the question talk about carbohydrates, fats and sodium? – ELIMINATE!!ELIMINATE!!

?

Scientific MethodSteps:

1. Questions:

2. State a Hypothesis:

3. Test or Experiment:

4. Collect Data:

5. Conclusion:

?“I think”, “If…, Then…”, “Cause and Effect”How you know if your right, or wrong?All experiments provide data.

Validate, or restate

Cell and Cell StructuresCells are: smallest biological unit

that can sustain life.

Two different types of CellsProkaryotes pronounced (pro-carry-

oats)

Prokaryotic cells are one where the genetic material is not contained in a nucleus.

Best Example – E-coli bacteria in your gut

The DNA is just floating in the cell in a ring called a Plasmid.

Pro = beforeKaryo = kernel or seed

“Before the Nucleus”

EuKaryotes pronounced (you-carry-oats)Eu = true

Karyo = kernel or seed

“True Nucleus”

Best example - You

Eukaryotes have genetic material stored in the nucleus. They are:

•generally bigger

•have organelles

•may live in multi-cellular units

Diffusion:Diffusion:

Things moving Things moving from high from high concentration to concentration to low low concentration.concentration.

Things will diffuse until they reach Equilibrium

Osmosis:Osmosis:Water moving across a membrane to equalize another molecule’s concentration.

Example:

A substance (solute) is placed in a beaker that is divided by a semi-permeable membrane.

When a molecule can’t move across a membrane to equalize concentration, Water will!

Water will move to equalize the concentration.

DNA = DeoxyriboNucleic AcidWhat is it made from?

Nucleotides:Phosphate group

Ribose (5 carbon) sugarNitrogen Base

Groups of NucleotidesPurines Pyrimidines

Adenine

Guanine

A

G

Thymine

T

C Cytosine

Pairing Rule1.1.Adenine always bonds with Adenine always bonds with

ThymineThymine

2.2.Guanine always bonds with Guanine always bonds with CytosineCytosine

How do they link up?One Nucleotide links with the next one in the chain by a

COVALENT bond between the ribose and the next nucleotides phosphate

A

C

The opposite side goes in the other direction, linking across the

nitrogen base by HYDROGEN bonds

G

T

How do cells make new copies of DNA for new How do cells make new copies of DNA for new cells?cells?

Replication:1. When DNA needs to be copied,

it unwinds in the nucleus

2. An enzyme, DNA HelicaseDNA Helicase, starts to “unzip” the DNA making a replication fork.3. As DNA is unzipped, another enzyme, DNA PolymeraseDNA Polymerase, begins to add nucleotides to the now exposed bases of the old strand.

4. The two new DNA strands recoil.

DNA making DNA

DNA makes RNA,…….. But How?DNA makes RNA,…….. But How?

Transcription:1. DNA unwinds and unzips.

2. The RNA RNA PolymerasePolymerase attaches to a Initiation site.

4. When reaching a termination site, the RNA Polymerase releases the DNA and goes to make more RNA

3. The RNA Polymerase begins to move only on one (1) of the strands adding RNA nucleotides

DNA making RNA

A c u a a a g c g u a u g c a

Transcription occurs in the nucleus, but the Messenger RNAMessenger RNA (mRNAmRNA) leaves the nucleus.

It attaches to a RibosomeRibosome which begins to read the mRNAIt reads three (3) letter words called Codons

Example: An mRNA that attaches to the Ribosome

It reads ACU, then it moves down and reads AAA and so on…

The process of reading the mRNA code and making Proteins is called:

TranslationThe Ribosome doesn’t just read the mRNA, it calls for Amino Acids for each Codon it reads.

U G C

The codon “U G C” calls for the amino Acid Cysteine.

Hey! I need a Cysteine!! A little help

here?

Help comes from

anotheranother type of RNA:

tRNA

U G C

A C G

Transfer RNAs have a group of three bases called the “anticodon” that is the compliment of the mRNA

Each TRNA carries a different Amino Acid:

ACG carries Cysteine Cysteine

Cysteine

U G C

Threonine

A C G

U G C A C G

Then the ribosome moves to the next Codon

The first tRNA goes away when the second amino acid is attached to the first with a Peptide bond

The Ribosome moves down the mRNA and calls for the next Amino Acid

Cell DivisionCells divide for two reasons.

1. To create copies - Mitosis

2. To create sex cells - Meiosis

Mitosis 4 stages:

1. Prophase:The Centrioles begin to move apart.

Chromosomes thicken

2. Metaphase:The centrioles are at the “poles” of the cellThe chromosomes line up in the middle of the nucleus

The Nuclear membrane disappears

3. Anaphase:The Chromosomes are pulled toward the centrioles by spindle fibers

4. Telophase:The nucleus begins to reform and the cell begins cytokinesis

Meiosis:The process of creating haploid sex cells called Gametes Game

te- sperm or egg

Has Has twotwo “phases” of “phases” of “Mitosis-like “Mitosis-like stages”stages”

For humans, it takes a cell with 46 chromosomes and makes cells with 23.

Let’s look at some Genetic traitsDOMINANT Black color

Recessive lighter color

This dog’s genetics could be two waysWe show the genetics like this:“B” from one parent, “B” from the

other parent

“BB” is Homozygous for the trait.

“B” from one parent, “b” from the other parent

OROR

“Bb” is Heterozygous for the trait.

This dog’s genetics CAN ONLY be shown one way:

“b” from one parent, “b” from the other parentRecessive traits are ALWAYSALWAYS homozygous; thus it would be “bb”

OK, now for a problem:

X

B b b b50% black

50% golden100% golden

You either multiply it out or make a Punnett square50% X 100% =

50%

OrOr b b

B

b

Bb Bb

bb bb

50%

If I have a heterozygous black male and a golden female that mate, what is the chances of having golden puppies in the litter?

Those organisms that are best “fit” to the environment will survive the environment.

Darwin’s Theory - Natural Selection

Extinction – all members of a population dying out due to not having beneficial adaptations.

Adaptation – a characteristic that an organism has that allows it to survive.

EVOLUTION

What Evidence is there for Natural selection?

1. The Fossil Record

Fossils found at lower layers of rock are more simple than those found at upper layers.

2. Homologous Structures.

Structures from one creature are similar to the structures from other creatures.

3. Vestigial OrgansOrgans that are found in you that have no purpose in the body, but are found and used in other organisms. 1. You have an appendix.

2. Snakes have hipbones.

3. Whales have hipbones too.

4. Missing Links

There are missing links in the fossil record that show that the species that are in the earth today.

Rhodocetus – Whale-like species with limbs.

Archaeopteryx – ancient bird-like reptile with wings, and feathers. But it has teeth and claws on the forelimbs.

Sometimes change is directionalDirectional Selection:

This happens when one of the “extremes” is favored in an environment over the other extreme or the old average.

Stabilizing Selection:

Then the average is favored over either of the extremes in a population.

Disruptive Selection:

This situation happens when either extreme is favored over the average.

Virus and Bacteria

Virus: Non-living

Parasitic

Biological Particle

Viruses do not “live” because they can not reproduce outside a “host” cell.Host: - any organism that is used by a virus

or bacteria to complete it’s lifecycle

Bacteria!!!!

Prokaryotic cellsLiving cells!

Bacteria come in three shapes.

Cocci - spherical shaped

Bacilli – rod shaped

Spirilla – corkscrew shaped

Carolus Linnaeuscreated a system that allowed scientist all over the world to name the species that were discoveredKingdom – broadest classification

Phylum – separates into major groups within the Kingdom (plural – phyla)Class – breaks phyla into smaller groupsOrder – more specific

Family – very similar characteristics

Genus – a reproductive grouping

Species – most specific

King

Phillip

Came

Over

For

Good

Soup

ClassificationClassification

How are animals put into the taxonomic categories?They used to be put in by looks (physical Characteristics).

That can cause problems!

Black Bear Panda

Phylogeny- the study of evolutionary relationships

(not bear)

Now organisms are organized by similarities in their DNA.

Cladogram- a way to visually show relationships between organisms.

Two examples

Types of Kingdoms(there are 6 different kingdoms)

1. Animalia- heterotrophicmulti-cellularno cell walls

2. Plantae-Autotrophic

multi-cellular

with cell walls

3 Fungi- Heterotrophic

multi-cellularwith cell wall

4 Protista -Heterotrophic or autotrophic

single cellular Eukaryoticwith or without cell walls

5. Bacteria- heterotrophic or autotrophic

single cellular

prokaryotic

with cell walls

6. Archaebacteria-Heterotrophic or autotrophicsingle cellular

prokaryotic

with cell walls

live in extreme environments

Ecology The study of interactions between living things and their environment

Levels in Ecology

1. Individual A single member of a species

2. Population A group of individuals of a species.

3. Community Several species in an area.

4. Ecosystem Living and nonliving things in an area

5. Biome5. Biome Group of ecosystems

6. Biosphere All the biomes

How do organisms interact?Producers - organisms that

produce their own energy, and are food for other organisms.

Consumers

They are also called autotrophs

- organisms that have to eat other organisms for their energy

They are also called heterotrophs

Who eats who?Food Chain - a series of steps showing which organisms

eat which. (transfer energy)

Food Web

- a chart linking all food webs in a particular area

Another way to show relationshipsEcological Pyramids

Biomass Pyramid- each level in the pyramid shows the total amount of organisms in the level

Numbers Pyramid- each level shows the numbers of individuals in the pyramid

Energy Pyramid- each transition shows the amount of loss of energy from one level to the next.

90%90% of energy is lost to heat from one level to the next.

Only 10% of your food is actually incorporated into making you!

Cycles in NatureWater Cycle - shows the different stages that water goes

through in ecology

Carbon Cycle - the carbon that makes you and all other living (and many non living) things is shown moving through the environment.

Nitrogen Cycle - All organisms require nitrogen. This cycle shows how it moves through the environment.

Biotic factors in the environment interact in many ways

CompetitionWhen groups are using limited resources Situation leaves winners and losers.

Predation

When one organism feeds on another

They can form a symbiotic relationship

(three different types)

1. MutualismBoth individuals benefit.

2. CommensalismOne is helped, one is neither helped or harmed.

3. ParasitismOne is helped, the other is harmed.

Biomes:Def: a large area that is

characterized by certain soil, climate. plants, and animals.

Chemistry

The BasicsThe Basics

Matter – Anything that has mass and takes up space

Substances – Cannot be

broken down Physically

Mixtures – physical

combination of two or more substances

SubstancesSubstancesElementsElements• Cannot be broken Cannot be broken

down any fartherdown any farther• Found on the Found on the

Periodic TablePeriodic Table

CompoundsCompounds• Chemical

combination of two or more elements

• Requires a chemical reaction to separateIII IV V VI VII

Hg

Cd

H

Li

Na

K

Rb

Cs

Rb

Be

Mg

Ca

Sr

Ba

Ra

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

B C N1s1

O1s1

F1s1

Ne1s1

He

4f1 4f2 4f3 4f4 4f5 4f6 4f7 4f8 4f9 4f10 4f11 4f12 4f13 4f14

Al Si P1s1

Si1s1

Cl Ar

Ga Ge As1s1

Se1s1

Br Kr

In Sn Sb1s1

Te1s1

I Xe

Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au

Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt

5f1 5f2 5f3 5f4 5f5 5f6 5f7 5f8 5f9 5f10 5f11 5f12 5f13 5f14

I A

II A

A VIII

III IV V VI VII VIII I II

B

MixturesMixturesHomogeneous• Uniformly mixed

– Like soda

Heterogeneous• Unevenly mixed

– Like tossed salad

Properties of matterProperties of matterPhysical• Describes how

something looks or feels

• Observed using the senses– Example: color,

texture,

• States of matter are physical properties

Chemical• Describes how

something acts (or reacts)

• Observed through chemical reactions– Examples: being

flammable, iron will rust

Physical PropertiesPhysical Properties

• Intensive• Do not depend on

how much of something you have

• Examples: color, shape, density

• Extensive• Does depend on

how much you have

• Examples: mass, volume,

Changes in MatterPhysical• Any change that does not alter the

chemical make up of a substance

• Example:

– Tearing paper

– Boiling water

– Melting iron

• There are three main states of matter: solid, liquid, gas

– Changing from one state to another is a physical change does not change the substance

Chemical• Any change in matter that

does alter the chemical composition of a substance

• Examples:

– Burning wood

– Vinegar and baking soda

– Rusting iron

The Atom• The atom is the smallest part of an element that still retains the

properties of that element.• All atoms are made up of three subatomic particles

– Protons• Positive charge• Located in nucleus• Mass of 1

– Neutrons• No charge• Located in nucleus• Mass of 1

– Electrons• Negative charge• Located in electron cloud surrounding nucleus• Mass of 0

The Atom

• An element is defined by the number of PROTONS it has

• Protons + Neutrons + Mass.

• In a neutral atom, the number of protons and electrons is the same

•Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of electrons or the number of neutrons

•Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.

•In isotope notation (carbon-14) the number tells the total atomic mass.

Isotopes

•Atoms of the same element with different numbers of electrons are called ions

•The charge of an ion is always written as a superscript (Na+1)•If an ion has a positive charge, then it has LOST electrons•If an ion has a negative charge, then it has GAINED electrons

IONS

The Periodic TableThe Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes the The periodic table organizes the elements by their chemical properties elements by their chemical properties

and reactivity.and reactivity.

III IV V VI VII

Hg

Cd

H

Li

Na

K

Rb

Cs

Rb

Be

Mg

Ca

Sr

Ba

Ra

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

B C N1s1

O1s1

F1s1

Ne1s1

He

4f1 4f2 4f3 4f4 4f5 4f6 4f7 4f8 4f9 4f10 4f11 4f12 4f13 4f14

Al Si P1s1

Si1s1

Cl Ar

Ga Ge As1s1

Se1s1

Br Kr

In Sn Sb1s1

Te1s1

I Xe

Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au

Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt

5f1 5f2 5f3 5f4 5f5 5f6 5f7 5f8 5f9 5f10 5f11 5f12 5f13 5f14

I A

II A

A VIII

III IV V VI VII VIII I II

B

The Periodic Table

On this table, the colors show the On this table, the colors show the groups (families). Elements in the groups (families). Elements in the same column have similar chemical same column have similar chemical

properties. properties.

III IV V VI VII

Hg

Cd

H

Li

Na

K

Rb

Cs

Rb

Be

Mg

Ca

Sr

Ba

Ra

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

B C N1s1

O1s1

F1s1

Ne1s1

He

4f1 4f2 4f3 4f4 4f5 4f6 4f7 4f8 4f9 4f10 4f11 4f12 4f13 4f14

Al Si P1s1

Si1s1

Cl Ar

Ga Ge As1s1

Se1s1

Br Kr

In Sn Sb1s1

Te1s1

I Xe

Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au

Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt

5f1 5f2 5f3 5f4 5f5 5f6 5f7 5f8 5f9 5f10 5f11 5f12 5f13 5f14

I A

II A

A VIII

III IV V VI VII VIII I II

B

The Periodic Table

All Elements to the LEFT of the stair All Elements to the LEFT of the stair step line (red line) are metals. step line (red line) are metals.

III IV V VI VII

Hg

Cd

H

Li

Na

K

Rb

Cs

Rb

Be

Mg

Ca

Sr

Ba

Ra

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

B C N1s1

O1s1

F1s1

Ne1s1

He

4f1 4f2 4f3 4f4 4f5 4f6 4f7 4f8 4f9 4f10 4f11 4f12 4f13 4f14

Al Si P1s1

Si1s1

Cl Ar

Ga Ge As1s1

Se1s1

Br Kr

In Sn Sb1s1

Te1s1

I Xe

Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au

Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt

5f1 5f2 5f3 5f4 5f5 5f6 5f7 5f8 5f9 5f10 5f11 5f12 5f13 5f14

I A

II A

A VIII

III IV V VI VII VIII I II

B

Elements to the RIGHT are Elements to the RIGHT are nonmetals.nonmetals.Elements that are touching the Elements that are touching the line are called metalloids or semi-line are called metalloids or semi-metalsmetals

The Periodic TableIII IV V VI VII

Hg

Cd

H

Li

Na

K

Rb

Cs

Rb

Be

Mg

Ca

Sr

Ba

Ra

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

B C N1s1

O1s1

F1s1

Ne1s1

He

4f1 4f2 4f3 4f4 4f5 4f6 4f7 4f8 4f9 4f10 4f11 4f12 4f13 4f14

Al Si P1s1

Si1s1

Cl Ar

Ga Ge As1s1

Se1s1

Br Kr

In Sn Sb1s1

Te1s1

I Xe

Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au

Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt

5f1 5f2 5f3 5f4 5f5 5f6 5f7 5f8 5f9 5f10 5f11 5f12 5f13 5f14

I A

II A

A VIII

III IV V VI VII VIII I II

B

The groups are named as follows:The groups are named as follows:

Alkali metalsAlkali metals Alkaline-earth metalsAlkaline-earth metals

Transition metalsTransition metals Inner-transition Inner-transition metalsmetals

HalogensHalogens Noble gasesNoble gases

Chemical BondsA Chemical bond is the force that A Chemical bond is the force that holds two atoms togetherholds two atoms together

Bonds form so that atoms can be Bonds form so that atoms can be stable.stable.

An atom is stable when it has eight An atom is stable when it has eight valence (outside) electronsvalence (outside) electrons

The noble gases have eight valence The noble gases have eight valence electrons and therefore do not react electrons and therefore do not react with other elementswith other elements

The Two types of chemical bond are:The Two types of chemical bond are:Ionic Bonds Covalent Bonds

• Formed when one atoms gives up electrons and another one takes them

• Called ionic because ions are formed

• Form crystals in solid form• Have much higher melting

and boiling points

Ionic Bonds

Example : NaCl……. Table salt

• Formed when one atom shares it electron with another

• The word “covalent” means “outsides together”

• Generally do not form crystals

• Have lower boiling and melting points

Covalent Bonds

Example: H2O ….. Water

Chemical ReactionsHow do you know a chemical reaction has

happened?

1.It gives off light (flames are a good sign)

2.It gives off or absorbs heat (again with the flames)

3.It changes colors (unexpectedly)

4.Produces a gas (usually observed as bubbles or fizz)

5.Produces a precipitateprecipitate (a solid formed from two liquid reactants)

What are the different types of chemical reactions?

1. Synthesis – only one product from more than one reactant

2. Decomposition – more than one product from only one reactant

3. Single replacement – an element replaces one element in the other reactant

4. Double replacement – The two compounds that react trade partners

5. Combustion – must have oxygen, usually gives off a large amount of heat

Chemical EquationsA chemical equation uses symbols and

chemical formulas to represent what happens in a chemical reaction. They look like the following:

11 CaSO CaSO44 + + 22 LiOH LiOH 11 Li Li22SOSO44 + + 11 Ca(OH) Ca(OH)22

ReactantsReactants

SubscriptsSubscripts

ProductsProducts

CoefficientsCoefficients