tapping into people with autism spectrum disorder: …1328726/fulltext01.pdf · tapping into people...

IN DEGREE PROJECT INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT,SECOND CYCLE, 15 CREDITS

, STOCKHOLM SWEDEN 2019

TAPPING INTO PEOPLE WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER: "Moving Towards an Inclusive and Neurodiverse Workplace"

GREG NICHOLAS GARTSU

MARIA STEFANI

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYSCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Tapping into People with Autism Spectrum Disorder: “Moving Towards an Inclusive and Neurodiverse Workplace”

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TAPPING INTO PEOPLE WITH AUTISM

SPECTRUM DISORDER:

“Moving Towards an Inclusive and

Neurodiverse Workplace”

Greg Nicholas Gartsu

Maria Stefani

Master of Science Thesis TRITA-ITM-EX 2019:219

KTH Industrial Engineering and Management

Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management

SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM


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Master of Science Thesis TRITA-ITM-EX 2019:219

TAPPING INTO PEOPLE WITH AUTISM

SPECTRUM DISORDER:

“Moving Towards an Inclusive and Neurodiverse

Workplace”

Greg Nicholas Gartsu

Maria Stefani

Approved

2019-06-12

Examiner

Gregg Vanourek

Supervisor

Kristina Nyström

ABSTRACT

Organizations lack knowledge of a relatively new phenomenon of the potential of those

with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). As companies today seek to innovate, this paper

explores employers’ experiences and perceptions of employing those with ASD. As

companies have already begun to integrate adults with ASD into their organizations’ it

seems appropriate to help Swedish companies to innovate and give them a competitive

advantage. This paper provides a critical analysis on the challenges within the

employment market in Sweden to include individuals with ASD in high-quality labor and

high-tech industries. Analyzing data from several case studies and relevant literature

review, this paper describes the employment discrimination of people with ASD and

investigates if such discrimination can be eradicated by developing an innovation to

include those people. Further, this paper seeks to explore if such a social innovation can

be adopted in Swedish companies. The results of surveyed and interviewed employers

showed their knowledge, support, and confidence about ASD was mixed; partially

because of the ethics to question one’s neuropsychiatric diagnosis. Additionally, 2 actors

were contacted to gain further insight into the process of the social innovation process

framework. In summary, these studies find companies lack knowledge regarding ASD.

Increasing knowledge and awareness from successful company cases could encourage

companies to design ASD, or more broadly neurodiversity, into their organizations in

order to innovate.

Keywords

Autism spectrum disorder, mental health, innovation diffusion, integrated employment,

neurodiversity, social innovation process.


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SAMMANFATTNING

Organisationer saknar kunskap om ett relativt nytt fenomen som innefattar potentialen

hos personer med autismspektrumstörning (ASD). Företag söker ständigt efter

innovation, så detta arbete undersöker arbetsgivarnas erfarenheter och uppfattningar om

att anställa personer med ASD. Eftersom företag redan har börjat integrera vuxna med

ASD i sina organisationer, förefaller det sig lämpligt att hjälpa svenska företag att

utvecklas genom innovation och ge dem en konkurrensfördel inom detta ämne. I den här

uppsatsen ges en kritisk analys av utmaningarna på arbetsmarknaden i Sverige, som

innefattar personer med ASD i högkvalitativa arbeten och högteknologiska industrier.

Genom analyser av information från flera fallstudier och relevant litteraturgranskning,

beskriver denna uppsats diskrimineringen som innefattar personer med ASD och

undersöker om diskriminering kan minska genom utveckling, för att inkludera denna

målgrupp. Vidare, syftar denna uppsats på att utforska en sådan social innovation som

kan antas i varje företag. Resultaten av undersökningen samt intervjuer, visar att

arbetsgivarnas kunskap, support och förtroende för ASD är delade; delvis på grund av

etiken att ifrågasätta sin neuropsykiatriska diagnos. Dessutom kontaktades 2 aktörer för

att få mer inblick i processen inom ramen för social innovationsprocess.

Sammanfattningsvis finner dessa studier att företag saknar kunskap om ASD. Ökad

kunskap och medvetenhet från framgångsrika företagsärenden skulle uppmuntra företag

att utforma ASD, eller på en mer allmän nivå inom neuro mångfald, i sina organisationer.

Nyckelord

Autismspektrumstörning, mental hälsa, innovationsdiffusion, integrerad sysselsättning,

neurodiversitet, social innovationsprocess

List of Abbreviations

ASD Autism Spectrum Disorder

HFA High-Functioning Autism

PDD-NOS Pervasive Developmental Disorders-Not Otherwise Specified

SIP Social Innovation Process


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Glossary of Terms

Autism A developmental condition of variable severity that is characterized by difficulty in social interaction and communication and by restricted or repetitive behavior. (Oxford Dictionary, 2019)

Autism Spectrum Disorder Describes a range of neurodevelopmental condition

varying in degrees of impact on daily functioning. The

term spectrum reflects the fact that the symptoms vary

across different individuals, ranging in type and severity.

(Psychology Today, 2019)

Autistic Relating to or affected by autism. (Oxford Dictionary, 2019)

Asperger Syndrome A developmental condition related to autism and

characterized by awkwardness in social interaction,

pedantry in speech, and preoccupation with very narrow

interests. (Oxford Dictionary, 2019)

High-functioning autism An informal term referred to autistic people who have normal overall intelligence; not cognitively challenged. (Borremans, Rintala, Kielinen, 2009)

Neurodiversity The range of differences in individual brain function and behavioral traits regarded as part of normal variation in the human population (Oxford Dictionary, 2019). Although this term is used especially in the context of ASD, some definitions may include learning disabilities and even mental health conditions (National Symposium of Neurodiversity, 2019).

Neurotypical Not displaying or characterized by autistic or other neurologically atypical patterns of thought or behavior. (Oxford Dictionary, 2019)


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Inspiration for our topic arose from many passionate people. Thank you to all of those

people of enlightenment, from guest lecturers to the KTH community. By the same token,

we would like to express our gratitude towards our supervisor, Kristina Nyström, who has

guided us with her wisdom, knowledge, and support.

A special gratitude to all the interviewees and organizations who willingly took their time

to share the information we needed to complete our research, and especially to the autism

community in Stockholm and throughout the world that helped to connect us with their

networks.

Our gratitude also extends to our family and friends who have supported us before,

during, and after our study period at KTH. Their loving care and wise counselling have

helped us through our journey to achieve our Master’s in Entrepreneurship and Innovation

Management.

And above it all, we would like to thank God for His Favor.

Stockholm, June 9th 2019

Nick Gartsu Maria Stefani


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CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 8

1.1 Introduction to Autism 8

1.2 Problem Definition 10

1.3 Research Question 10

1.4 Purpose 10

1.5 The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 10

1.6 Scope 11

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 What is Autism Spectrum Disorder? 12

2.2 Autism Spectrum Disorder vs The Employment Market 13

2.2.1 Employment Rates 14

2.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of ASD Individuals 15

2.2.3 Evidence of ASD Individuals in Actual Workplace 16

2.2.4 Support Systems for ASD at Work 17

2.3 Previous Analyses of Employment and ASD 19

3. THEORY OF INNOVATION 22

3.1 Social Innovation 22

3.1.1 The Elements of Social Innovation 22

3.1.2 Social Innovation Process 23

3.2 Diffusion of Innovation 24

3.2.1 Characteristics of Innovation and the Rate of Diffusion 24

3.2.1.1 Relative Advantage 25

3.2.1.2 Compatibility 25

3.2.1.3 Complexity 26

3.2.1.4 Trialability and Observability 26

3.3 Narrative of the Phenomenon 27

4. METHODOLOGY 28

4.1. Research Approach 28

4.2 Collecting Research Data 28

4.3 Sampling Method 29

4.3.1 Design 29

4.3.2 Data Collection 29


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4.3.3 Ethics 30

5. RESULTS 31

5.1 Survey Results 31

5.2 Interview Results 32

5.2.1 Interview 1: The Healthcare Sector 32

5.2.2 Interview 2: Staffing Agent in the Engineering Sector 33

5.2.3 Interview 3: Consultancy in the IT Sector 33

5.2.4 Interview 4: The Tech Sector 34

5.2.5 Interview 5: Not-for-profit Intermediary in the Social Innovation 35

5.2.6 Interview 6: The Telecommunication Sector 35

5.2.7 Interview 7: Product Development Manager in Telecommunication Sector 36

5.3 Discussion / Analysis 37

6. CONCLUSIONS 43

6.1 Limitations 45

6.2 Final Remarks 45

6.3 Further Research 46

7. REFERENCES 47

Appendix A. Literature reviews of support system for individuals with ASD 54

Appendix B. Interview Questionnaires 56

List of Figures and Tables

Figure 1. Views on the suitability of different job types for individuals with autism. 19

Figure 2. Four fundamental elements of social innovation. 23

Figure 3. Research Model for the Social Innovation Process. 23

Figure 4. Social innovation process for an inclusive and neurodiverse workplace. 38

Table 1. Summary of the study findings and suggestions to bridge the gap 44


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1. INTRODUCTION

The first chapter begins with an introduction to establish the context in which the research

will take place, including the definition of the problem, the research question, the purpose

of the study, the methodology used, and the scope of the research.

1.1 Introduction to Autism

Adults with high-functioning ASD have recently came into focus in the society. Major tech

companies have been attracted to their positive traits. Companies such as Google, SAP,

and Microsoft, have begun to recruit this group of people (Annabi, 2018). Additionally,

entrepreneurial consultancy companies have formed globally. By specifically matching

ASD adults with niche industries, these organizations can utilize the positive attributes of

this talent pool. Nevertheless, these initiatives have not been recognized throughout any

specific industry, such as IT. Society nor companies have known about ASD for a

significant time in human history.

Dating back to 1911, the concept of autism was created by the German psychiatrist Eugen

Bleuler to describe a “symptom of most severe cases of schizophrenia” (Evans, 2013, p.

4) and referred to it as an “excessive hallucination and fantasy in infants” (Evans, 2013,

p. 4). According to him, autistic thinking occurred because infants wished to avoid

unsatisfying realities by replacing them with hallucinations and fantasies. This concept

was used from the 1920s and up until the 1950s (Piaget, 1923; as cited in Evans, 2013).

However in 1960s, the description of autism was radically reformulated. Kolvin (1971)

studied that autism in infants and young children did not have any hallucinatory thinking

of any form. He pointed that rather than having an excessive fantasy, autism was

described for someone who did not fantasize at all (Kolvin, 1971; Evans, 2013). Following

Kolvin’s research, other psychiatrist researchers also formulated autism as a

“‘communication disorder’ rather than ‘psychotic disorder’” (Evans, 2013, p. 18).

From the 1960s to the 1980s, there were changes in diagnostic methods because

institutions for ‘mental defectives’ were closed down and speech therapy services

flourished (Eyal, Hart, Onculer, Oren, Rossi, 2010; as cited in Evans, 2013). This meant

that autism came to be associated with “profound mental retardation and other

developmental or physical disorders’” (Wing and Potter, 2002; as cited in Evans, 2013, p.

4), resulting in an increasing number of children who were considered to display autistic

traits (Evans, 2013).

Following the 1959 Mental Health Act in Britain, children with intellectual disabilities who

had previously been isolated were integrated into schools (Evans, 2013). The Society for

Autistic Children, which were exclusive for autistic children were set up in the early 1960s,


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and campaigned to the Ministry of Education to regard all autistic children as ‘educable’

(Evans, 2013). The organization required that all children should be integrated within the

same educational framework to encourage these children’s integration in a unified

theoretical framework concerning the development of their thought (Evans, 2013).

Research after research was carried out to describe the phenomena of autism in children,

but the diagnoses were still quite inaccurate and vague (Evans, 2013). In 1979, Wing and

Gould conducted a prevalence study of ‘Severe Impairment of Social Interaction and

Associated Abnormalities' in children (Evans, 2013). Then in 1981, Wing published a

paper on Asperger’s Syndrome after reclaiming Hans Asperger’s article on autism. In her

paper, she extended her argument that autism should be included within a wider group

of conditions which have impairment of development of social interaction, communication,

and imagination (Wing, 1981; Nadesan, 2005; as cited in Evans, 2013,). As her finding

was highly influential, increasing numbers of studies were placed on autism. These

studies then regarded “autism as a problem of ‘social’ interaction rather than a problem

of emotional relationships with others” (Evans, 2013, p. 23).

Fairly recently, scholars have brought up the fact that the focus of ASD research has been

centered on children. One highlight is that society must remember that “autistic children

grow up” (Kopelson, 2015, p. 572) and those adults should be productive members of

society. Karen Kopelson (2015) has taken the initiative to make the learning process

easier for employers with handbooks.

A movement for people with autism, called The Neurodiversity Movement, proposed for

employers to be open minded and more approachable (Lorenz, Reznik, Heinitz, 2017).

Yet there are two options for ASD individuals who want to work, either to try to gain

employment in a nonspecific workplace that might not be accommodating enough, or look

for a job in an autism specific job environment (Hendricks, 2010; as cited in Lorenz et al.,

2017).

To enter the first option is not an easy task. Barriers, such as various communication

problems or rigorous application processes, need to be overcome before actually gaining

employment. Barriers, in other words, are social structures which undoubtedly contain

bias. And once those structural barriers and processes are removed, “equal opportunities

are created and conditions can be considered socially equal” (Rosqvist, 2012, p. 211).

Even when they have finally gained meaningful employment, there are also challenges

that arise in the workplace such as difficulties in engaging in casual conversations with

co-workers or various distractions in the common open plan that offices offer. However

the second option offers a better job environment than the first. Employees with ASD

report “less communication and environmental problems than those who work in regular

jobs” (Morris, Begel, Wiedermann, 2015; as cited in Lorenz et al., 2017, p. 6).


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Connecting the dots from the early findings of autism until present, it would appear that

people with ASD are excluded beginning in their childhood. They are either isolated,

pushed away, or being put in an exclusive environment because of social stigma and, as

expected, their inability to interact with other people (Wing, 1981; California Department

of Developmental Services, 2002; Graziano, 2002; Ozonoff, Rogers, Hendron, 2003;

Howlin, 2004; Schaller and Yang, 2005; Fradd and Joy, 2007; Wareham and Sonne,

2008; Cashin and Barker, 2009; Evans, 2013; Kopelson, 2015; Lorenz et al., 2017).

1.2 Problem Definition

Adults with high-functioning autism (HFA) are searching for a meaningful employment

through high-performing jobs, while companies are looking for talents to occupy the

‘tough-to-fill’ jobs. So can the discriminated be connected with these positions? The

potential of this underserved group might exactly be what employers are looking for.

Although several giant companies have already adapted employment programs for

individuals with ASD (Austin and Pisano, 2017; Annabi, 2018), one cannot deny that there

are still many that have not. Based on this, the problem is to investigate the challenges

companies have to adopt the social innovation of including HFA adults in their workplace.

1.3 Research Question

The research question in this paper is: “what are the obstacles that companies face with

employing adults with autism spectrum disorder?”

The question can be answered through these sub questions:

● Do companies have knowledge of ASD?

● What are the companies’ perceptions?

● How are these companies supporting employees with ASD?

1.4 Purpose

Industrial companies seek to innovate. Consumers demand more socially conscious

corporations, which contribute to public benefit and not strictly profit (Tu, 2016). This study

targets to identify what employers know about ASD, and to discover whether employing

individuals with HFA can be diffused to and be adopted by other companies. This has

implications for entrepreneurs developing conscious corporations.

1.5 The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

One of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs), prosperity,

targets “to ensure that all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that

economic, social and technological progress occurs in harmony with nature” (p. 5). More


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specifically, Goal 10 aims to “reduce inequality within and among countries” (p. 18). This

goal is further broken down to include adopting policies, increasing opportunity, and

reducing inequality for all. Humans with disabilities are included in section 10.2 of the

2030 Agenda (UN, 2015, p. 25). Therefore, this research contributes to the economic and

social dimensions highlighted by the UN.

1.6 Scope

The focus of the research is on companies’ perceptions of adults with HFA, with Sweden

as the geographical scope. Companies included within the scope are in high-tech

industries and other sectors of high-quality labor (e.g. business industries, healthcare

industries).


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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the term autism is defined and the current situation of integrated

employment for individuals with ASD is discussed, followed by further analyzing the

problem of ASD in the workforce. Then the social stigmas around ASD are investigated

and the current research is summarized. The final section in this chapter seeks to

corroborate whether the evidence provided confirms or contradicts the need for an ASD

innovation to take place in workplaces.

2.1 What is Autism Spectrum Disorder?

Autism is a spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders with wide variations in symptom

severity, intellectual level, and functional disability (California Department of

Developmental Services, 2002; Geschwind, 2009; Frazier, Youngstrom, Speer,

Embacher, Law, Constantino, Findling, Hardan, Eng, 2012) which lasts throughout a

person’s life (Howlin, 2004). It is characterized by a “distinct impaired verbal and

nonverbal communication; deficits in socialization and reciprocal social interaction; and

restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior” (American Psychiatric

Association, 2000; as cited in Schaller and Yang, 2005, p. 4) which is known as the “triad

of impairments” (Fradd and Joy, 2007; Wareham and Sonne, 2008; Cashin and Barker,

2009).

There are also other features that may be associated with the triad, such as language

delay and deviance, obsessional pursuit to specific interesting subjects, high sensitivity

to noise and light, abnormal movement, and eating or sleeping disorder (Schopler,

Mesibov, Kunce, 1998; Howlin, 2004). The group of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

includes classic autism, pervasive developmental disorders-not otherwise specified

(PDD-NOS), Rett’s syndrome, and Asperger syndrome (highly-intellectual type of autism)

(Schaller and Yang, 2005; Marshall, Noor, Vincent, Lionel, Feuk, Skaug, Shago,

Moessner, Pinto, Ren, and Thiruvahindrapduram, 2008). Individuals with high-functioning

autism (HFA) and Asperger Syndrome generally show less impairment in language usage

and cognitive development, but still have severe disability in social interactions (California

Department of Developmental Services, 2002; Graziano, 2002; Ozonoff et al., 2003;

Schaller and Yang, 2005).

ASD was once thought to be a relatively rare condition, with 1 occurrence in 150 children

(surveillance year 2000), however the current prevalence of ASD is estimated to be as

high as 1 in 59 children (surveillance year 2014) (CDC, 2018). It is reported to occur in all

racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups, with rates four to five times higher in males

than in females (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; CDC, 2018). The increase in

prevalence might be because the main characteristics recognized can occur to a broad

range of people of any age (Graziano, 2002; Schaller and Yang, 2005). Mental health


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experts recognize that many adults with ASD are undiagnosed and surmise that for every

three ASD diagnoses, there are two additional undiagnosed people with ASD (Lewis,

2018). Lewis (2018) concludes there should be a shift for people to be aware of ASD to

create a positive impact on their lives and those around them (Lewis, 2018).

Various studies have examined the learning characteristics of individuals with Asperger

Syndrome and compared it with HFA. The studies showed that individuals with Asperger

Syndrome have higher verbal than nonverbal abilities, and scored higher on theory of

mind tasks (Schopler et al., 1998). However, the distinction between Asperger Syndrome

and HFA has not been resolved yet (Schopler et al., 1998). Therefore from this point

forward, HFA and Asperger Syndrome will be used interchangeably in this paper.

In relation to social barrier, Baron-Cohen, Jolliffe, Mortimore, and Robertson (1997)

conducted an ‘advanced theory of mind test’ that was perceived to test how well the

participants can put themselves in other person’s mind, and relate to their mental state.

“‘Theory of mind’ is the ability to attribute mental states to oneself or another person

(Premack and Woodruff, 1978; as cited in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, and

Plumb, 2001, p. 241), which is the main way for people to make sense of or predict

another person’s behavior” (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright et al., 2001, p. 241). It can be

referred to as “mentalizing” (Morton, Frith, and Leslie, 1991), “mind reading” (Whitten,

1991), “social intelligence” (Baron-Cohen, Jolliffe et al., 1999), and overlaps with

“empathy” (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright et al., 2001). The failure to “mind read” or

mentalize is what assumed to be “mindblindness” (Frith, 2001).

Now the background has been presented about the characteristics and dimensions of

autism spectrum in society, in section 2.2 the rich potential of these individuals will be

connected to the work environment.

2.2 Autism Spectrum Disorder vs The Employment Market

Work has a direct impact on the wellbeing of humans, including people with ASD (Milner

and Dimov, 2018). Stankova and Trajkovski (2010) described employment as:

The right to work is one of the fundamental human rights, however it should not be

understood as a right of any work, but a job that fits the capabilities and

qualifications of the individual and right to work, whose performance secures

human's existence. (p. 17)

This subsection first discusses ASD employment rates and the connection of ASD special

abilities to jobs in high demand. Second, the incumbent social innovators found in

research are mentioned with the fields and projects they have found people with ASD


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excel in. Thirdly, the section introduces the challenges, findings, support, and the

perceptions of ASD from previous studies.

2.2.1 Employment Rates

Research found that the employment rate for individuals with ASD is disappointing. This

is not to be blamed on any particular group because it is a social construct. Disabilities

become a problem “caused by social structures of inequality and discrimination”

(McLaughlin, 2003; as cited in Rosqvist, 2012, p. 208). ASD employment is lower than

the population at large, compared to neurotypicals and their peers with other types of

disabilities (Baldwin, Costley and Warren, 2014; Roux, Shattuck, Rast, Rava, and

Anderson, 2015). The National Autism Indicators Report (2017) from Drexel University in

the US surveyed and found that less than 16 percent have full-time paid work.

Additionally, slightly more than half of autistic individuals in work said they were more

skillful than those their job required. Further, only 32 percent are in some kind of paid

work, whereas 77 percent who are unemployed stated that they want to work. This means

that fewer than one in six autistic adults is in full-time employment (National Autism

Indicators Report, 2017). It also shows that they are more likely to experience challenges

in securing and sustaining a long-term employment. They are either unemployed (without

a job), underemployed (working at a level far below their knowledge, skills, and

experience), or ‘malemployed’ (working in jobs which they are totally unsuited) compared

to other groups with other types of disabilities (Romoser, 2000; Hurtlbutt and Chalmers,

2004; Baldwin et al., 2014, Roux et al., 2015). This finding also indicates that ASD

individuals hold a fragmented work history as a result of a high level of job-switching.

Such evidence may limit their potential to gain long-term employment and career

development, which contributes to low self-esteem and stress, leading to depression,

isolation, financial insecurity, and suicidal thoughts/attempts (Mawhood and Howlin.

1999; Müller, Schuler, Burton and Yates, 2003; Rebholz, 2012; as cited in Baldwin et al.,

2014).

There are labor shortages in particular industries which ASD individuals tend to excel in,

such as programming and natural sciences (McMullen, 2000; Baldwin et al., 2014). Hence

existing companies recognize their strengths and specifically aim to employ them while

continuing to be a regular competitive business (Lorenz et al., 2016). Mixed results for

these findings are evident since some research show adults with ASD also work in a

broad range of occupations. Since ASD is a pervasive issue, high-GDP countries have

government, institutions, or organizations available to assist them. Using an estimate that

1% of the population has autism, the cost of all ASDs to the UK amounted in £25 billion

per year (Knapp, Romeo, Beechman, 2009). And, respectably, the opportunity to tap into

ASD must be looked at from a cost-efficiency perspective for business owners. In some

economies, such as in the USA, research has already proven that the monetary benefits


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of ASD individuals working in their community outweigh the monetary costs. Therefore

those with ASD “working in the community produced a net benefit” (Cimera et al., 2011,

p. 173). Due to this evidence, this research paper can be delimited to not focus on whether

the ASD community is profitable, and rather focus on diffusing the opportunity of how this

group can be effectively employed in communities.

2.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of ASD Individuals

The specific challenges that this vulnerable group faces in the context of recruitment and

employment vary. The challenges include rigorous preliminary stages of applying for work

such as dealing with complex job application materials and interviews; acclimatizing to

the new work environment and responding flexibly to unexpected situations; and

communicating effectively and interacting socially with co-workers, among other

obstacles (Beardon and Edmonds, 2007; Hillier, Campbell, Mastriani, Vreeburg Izzo,

Kool-Tucker, Cherry, 2007; Stuart-Hamilton, Griffith, Totsika, Nash, Hastings, and Felce,

2009; Robertson, 2010; Baldwin et al., 2014). An additional challenge, found by Milne

(2018), exists in “the nonverbal cues and social behaviors of other people” (p. vi). The

behaviors lead to difficulties building relationships and their well-being (Milne, 2018).

To the contrary, adults with ASD frequently excel in performance in jobs that require visual

thinking, systematic information processing or precise technical abilities. They often can

be successful in such fields as mathematics, computing, physical sciences, and library

science (McMullen, 2000; Baldwin et al., 2014). However these should not be stereotyped

as the ‘right’ kind of job people with ASD should have in professional settings (Romoser,

2000). Studies have shown that adults with ASD are actually employed across a broad

range of occupations, including those contrary to the popular assumptions of people who

are on the spectrum, such as sales, creative arts, and the military (Müller et al., 2003;

Stuart-Hamilton et al., 2009; Baldwin et al., 2014; Lorenz et al., 2017).

The competitive employment market overlooks many individuals with ASD even though

they have the potential and unusual abilities. Despite their social and communication

disabilities they excel in long-term memory skills, accuracy, and reliability, in addition to

possessing a great attention to details, the ability to visualize problems and show

extraordinary ability in repetitive work (Mawhood and Howlin, 1999; McMullen, 2000;

Wareham and Sonne, 2008; Morris et al., 2015; Austin and Pisano, 2017; Annabi,

Sundaresan, and Zolyomi, 2017; Annabi, 2018). Employers who are aware of autism and

unlock this hidden potential, may acquire a competitive edge in the industry. As Austin

and Pisano (2017) explained, in the past companies have shaped people so they can

easily fit together with ease. They ended their article explaining that companies also want

to innovate. And in order to innovate companies need to have various points of views and

minds. In addition, individuals with ASD should be considered as desirable employees


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compared to neurotypicals because they would be much more likely to favor to work in

one company rather than shuffling to other companies that offer more profitable job

opportunities (Romoser, 2000).

2.2.3 Evidence of ASD Individuals in Actual Workplace

Although for the previously mentioned reasons most companies refuse to employ ASD

individuals, companies that have successfully utilized the distinctive characteristics and

talents of individuals with ASD do exist. These companies have unlocked the group’s

hidden potentials and use them as a competitive advantage, while supporting them to

secure meaningful employment. Specialisterne Foundation is the first organization in the

high-tech industry to identify the niches in the economy and employs adults with ASD

(Wareham and Sonne, 2008). Though it was tough at the beginning and the founder of

the company discovered that the business model was hard to scale, against all odds the

company has now become one of the largest organizations in the IT industry to employ

individuals with ASD and has established globally. It is reported that over 75 percent of

the employees at Specialisterne, “in areas such as software testing and data validation”

(p. 12), are diagnosed with some form of ASD (Wareham and Sonne, 2008).

Inspired by the success of Specialisterne, technology giants such as Google, SAP

Software Solutions, Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE), IBM, and Microsoft began to

employ IT workers with autism, who mostly are working with software developing and

testing (Annabi, 2018). In similar fashion, American company Aspiritech, and Passwerk

in Belgium also provided affordable software testing by harnessing the talents of people

with HFA (Annabi, 2017). Corresponded to this, Auticon, an IT company based in

Germany, and Meticulon, a Canadian IT startup, only employ individuals with HFA as

consultants (Lorenz et al., 2017). These initiatives proposed several potential benefits,

including meeting the rising demand for IT workers, as well as capitalizing on the talents

of employees with autism (Annabi, 2018). Additionally, such initiatives would have a

greater social impact (Shattuck et al., 2012) and at the same time provide meaningful

employment opportunities for IT-oriented individuals with ASD (Annabi, 2018).

Outside of IT related work, a professional service company like Ernst&Young (EY),

Deloitte, and PwC, had also launched program to recruit individuals with neurodiversity,

including ASD (Cohn, 2017). With their exceptional focus and strong mathematical skills

(McMullen, 2000; Baldwin et al., 2014), “what would usually take months to calculate

would take roughly five to ten minutes, tops” (Cohn, 2017). Another example, the United

Overseas Bank (UOB) Group in Singapore together with Autism Resources Center also

initiated to include individuals with ASD. 30 percent of their 50 employees working in

handling customer documents (e.g. checking digitalization, handling) are diagnosed with

autism (Lorenz et al., 2017). Moreover, lately an Israeli army unit had become aware of


17

the strength of autistic individuals and recruits dozens of them into their Special

Intelligence Unit 9900. To join the forces, these young autistic adults must participate in

a special military training program to train both their perception skills and social abilities,

where afterwards they can utilize their “above-average visual perception skills for various

geography-related tasks, such as mapping or analyzing satellite images for the smallest

changes” (Rubin, 2016; as cited in Lorenz et al., 2017, p. 7).

Surely, it is not surprising that most of the previously mentioned examples are IT related.

Although it might seem quite stereotypical, this certainly shows that “autistic individuals

somehow naturally have an interest in computer sciences” (Mazurek Shattuck, Wagner,

Cooper, 2012; as cited in Lorenz et al., 2017, p. 8). However, not only limited to IT, it also

shows that there are growing needs to construct autism awareness in workplaces within

different industries to support potential employees with ASD. In order to discover their

hidden talent, they need to be understood. To quote Dr. Temple Grandin on Einstein,

whom she believes had a mild form of Asperger Syndrome, “had he been born today, he

would probably have ended up just driving a truck in twenty years’ time!” (Acker, 2005, p.

42).

2.2.4 Support Systems for ASD at Work

High-functioning and intellectual ASD individuals may get a suitable job however more

likely they cannot secure nor sustain their jobs, not because of the lack of competencies

but due to the lack of soft skills and flexibility (e.g. solid communication skills, being a

team player, emotional intelligence, the ability to acclimate to new work environment, etc)

(Burt, Fuller, and Lewis, 1991; Austin and Pisano, 2017). Nevertheless several employer

support schemes have already been performed and adopted in companies to recondition

the challenges which both ASD individuals and their employers face. The schemes

include the modification of jobs and schedules, assistance with job routines and tasks,

willingness to provide accommodations, and behavior support that extends to social

arena (Burt et al., 1991; Mawhood and Howlin, 1999; Hagner and Cooney, 2005; Lorenz

et al., 2016), which was shown to be successful. With higher level of social inclusion and

social acceptance in the workplace, ASD individuals may obtain longer job retention

(Belcher and Smith, 1994; Hagner and Cooney, 2005). Additionally, such management

practices of the employer will also establish an atmosphere of mutual support and develop

a worker-friendly environment which will benefit both parties (Rogan, Banks, and Howard,

2000; Hagner and Cooney, 2005).

Another important factor of an effective management method is deciding which support

intervention will be most effective and when to apply or withdraw it (Hagner and Cooney,

2005). For an employee with ASD, intervention may occur when there are situations

which can interfere with overall performance such as changes in routines, unusually loud


18

noises, or unexpected down time. As such, it would appear that the most successful

employers/supervisors are the ones that can identify the problems quickly, determine

which interventions is the most effective to address the distinct situation, and effectively

monitor the intervention (Gates, Akabas, and Kantrowitz, 1996; as cited in Hagner and

Cooney, 2005).

A study performed by Baldwin et al. (2014) underlines the factors that determine their

satisfying employment experience. The study found high-functioning adults with ASD

view “work mainly as an opportunity to apply their knowledge, skills and interests that is

at the same time meaningful and has intrinsic value” (p. 2448). They also value the

opportunities in their employment when they can confront some of the specific difficulties

associated with their condition, which would challenge their boundaries of interaction

capability. Another factor is the idea of work could make them bring their full capacity in

their specific areas of interest and ability, which would benefit both themselves and their

employers. The study emphasizes that individuals working in a well-matched job could

achieve self-actualization. The latter finding would appear to strengthen the argument

that underemployment and malemployment actually have detrimental impacts for adults

with ASD (Baldwin et al., 2014). Ultimately, it seems that unsatisfactory employment

experiences are “inevitably linked to the risk of losing or leaving jobs” (p. 2447).

Nesbitt (2000) compared organizational issues around employing those with Asperger

syndrome juxtaposed to those that do not. The findings showed employers currently

employing ASD individuals were attentive to the knowledge and support needed by the

group. This differentiated from the employers not employing individuals with ASD. This

second group had more of an expectation focus on employing those with ASD (Nesbitt,

2000). The takeaway from Nesbitt’s research shows that organizations may need to have

experience interacting with individuals within the organization. This allows them to

understand how to equip their companies with the resources needed to make

employment decisions regarding employing individuals with ASD.

Researchers conducted a survey on over one thousand adults in a Northern Irish

population. One of the questions sought out the perception on the suitability of different

jobs “ranging from relatively low skilled, to manual, and to highly skilled” (Dillenburger

McKerr, Jorgan, Devine, Keenan, 2015, p. 335). As seen below in figure 1, high

functioning adults with ASD are perceived to have a noticeably higher perception as being

suitable for computer programming roles. Since the roles are quite narrow in this survey,

the researchers sought out to see companies’ perspectives in multiple industries to see if

they align with the public's perception.


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Figure 1. Views on the suitability of different job types for individuals with autism.

(Dillenburger et al., 2015, p. 335)

2.3 Previous Analyses of Employment and ASD

To further provide background of a socially innovative opportunity, this subsection goes

over prior researchers’ suggestions. The results of those studies are discussed, and then

the alignment between these studies are introduced.

Chen, Leader, Sung, and Leahy (2015) have found 4 external factors contributing to the

challenges faced by those with ASD. 1) Employers’ attitudes are concerned about

employing and supporting them. 2) Vocational services lack the quality and quantity

needed to support their studies. 3) Disability benefits create incentives to choose low-

paying jobs or staying unemployed. And 4) the family socioeconomic status may hinder

their access to resources and education. The overall conclusion detailed that adults are

underserved and further research should be conducted to improve the services provided

to adults with ASD (Chen et al., 2015). The social well-being through the employment of

members of society has been proven to be a challenge and a socially beneficial

opportunity.

Up until present, children have been the main focus in autism. Psychologists applied the

diffusion of innovation theory on autism intervention programs for children through the

eyes of administrators (Dingfelder and Mandell, 2011). To facilitate the diffusion of autism


20

interventions in the community, research by Dingfelder and Mandell suggested to partner

with communities and to develop new interventions. The involvement was to ensure that

the interventions meet the community’s needs and capabilities, thereby increasing the

probability of successful diffusion (Dingfelder and Mandell, 2011).

Researchers, such as Karen Kopelson (2015), brought the fact to our attention that

“autistic children grow up” (p. 572). She had guidebooks marketing individuals with high-

functioning autism (HFA) and strived to convince the secondary audience of prospective

employers to hire HFA job-seekers (Kopelson, 2015). This group is discriminated by some

organizations due to their “‘autistic traits’ such as asociality and inflexibility” (Kopelson,

2015, p. 558) as well as “mindblindness” (Kopelson, 2015, p. 559). And just as all

strengths have their weakness, these traits also have great trade-offs or advantages. The

challenge in research is around including autistic traits in organizations. In Germany,

researchers conducted a cross-sectional-survey finding that adults with ASD need

employer support programs (Frank, Jablotschkin, Arthen, Riedel, Fangmeier, Hölzel, and

Tebartz van Elst, 2018).

Expanding on the research previously by Chen et al. (2015), an internal system would

allow companies to create a mutually beneficial relationship, while contributing to the well-

being, productivity, and profitability of society. As mentioned earlier, ASD costs the UK

society a great amount of money. It is assumed that this case applies to other societies

of humans with ASD as well. Therefore, instead of focusing on how to reduce costs and

services for individuals with ASD, a better solution would be to find out ways companies

can tap into their potential or eliminate the costs associated with keeping them out of the

labor force (Chen et al., 2015). Besides the ethical reasons for employing adults with

ASD, Cimera et al (2011) have found the value generated by employing those with autism

outweighed the monetary costs in communities in the USA. And this excludes "non-

monetary outcomes, such as increased happiness, improved self-worth, and the

development of meaningful friendships" (Cimera et al, 2011, p. 179). Costs make sense

to mention since social innovation must be financially sustainable in addition to

contributing to the well-being in society (Dawson and Daniel, 2010). Because of these

clarifications discussing the non-monetary benefits, the authors of this paper recognize

that cost arguments could arise. To narrow the scope this paper will now focus on the

challenge of how employers can open their doors and maximize the contribution provided

by ASD adults.

To summarize what previous research has found, Frank et al (2018) suggested

companies should develop support programs. Dingfelder and Mandell (2011) proposed

partnerships to increase the diffusion rate of intervention programs for autistic children.

The use of ASD-specific tools have been suggested (Scott, Falkmer, Falkmer, Girdler,

2015) and tested in the employment process (Scott, Falkmer, Girdler, Falkmer, 2018).


21

The Integrated Employment Success Tool (IEST™) tested by Scott et al. (2018)

confirmed the hindrances for researchers to comprehend employers’ challenges, which

makes trialing modifications arduous and troublesome. Using visuals as strategies for

training people with ASD for the workplace and keeping them employed have shown

positive results (Ballard, 2016). Collectively these studies acknowledge the need for

additional research around employment and ASD. Bringing these previous studies

together, this paper will now introduce theories to expand on the innovation diffusion used

in the case of Dingfelder and Mandell (2011) and the social innovation process.


22

3. THEORY OF INNOVATION

This chapter provides background information regarding social innovation and the social

innovation process. Next, the theory of diffusion of innovation is explained to identify the

elements of this innovation in companies throughout society.

3.1 Social Innovation

In an article inspecting innovation from documentation on Benjamin Franklin, Mumford

defined social innovation as “the generation and implementation of new ideas about how

people should organize interpersonal activities, or social interactions, to meet one or more

common goals” (Mumford, 2002, p. 253). An important highlight in the findings of Mumford

(2002) were that “social innovation requires both persuasion and the support of relevant

elites” (p. 262). Critiquing Mumford’s work, the elites can be more than elite individuals

alone. The additional elites could be the aforementioned big players such as Microsoft,

Dell, and EY. Developing on the findings brought forward in Mumford’s article, the

business landscape meets the support from elite’s requirement for a social innovation to

diffuse.

3.1.1 The Elements of Social Innovation

Overtime, social innovation has consisted of applying science and technology to

commercial contexts (Dawson and Daniel, 2010). In contrast to innovations rising for

profit, exploitation for gain, or due to competition; social innovations vary since they

usually arise for “a concern with people and communities” (p. 10). Dawson and Daniel

discuss the importance of sustainability by using profits and competitive advantage as

metrics. Using these metrics they discuss how social initiatives, focusing more on

improving the well-being of society, can be justified both socially and economically.

Exploring the social innovation process “represents an attempt to bring some different

bodies of knowledge together in reflecting on social innovation, social entrepreneurship

and social business” (Dawson and Daniel, 2010, p. 18). The business management

authors explored social innovation through the “two key knowledge domains of business

innovation and social awareness” (p.10). After explaining that social innovation has more

complexities than simply a product or process innovation, they go on to further develop

the term social innovation as “the process of collective idea generation, selection and

implementation by people who participate collaboratively to meet social challenges”

(Dawson and Daniel, 2010, p. 16). They deconstruct the further developed system of

social innovation into 4 fundamental elements, shown below in figure 2 in their PCPG

model.


23

Figure 2. Four fundamental elements of social innovation.

(Dawson and Daniel, 2010, p. 16)

The people in the PCPG model have “special interests, common goals or shared

agenda(s)” and the goal seeks to resolve “social challenges that will advance social well-

being” (p. 17). The challenge and process elements can vary depending on the people

and goal. The complexities of social innovation contain more layers than mentioned in the

PCPG. Therefore, the Social Innovation Process (SIP) is further visualized below in figure

3.

Figure 3. Research Model for the Social Innovation Process.

(Turker and Vural, 2017, p. 101)

3.1.2 Social Innovation Process

In the findings, the authors of this paper chose to focus on the SIP model provided by

Turker and Vural (2017) with explores "the nature and interlinkages between institutional

context (IC) and social innovation process (SIP) by considering the role of actor in the


24

interface" (p. 99). The SIP model aligns closely, both semantically and conceptually, with

Dawson and Daniel’s 4 fundamental elements of social innovation, which consist of

people, the challenge, the process, and the goal. The model created by Turker and Vural

contain 3 boxes in addition to the social innovation in itself. These are the 1) IC (made up

of people), 2) challenge, goal, and process in the SIP and 3) the actor. Turker and Vural

(2017) found social innovations are missing intermediaries. And they refer to the gaps as

institutional voids (IVs). Consequently, a linkage must be made between these IVs and

institutional supports (ISs). They define an IS as: “The support/s embedded in the social-

welfare logic” (p. 104). Once an actor realizes a SI the challenges are found, goals are

set, processes form, and that is how “either incremental, institutional, and disruptive SI”

(p. 99) occurs. Through the lens of IVs and ICs, their studies focused on several actors

ranging from non-governmental organizations to business organizations in Turkey. As

their theory was delimited to social innovation, this paper applys Turker & Vural’s model

to the area of ASD as a social innovation in the Swedish market.

3.2 Diffusion of Innovation

Diffusion of innovation can be defined as:

The process through which an innovation is adopted, through a series of stages,

influenced by interpersonal (e.g. opinion leader or change agent), mass, and digital

communication and networks, over time, through a social system, with a wide

variety of consequences. (Rogers, 2003; Rice, 2009; as cited in Rice, 2017)

In other words, “adoption is not a simple function of knowledge but requires also

evaluation and trial” (Baptista, 2000, p. 517).

3.2.1 Characteristics of Innovation and the Rate of Diffusion

The diffusion and adoption of innovation can be influenced by several factors. In this

paper, the authors only observed the diffusion and adoption from the characteristics of

innovation. The five characteristics of innovation includes relative advantage;

compatibility; complexity; trialability; and communicability/observability (Tidd and

Bessant, 2009; Rice, 2017); all of which are related to how an innovation is being

perceived by potential adopters, and to which extent can these attributes accelerate the

rate of adoption (Tidd and Bessant, 2009). If innovation is seen as including individuals

with ASD in the workplace, and potential adopters are seen as companies, then these

attributes can be the guide to identify why such an innovation is easy/difficult to be

adopted in the employment market.

It is also important to note that attributes of innovation can be separated into primary and

secondary attributes. Primary attributes are independent, meaning that it is “invariant and

inherent to a specific innovation irrespective of the adopter.” (Tidd and Bessant, 2009, p.

356); while “secondary attributes may vary from adopter to adopter, being contingent


25

upon the perceptions and context of adopters.” (Tidd and Bessant, 2009, p. 356). Should

there be any discrepancy between characteristic of an item of knowledge and how a

potential user would perceive that character, ‘attribute gap’ will occur. In order for the

knowledge to be adopted, the sum of all attribute gaps should be minimized (Tidd and

Bessant, 2009).

As Dearing and Cox (2018) stated, “When opinion-leading individuals and organizations

adopt an innovation, social systems convert from one normative state to another. When

opinion leaders do not adopt an innovation, systems do not change.” (p. 184). Microsoft,

SAP, HPE, and IBM as tech-leading companies, as well as EY as a huge firm in the

professional service sector can be recognized as opinion-leading organizations; with their

initiatives to include individuals with ASD in their organizations (Annabi, 2018), it is

expected that other smaller companies will follow their footsteps.

3.2.1.1 Relative Advantage

From relative advantage point of view, including autistic adults into the workplace will not

only be economically profitable for the employers, but it will also give other benefit such

as satisfaction and social prestige (Tidd and Bessant, 2009). Autistic employees have

been identified to “perform a wide range of highly advanced tasks with remarkable quality

and efficiency” (Ernst&Young, 2018, p.7). For example, in one of its largest projects, using

robotics and traditional coding, autistic employees of EY saved the company 800 hours

while improving the overall quality of work; the combined time savings and quality

improvements saved the company approximately $100,000. Again, another project in EY

was completed 5-12 times faster than what was scheduled, providing its client “a

predictive model with an error rate of less than 4%” (Ernst&Young, 2018, p. 7).

3.2.1.2 Compatibility

As far as for compatibility, the fit with existing values and norms of an innovation may be

more important than existing practices (Leonard-Barton and Sinha, 1993; as cited in Tidd

and Bessant, 2009). Innovations do not instantly fit the user environment initially, and

should there occur significant discrepancy between the innovation and the adopting

organization, changes in the innovation or organization will be needed (Tidd and Bessant,

2009). This would convey that including adults with ASD in the workplace might be

unsuitable to some companies’ existing values and norms, combined with the

unwillingness to having changes in the workplace settings or in their organizations, such

innovation might not meet the compatibility attributes. Nevertheless, if such innovation is

implemented successfully, it will result in mutual adaptation of both (Tidd and Bessant,

2009).


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3.2.1.3 Complexity

“Innovations which are simpler for potential users to understand will be adopted more

rapidly than those which require the adopter to develop new skills and knowledge.” (Tidd

and Bessant, 2009, p. 356). In order for an organization to adopt a new innovation,

‘absorptive capacity’ is required to “allow the transfer of knowledge from the user

innovation community to the organization” (Di Gangi and Wasko, 2009, p. 307).

Absorptive capacity is defined as “the firm's ability to value, assimilate and apply new

knowledge” (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; as cited in Di Gangi and Wasko, 2009, p. 307).

Complexity in an innovation may hinder potential users to even be aware of the benefit it

would bring because of the knowledge gap regarding the innovation. Integrating

employees with ASD would require employers to gain more information and knowledge

about them, as well as providing appropriate support for them. The complexity of the idea

itself would discourage some companies to adopt such innovation, which is related to

their absorptive capacity (Tidd and Bessant, 2009).

3.2.1.4 Trialability and Observability

Trialability and observability of an innovation represents “less uncertainty to potential

adopters” (Tidd and Bessant, 2009, p. 356) by being “visible to others” (Tidd and Bessant,

2009, p. 357). These two attributes examine the ability of potential adopters to test an

innovation before adopting and to view initial results of the innovation’s success or failure

(Di Gangi and Wasko, 2009).

One of the first companies to try to harness the latent talent of individuals with ASD was

Specialisterne. Established in early 2000, it was considered as the innovator of such

novelty. Although the founder’s endeavor did not fall in the trialability category, which

refers to the ability to try out an innovation without total commitment nor investment (Cain

and Mittman, 2002), the remarkable success of it started to become visible to other

companies.

The observability attribute plays a big role in such innovation. In 2008, USA based

software testing company Aspiritech developed a similar venture and was driven by a

similar background1 as the innovator. Inspired by the two ventures, UK company Autism

Works was founded. Lately, many larger companies (e.g. Microsoft, Dell, IBM, Google)

started to tap into the potential of people with ASD (Annabi et al., 2017; Annabi, 2018),

and even the military forces began to tap into their potential (Lorenz et al., 2017). This

shows that potential adopters are able to witness the outcome of the adoption of such

innovation, and by which they can determine its prospects for diffusion. The more obvious

the evidence, and the better outcomes an innovation carries, the more likely it will be

adopted by new users (Cain and Mittman, 2002). Therefore it would be interesting to see

1 https://aspiritech.org/our-passion/history/

https://aspiritech.org/our-passion/history/


27

if other companies also tap into the potential or are at least aware of the value and

potential that those with ASD could provide to their organizations.

3.3 Narrative of the Phenomenon

The theoretical background provides the information to investigate the research question

of “what are the obstacles that companies face with employing adults with autism

spectrum disorder?”. From the research question backed with literature review, the

authors derived these hypotheses from Wareham and Sonne (2008, p. 16), viewed from

the company’s perspective:

1) The lack of knowledge about ASD;

2) Lack of acceptance in the workplace for people with different condition;

3) Social stigma around autism;

4) Lack of support for individuals with ASD in getting employed; and

5) Lack of support in the workplace when they are finally getting employed.

The hypotheses are therefore used as a base for further investigation through empirical

studies with these sub questions:

● Do companies have knowledge of ASD?

● What are the companies’ perceptions?

● How are these companies supporting employees with ASD?


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4. METHODOLOGY

The chosen methodology is discussed in this chapter. Sub-chapter 4.1 describes the

process of research for literature review. Sub-chapter 4.2 discusses the methods used

for collecting sampling data, which includes the design structure of the survey

questionnaires, respondent’s data collection, and the ethics of the sampling method used

to collect the data.

4.1. Research Approach

This study investigated employers’ perceptions and awareness of ASD in the workplace.

Exploratory research was conducted due to a small number of earlier studies in existence

(Collis and Hussey, 2013) regarding the topic.

An interpretivist paradigm was chosen since the data is not analyzed statistically, nor the

authors had the desire to quantify qualitative data.

The researchers contacted autism organizations in Stockholm and established

companies already in the implementation stages of this social innovation. This connection

led the researchers to an established actor covering a wider scope than the HFA delimited

by the researchers. With time restraints, resources, pre-study outreach, and risk

assessment the researchers decided to approach ASD from the company perspective.

In order to avoid hindering participants to answer such a tricky issue, data collection was

carried out in two steps: 1) sending out online surveys to companies that were considered

to be neurodiversity-friendly; and 2) conducting an in-depth interview with the participants

from the respective companies.

4.2 Collecting Research Data

A mixed of quantitative and qualitative data was used in this project by collecting data

from literature review, Internet searches, followed by sending out survey questionnaires

to managers and employees in several companies, and in-depth interviews with the

respective respondents. The survey questionnaires were derived from Scott et al.’s

(2018) Integrated Employment Success Tool (IEST™). Due to the scarcity of data and

the lack of statistics on pertinent information in peer-reviewed articles, the research also

consisted of statistics that were not peer-reviewed. The survey was carried out as a result

of the unwillingness of most target respondents to participate in the study.


29

4.3 Sampling Method

In this section, the methods used for observations of the companies who participated in

the survey is explained.

As the research explores ASD diversity through the lens of employers, or in other words

the population, the survey allowed for a clean, honest, and time efficient method to collect

data. Assumedly, this created more objective rather than subjective answers. The sample

collected was not random since employers and managers of organizations in Sweden

were targeted. Attempts were also communicated to respondents to distribute the survey

in their network, with the hope of creating a “snowball sampling or networking” (Collis and

Hussey, 2013, p. 132) effect.

The collected results of the survey were then analyzed to identify which answers needed

to be explored more. The identification provided the researchers to create a personalized

interview questions for the participant. The participants who took the survey were then

contacted again to clarify and elaborate on their answers for particular questions.

4.3.1 Design

Surveys were adapted from the research conducted in Evaluating the Effectiveness of an

Autism-Specific Workplace Tool for Employers: A Randomised Controlled Trial (Scott et

al., 2018). Some adjustments were made from the original questionnaires, such as

measurement rankings and locations; and some questions that were not relevant to the

outcome of the surveys were deleted (e.g. gender, earnings, how many hours they work,

etc). More importantly, it is necessary to highlight that there was no non-randomised

controlled trial in this study.

The survey was provided in Google Forms, which consisted of 3 sections: 1) employer

demographics; 2) workers scale form; and 3) the Employer Self-Efficacy Scale (ESES).

A Likert scale was used in section 2 and 3 to assess people’s perception of employees

with disabilities and their confidence to support these employees in the employment

process respectively.

4.3.2 Data Collection

Primary data was collected in the form of a questionnaire survey. The survey targeted

companies which were considered to be neurodiverse and/or had employees with neural

disabilities in different industries. Emails (n=22) were sent out to a sample of employers

in various departments in Sweden explaining the purpose of the research, and 12

responded. Additionally, phone calls were conducted to increase the researchers’


30

credibility and relationship with the respondents. Lastly, posts were shared on social

media groups on Facebook and LinkedIn.

“Piggybacking” (Collis and Hussey, 2013, p. 133) off of the survey results, further

qualitative interviews were conducted to gain further insights into the experiences,

knowledge, and resources that the company had to employ and support people with ASD.

These questions were open-ended questions to gain insights into the interviewees’

experiences. Notes were taken during these conversations for accurate delivery and

presentation of the results.

In order to provide more reliable research, the participants of the study were of the higher

positions or had more responsibilities for other employees in their respective companies

(e.g. owners, managers, executives, or HR personnel).

4.3.3 Ethics

In regards to such a complex and sensitive issue, this research adhered to ethical

principles of scientific research. The participation of this thesis interview was voluntary

and so all of the interviews were conducted on a voluntary basis. Further, respondents’

personal data would be kept confidential and appear as anonymous in order to be

consistent, and most importantly to protect the rights and welfare of the respondents

(Collis and Hussey, 2013). The participants were presented with a consent form stating

that by submitting the Google Form they were willing to partake in the research and they

can retract their participation before the publishing time without any consequences.

This thesis was written objectively and impartial of any opinions and biases. The authors

of the thesis did not receive any sponsorships from any of the companies mentioned and

interviewed in the research, nor did the authors promote one specific industry over the

other. The research was carried out based on the authors’ interest to contribute to the

body of knowledge and a more inclusive society, and was reported in a truthful way with

respect to important societal values. Finally, the authors did not discriminate

neurotypicals, rather to raise awareness of neurodiversity and the future of a more

inclusive culture.


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5. RESULTS

This section describes the analysis of the survey and interview results. As mentioned in

chapter 4, the surveys were conducted in English and distributed online through Google

Forms, followed by in-depth interviews with the participants who took the survey. During

the process, the authors identified several important findings, therefore other interesting

discussions with established actors are also included. To maintain the anonymity of the

respondents and the organizations, the results do not specify the name and company

size, therefore they will be referred as: ‘The Healthcare Sector’; ‘The Engineering Sector’;

‘The IT Sector’, ‘The Tech Sector’, and ‘The Telecom Sector’, etc. The interviewees are

also referred as ‘Interviewee(number)’. In the closing of this chapter, the theories

presented above are applied to the context of ASD in the workplace.

5.1 Survey Results

The survey followed and modified IEST™ questionnaires that covered the knowledge,

attitude, and confidence of company employing people with ASD. Several managers who

were called and/or e-mailed stated that they were either not interested, they were not

working in the system, or that they did not have sufficient data from the company to

answer specific questions. The survey was organized in order to mitigate the risk of further

respondents avoiding to partake in the study. In the end 12 responses were collected

from companies in a broad range of industries.

Demographically, 8 out of 12 respondents were working in a non-ASD specific company

in Sweden, while the remaining respondents were companies outside of Sweden that

specialized in working with HFA. As far as the demographics of the respondents, 25% of

them had the support of a Disability Employment Service provider. Their relation to those

with ASD in their organizations ranged from co-worker, manager, HR, and business

owner.

Of the 8 respondents working in non-ASD oriented organization in Sweden, 7 out of 8

were not sure if they had employees with ASD. This corresponded with one respondent

briefly mentioning that “... level of autism is not something you can ask when hiring”. After

further exploring their organization’s report on workplace diversity, there was no specific

information regarding ASD to be found. This was understandable since people with

autism may not let those around them, or they themselves, know they have autism (Lewis,

2018), and the employer does not want to discriminate. Due to privacy or fear of litigation,

exploring the relationship between the employer and the employee with ASD proved to

be difficult. Even though employers could not identify how many people had ASD, 3 out

of the 8 respondents reported that they had experience supporting an employee with ASD

for some period of time in an employment setting.


32

As far as assessing the employers’ perceptions towards workers with ASD, the survey

respondents showed mixed views. Overall the respondents showed positive attitudes

towards creating an inclusive workplace for people with ASD. They believed that

individuals with ASD deserve the same opportunities as everyone else, including the

chance to work. While 4 employers in ASD-specific organizations agreed that workers

with ASD get the job done, the rest (e.g. regular organizations) had mixed perspectives

about it. Related to this statement, half of the ASD-specific organizations experienced

that workers with ASD are nervous about being alone without the job coach or human

service, and the rest of the respondents were mixed or undecided.

5.2 Interview Results

Interviews were conducted with 7 managers and business owners in several different

industries in Sweden. The discussion followed a semi-structured method with

personalized questions based on the survey results. The topics of what kind of resources

(e.g. Disability Employment Service) were available to support the company to employ

individuals with ASD; what kind of positions do these people have within the company;

why the company felt confident/not to employ individuals with ASD were brought up. The

open-ended questions allow the interviewees to thoroughly explain their experience with

employing people with ASD thus enabling the researchers to obtain comprehensive

information. During the discourses the responses were documented through notes.

5.2.1 Interview 1: The Healthcare Sector

The interview was carried out with an HR consultant in a healthcare sector that had

previously participated in the survey. It started off with inquiring whether they had received

a job application for doctor or nurse position from a person with ASD.

“One nurse with a function disability are working in the hospital, but she always has one

person she works with that has the main responsibility. She doesn’t have her own

responsibility. There is another nurse that’s responsible for all the work she does, that’s

approved by the other nurse.”

The question followed with inquiring if they knew someone with HFA that applied for

administration role. Apparently, they were not aware to whether they were working with

someone with ASD in their administration role.

When Interviewee1 was asked if people with ASD have the possibility to be employed in

high-level positions, the reply was “I don’t think it’s possible in the hospital because they

can’t have that kind of responsibility for other people’s health. So I don’t think in healthcare

they can have that kind of position.” There were no people in the organization that had

high-functioning ASD in their healthcare facility. On the other hand there were cleaners


33

and people with ASD working jobs with less qualifications at the hospital, such as helpers,

who needed to be supervised.

Regarding the resources that they receive from the government or the hospital to support

these group, they mentioned that there were several external organizations involved

aside from the hospital, namely the municipality, Arbetsförmedlingen, and LSS (the right

for people with disabilities to receive supports).

5.2.2 Interview 2: Staffing Agent in the Engineering Sector

Interviewee2’s job task consisted mostly of screening applicants and then meeting them

if they meet the qualifications for clients. In their experience they had never come across

a person that they felt possess the description of people with ASD. While performing their

job, they would never ask about ASD. And even if they felt someone possessed these

qualities, they still would meet any candidate despite any of these conditions as long as

those candidates meet the job requirements.

They were knowledgeable that there were already actors in the ASD market. Their

company had met with an intermediary whose sole purpose was to staff out services for

people with Asperger syndrome. They expressed that it was a great idea. In their staffing

experience they thought it was important to start the foundation of the company with

neurodiverse individuals. They explained further that it is a huge benefit to have diverse

employment because people see things from different perspectives. This would lead to a

strong culture and a strong base for the employees as well. And if the employer could not

see that, then they are missing the bigger picture.

5.2.3 Interview 3: Consultancy in the IT Sector

The third interview was conducted briefly with the CEO of an IT service which contracts

consultants with autism. To enhance the credibility of the authors, the interview began

with the authors explaining that Interviewee3 was referred by Interviewee2, followed by

the question of why they employed people with Asperger Syndrome.

“The main reason for a customer to buy from us is that they get the people with ASD.”

When asked if there is actually a market for this, Interviewee3 replied “Yes, you can say

so. We are the one [in Sweden] that create that market.”

The business model of the company sounded similar to Specialisterne’s, and when asked

further if they have ever heard of it, the CEO affirmed that they knew the founder of

Specialisterne.


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The next question was what they thought were the challenges within this social innovation

and what the major challenges were for companies to find out how they can utilize this in

their company. They responded that this “is a big question and it is not so easy to answer

right now.”

5.2.4 Interview 4: The Tech Sector

This interview consisted of a follow up conversation from the survey going into further

detail of the manager’s levels of confidence, experience, and details of supports.

When asked about how many people they have worked with ASD, Interviewee4 informed

the researchers that “it’s not legal to ask employees whether they have ASD or not. And

the level varies a lot. We have never had a team member that was open with their

diagnosis.”

After being asked about their confidence in supporting an employee that would be open

with their diagnosis, Interviewee4 explained the process would be for that employee to

“share the diagnosis directly with their manager. And if the employee needed support they

would inform their manager who would obtain help from external professionals.”

One example provided was if an employee had a mental breakdown they would have

assistance from the organization via exit programs. They have also had employees with

physical disabilities where they accommodated for their working conditions as much as

possible.

The closest example Interviewee4 had with managing people with mental disabilities

would be a team member with dyslexia. “In this case, the team member with dyslexia

could not read the messages on a communication platform or the documentation in the

project. So the team had to communicate in verbal form. The benefit was to include the

employee in all decisions."

When asked about the additional strength this person brought to the team, they explained

they were “much more precise with details. And the job is done super accurately. The

quality of work is incredible if you look back on the average time it takes for a speedy

developer to develop something and then fix it.” This individual never had to go back to

fix something after. In the end it brought much more time to the team.

Elaborating on why they felt confident in recruiting individuals with ASD was because their

company “does not differentiate people in the recruitment process. So therefore they

would have the same process as anyone else.”


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5.2.5 Interview 5: Not-for-profit Intermediary in the Social Innovation

Interviews and research point towards knowledge and supportive intermediaries in the

process of integrating people with ASD into the workplace (Rosqvist, 2012). In the

Swedish market there was a not-for-profit company found as one actor recognizing the

challenge. As an intermediary they educate as well as develop the processes for

recruiting, staffing, and working with neurodiverse people.

Their goal can be summarized as collaborating with communities and companies

interested in becoming more neurodiverse and inclusive. They provide 3 services:

education for employers, free time activities for companies and people with disabilities,

and an educational program for those with neurodiversity. The program for neurodiverse

people helps them to overcome challenges and increase their independence in the

workplace in addition to other areas of life. The free time service connects companies

and people with a wide range of disabilities to meet in their free time to participate in

meaningful activities. And the educational service for companies informs them on the

topics of neurodiversity and inclusion. The advice and exercises help companies to

overcome the challenges in their organizations. The classes aim to help companies with

their recruitment process and to make their organization more inclusive.

5.2.6 Interview 6: The Telecommunication Sector

Interview 6 was conducted with HR personnel in the telecommunication sector who had

already supported more than 6 ASD employees within their current role. When asked

about the kind of positions that these employees had, they answered with, “We do not

know where these people are in the organization as example has an ASD diagnose. This

is because of that according to Swedish law, we are not entitled to register which

employees have a neuropsychiatric diagnosis. The answers we provided in the survey

are an estimate with background to the questions that the managers make to HR.”

Regarding the modifications and supports that they have to make to accommodate

employees with ASD, their response was, “The employees with a neuro-diagnosis we

have are probably as highly functional so they perform their work without special

adaptations. So far, we have not had targeted recruitment against people with ASD

diagnoses”. Interviewee6 then continued by giving an example where a manager in their

company ask HR about what kind of intervention can be made when an employee

disclosed their ADHD diagnosis. They replied with, “Nothing special except that the

manager can ask their employee if it is okay to talk to the psychologist who made the

neuropsychiatric investigation. This is to get more knowledge about what this diagnosis

means for the work that the employee has, so that mistakes are avoided due to

ignorance”. Then they also added that the manager should “encourage the employee


36

[with neuro-diagnosis] to tell their colleagues about their diagnosis and what it means in

a work context”.

5.2.7 Interview 7: Product Development Manager in Telecommunication

Sector

Interview 7 consisted of a follow up conversation from the survey going into further detail

of the manager’s levels of confidence, experience, and knowledge of supports.

The interview started out by asking about their experience of working with someone with

ASD. They stated they had “not worked with anyone with autism. I guess we have people

that are not officially diagnosed.” This led to the next question which was asking

Interviewee7 if they had inclinations of employees having autism. The response was the

employee “would never tell us if they had it or so on. But I discussed it with some of our

colleagues, and we probably have some people that do not have the diagnosis but could

be on the spectrum in reality. A lot of engineers are maybe sometimes on the borderline

so we suspect they could have that.”

When directly asked if they felt they do not have the knowledge or confidence to support

people since they have never encountered them, Interviewee7 responded, “Exactly, no.”

Continuing, they elaborated about the “people on the borderline.” When asked: What type

of adjustments have you had to make to either ways of communication or the work

environment, they responded: “We have a couple of unofficial cases. And we have not

asked people if they have this disorder. But we have changed their tasks a bit so they are

focused on a narrower area.” They continued that this was different since the company

always worked in teams. And in these cases, the employees worked more alone in order

for them to focus on their tasks. This was followed by asking if there was less

collaboration. They answered this with examples of questions the manager would have

used in this situation, such as “What are they good at? What do they like? It is not just

less collaboration, we want to give them tasks that they want to work on and what they

actually like.”

This was followed with the question: If someone was open with their diagnosis and they

needed support, what kind of internal or external resources do you have? The response

was “I would talk to HR to get help from them. But to my knowledge, the company did not

have any programs.”

Further elaborating on why Interviewee7 agreed on the survey that people with ASD have

a positive influence on employees without ASD, they answered: “That was a speculation

since we do not have it open.” They thought their company would be accepting if there

was a program regarding autism and from their experience they thought individuals with


37

ASD individuals could perform well if “you put them in the context where they could

produce and perform.”

Interviewee7 was not aware of any third party companies that provided a service for

companies needing support, but expressed interest. They responded as far as “Sweden,

if you go back a few years ago this is something that people did not hear about as much

as today. Now people know earlier that they have this disorder.” And later mentioned that

“it would be more important to have a program in the future because it will be more

common that people are aware they have ASD.” They had not heard of any autism

specific programs inside or outside of Sweden.

They were interested in finding out more information and specifically would like to know

“How is it in other countries?” In Sweden they thought the subject could have further

coverage because they “had not heard of this in the news or of any companies saying

‘we do this and it works fine.’” The interviewers responded by informing interviewee7 of

two companies found in Stockholm, as well as Specialisterne, Microsoft, EY, and Dell.

This led to the question, “Is it positive for the companies as well?” Interviewee7 ended

with saying they thought it would be good if their company had a program in the future

regarding ASD, “but maybe it will come.”

5.3 Discussion / Analysis

The combined results of the survey and interviews showed employers openness to

people with ASD. To a higher degree, they felt that employees with ASD can get the job

done, yet they were unsure of what supports would be needed. There was also

uncertainty of the tools or resources they had access to within their companies. And what

resources, if any, were needed to support the individuals. Additionally, they were not sure

of the external resources available. For example, there was uncertainty in the areas of

disability employment services and knowing whether or not the employers had supported

employees with ASD.

The small sample of respondents from the survey showed that many employers lack

experience and/or knowledge of employing people with high functioning ASD. On the

other hand, not knowing if there is a difference between people with ASD and

neurotypicals can also mean the employers are unbiased.

As far as government supports and rights specifically to Sweden, LSS2 (Lagen om Stöd

och Service till vissa funktionshindrade) gives people with disabilities the right to support.

Therefore companies have an obligation in Sweden to support mental hindrances. In the

2 https://lagen.nu/1993:387

https://lagen.nu/1993:387


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institutional context, IC, mental health professionals should also be part of solving the

social innovation. Individuals with ASD symptoms may not want to be diagnosed with

ASD, so they would prefer to refrain from seeking a professional diagnosis. On the other

hand, some individuals self-diagnose themselves. Either way, “[health care providers]

should provide information and resources and offer a referral for counseling to assist the

individual in coping with a new self-perception [...]” and encourage “them in gaining self-

awareness and acceptance” (Lewis, 2018, p. 18). The collaborative process of social

innovation requires social awareness between these participants to solve these

challenges (Dawson and Daniel, 2010).

The literature review, survey, and interviews partially validated that gaps exist in the social

innovation of ASD from the employer perspective. In the SIP, the challenge or opportunity

seems to be unknown by the majority of employers. Respondents also did not

communicate confidence to set up ASD specific processes due to lack of ASD specific

experience or knowledge of available resources. Therefore the goal of increasing the well-

being in society through the equal opportunity and inclusion of specifically the niche group

of people with ASD was not shown to be a focus of employers. To understand the

disconnections the SIP model acts as a framework to visualize where the gaps exist.

Additionally, interview 5 provided insight into the processes offered to companies by

actors to accomplish the social innovation of tapping into ASD. The framework of the SIP

model is illustrated below in figure 4.

Figure 4. Social innovation process for an inclusive and neurodiverse workplace.

Adapted from Turker and Vural (2017) p 101.


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Based on the authors’ hypotheses, it is found that hypothesis 1, the company’s lack of

knowledge about ASD is true to some extent. This also corresponds with employers’

unawareness of how many ASD employees are working in their organization. Taking

results from the survey, more than half of the respondents were not sure of their ASD

employees’ population.

This contrasts with the authors’ second hypothesis of the lack of acceptance in the

workplace for people with different condition. Most respondents conveyed their

acceptance for people with disabilities in the workplace. Empirical studies demonstrate

that people do not actually discriminate ASD individuals, which is confirmed by the 90%

of survey respondents who disagreed that the work environment is no place for people

with ASD.

These findings led to the social stigma around autism. Companies in Sweden are highly

open-minded; they are open to include people with different conditions, and do not want

to discriminate anyone. Instead they create an inclusive environment for people who are

neurodiverse. The small sample displayed that the social stigma around autism does not

apply to companies in Sweden. For this, 25% of the respondents in Sweden agreed that

employees with ASD have a positive influence on neurotypical employees, while the rest

were undecided. Investigating on why they were undecided, it would appear that they

have not worked with people with ASD. Nonetheless, it is interesting to add that all of the

ASD-specific companies from outside Sweden agreed that ASD employees do have a

positive influence on others.

As far as support during the employment process once ASD individuals finally get

employed, most samples showed that they do not discriminate anyone, and would still

meet any candidate despite their conditions as long as they meet the job requirement.

This finding aligns with Nesbitt’s study that inexperienced employers’ are ‘expectation

focused’. Some interviewees were also willing to give support to employees with a need

to cope with adapting to the work environment. Interview 4 provided an example of the

exit program and disability program their company had.

Indeed, the degree of ASD is not a question that a company asks during recruitment and

individuals who have it might not want to disclose it. Furthermore, people who have

knowledge about ASD usually have a personal experience with ASD (e.g. Specialisterne,

Aspiritech), have interest in mental health, or keen to have a more inclusive and

neurodiverse society. However, Interview 5 provided an important finding that there are

actors who help organizations to be more aware of neurodiversity. Not only do they

educate future employers to understand neurodiversity, but they also develop the

employment processes to be smooth. Companies who want to be more inclusive to

neurodiversity could probably need to reach out to such organizations.


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In terms of being free from any biases in the employment process, Interviewee7’s

statements aligned with their beliefs in being inclusive for employees with different

conditions. Interviewee7 showed a successful and effective management method by

identifying their employees’ problems and gave the best solution to address it. In doing

so, Interviewee7 supported both the ‘suspected’ employees effectively without

disregarding the other team members.

In its relation with diffusion and adoption, the author compared the study findings with five

characteristics of innovation, and attempted to suggest the bridges to connect the gaps.

The authors found an attribute gap in how companies in Sweden perceived working with

ASD individuals. From the survey samples, it would appear that many employers do not

see the relative advantage of employing them in comparison to employing neurotypicals,

and whether it would be economically and/or non-economically profitable to their

organizations. This is proven by too many ‘I do not know’ answers in the survey regarding

the benefit of working with people with ASD. This shows a considerably low adoption rate

of such an innovation in Sweden. To increase the adoption rate, the authors suggested

that government and/or the actors themselves to market the added value of employing

ASD individuals. In addition, neurodiversity programs in bigger companies such as

Microsoft, EY, Google, etc., could also be perceived as the model to elevate the adoption

rate.

Company cultures, existing values, and norms significantly affect the compatibility

attribute and influence the adoption rate (Tidd and Bessant, 2009). Consequently, it would

appear that tech, IT and engineering industries are more likely to adopt such innovation,

while it is less likely for other industries like healthcare sector to do the same. It is because

tech, IT, and engineering sectors value quality, accuracy, and efficiency that ASD

employees can deliver (Tidd and Bessant, 2009; Ernst&Young, 2018). Nonetheless, not

all companies in the aforementioned industries have the confidence, the resources, or the

knowledge to adopt it, because it would also require them to make some changes in their

organization. Hence, the adoption rate from its compatibilities is relatively low. In order to

boost the adoption rate, companies can reflect and have a retrospect on their current

values, organizational environment, and workplace norms and attempt to adjust to the

new innovation. After all, no new innovation initially fit the user environment, and if such

innovation is implemented successfully, both parties (e.g. ASD employees and

employers) will gain a mutual adaptation (Tidd and Bessant, 2009).

Complexity is strongly connected to absorptive capacity, which is required to allow the

knowledge transfer from the user innovation community to the organization (Di Gangi and

Wasko, 2009). From the interview results, it is shown that the complexity of adopting

social innovation for ASD individuals is high, which is confirmed by two reasons. Firstly,


41

people who have been diagnosed with ASD do not want to disclose that they have it, or

they even do not know that they have it. It is also ‘illegal’ for companies to ask their

candidates about their neuropsychiatric diagnose. Secondly, not all companies are able

to value and assimilate the benefit that ASD employees are able to provide to their

organizations, which would be in the form of monetary or technical benefit. Further, it

would require the companies to learn new information and knowledge about them, and

provide the resources to give proper support scheme for them. This would seem to be

adding to the complexity of such endeavor. The more complex an innovation is, the lower

the rate of adoption. Hence, the authors encourage companies to seek education on the

topic. Interview 5 with an intermediary organization in such social innovation provided an

example of the possibility for companies to actually learn about the topic which will

increase their confidence in the integration process.

Regarding to its trialability, the authors found the answer through the difficulty to obtain

companies to answer the surveys. It proved that social innovation in general, and this

topic in particular, is a new phenomenon that not many people have tapped or even

consider. The authors assumed that it is because such an innovation is a subject that

needs a great investment and total commitment, and there is no guarantee that their

endeavor can reap success. Although there are several companies who have already

succeeded, it is still considered to be a new phenomenon that requires a strong desire to

include all people in their organization, with ASD people in particular. The examples of

incumbent adopters who trialed and succeeded should be spread more widely in order

for the benefits to be visible to others to create a network effect. The network effect will

presumably increase the value of employing ASD people which will finally help the

innovation to diffuse faster (Shapiro and Varian, 1999). Another suggestion is for

companies to have the courage to experiment more with neurodiversity. The new

adoption might give the organizations a competitive advantage in their respective

industries.

It is previously mentioned that the observability attribute affects such innovation greatly

(Tidd and Bessant, 2009). In Sweden alone, companies who are not working specifically

with ASD have little knowledge about the social innovation. It is probably because there

are not many successful models in the area that other companies can observe. Again,

such innovation is considered to be a new phenomenon. However, it is worth mentioning

that ASD-specific companies outside of Sweden are growing. New companies that tapped

into the potential of individuals with ASD formed through observation. SAP, a giant in the

tech industry, collaborated with Specialisterne to employ people with ASD3. Autism Works

started to employ ASD adults as a result of observing Aspiritech and Specialisterne4.

3 https://news.sap.com/2013/05/sap-to-work-with-specialisterne-to-employ-people-with-autism/ 4 https://www.autismworks.com/

https://news.sap.com/2013/05/sap-to-work-with-specialisterne-to-employ-people-with-autism/

https://www.autismworks.com/


42

Several companies are also found through networks (e.g. Interview 4), and other

organizations initiated their own neurodiversity programs. This means that those

organizations could witness the obvious outcomes of such an innovation. For companies

in Sweden to be aware of the added value that such innovation can bring and start taking

the initiative to adopt the innovation, the authors propose that companies should be

exposed to other models’ success stories.


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6. CONCLUSIONS

At the time this paper was written, many companies in the world seek to innovate as

competition increases throughout the world. Capitalizing on their unique ways of thinking,

a small amount of companies have utilized the unique differences and strengths of those

with ASD to find solutions to their problems. From the respondents in this study, the

authors found that organizations do not actively seek autistic talent for high level positions

in Sweden.

Most of autism research logically seeks interventions in childhood. As these individuals

continue through life, the research question sought out to find the obstacles companies

face when employing adults with ASD. The surveys and interviews found most employers

were open to including people with ASD in their work environment if they meet the job

requirements. The question that follows is if employers’ beliefs in equal opportunity align

with their behaviors or actions. Obstacles were difficult to identify. The reason for

employers not knowing was the result of both employees not telling, employers not

asking, or having no employees with ASD. Consequently, employers do not know what

support is needed. Confidence levels varied or were unknown due to lack of experience

working with people with ASD. Therefore, the challenge of ASD as a social innovation is

to first increase awareness of ASD in society. Increased knowledge will lead to more

openness to ASD, and an increased focus on its value and benefits.

Studies have been conducted around ASD from an individual, company, and societal

perspective. The purpose of this paper targeted identifying employers’ knowledge of ASD

in pursuit of identifying barriers as to why this has not diffused throughout Sweden. Those

barriers would allow Swedish companies to adopt the initiative to employ people with

HFA. Once noticing that the social innovation has not diffused substantially, further

literature review suggested using technology or tools to intervene, solve, and overcome

the challenge. Actors and collaborations also play a role in educating and setting up

unbiased or customized processes for companies as they staff their organizations.

The table below summarizes the findings of tapping into ASD through the lens of the

characteristics of innovation. As few companies have knowledge about the attributes and

the experience of working with this neurodivergent group, this research found that it has

not diffused substantially.


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Characteristics of Innovation

Study Findings Suggested Bridges

Relative Advantage There is an attribute gap. The low perceived advantage makes the rate of adoption low.

Show the added value through intermediaries, actors, and the results of established companies’ programs.

Compatibility Companies feel they do not have the existing skills, tools, or knowledge to be compatible with ASD.

Adjust organizational environment, values, and norms to accommodate individuals with ASD.

Complexity People are not always open about their diagnosis or individuals might not even know they have ASD. Not all companies know the added value that ASD individuals provide to their organizations’. And this perception could still be difficult to measure.

Companies need training and education on the positive externalities of ASD. Increased availability of guidebooks will increase employer’s adoption and confidence in the integration process.

Trialability The difficulty to obtain companies to answer the survey shows acquiring users to trial and develop iteratively for a social innovation has its challenges.

More certainty in the trials and success of incumbent adopters will show the benefits and create a network effect. And companies must experiment with neurodiversity to realize the added value and increase acceptance.

Communicability or

Observability

Through the survey, it was shown that companies not specifically working with ASD have little knowledge or do not know much about the social innovation. ASD specific companies are aware of organizations with neurodiversity programs.

Greater knowledge of the problem and visibility of company success stories. This contact could be made through various marketing and media channels.

Table 1. Summary of the study findings and suggestions to bridge the gap

The authors’ findings have implications for managers seeking for possible solutions to

innovate within their organizations. As previously mentioned, individuals with ASD excel

in certain positions or fields. The first step consists of knowing the attributes of ASD and

the second step is finding out how to integrate these people into their organization design.


45

The SIP model provided a framework to visualize the complexities involved in social

innovation. Knowledge from the IC, intermediaries, and companies are all components in

the system or architecture of social innovation. Combining the knowledge from areas of

mental health, policy, business, and other stakeholders in the matter is essential to social

innovation. Companies lack knowledge of the benefits and resources available regarding

ASD. This makes supporting them throughout the employment process a challenge

(Wareham and Sonne, 2008). This is not at the fault of the employer. Guides for ASD

employment for adults came into existence just over a decade ago (Kopelson, 2015).

Employers must obtain the knowledge of ASD in order for them to design neurodiversity

into their companies. Obtaining this involves collaborating with the IC and intermediaries.

Once the knowledge of ASD takes hold, then companies can design these unique talents

into the architecture of their organizations. This can be carried out by reformulating their

recruitment process. The structuring of people is difficult, yet organizations have proven

it can be done. The background provided examples of companies’ success stories in the

industries of software, accounting, military, etc. Socially conscious managers and

entrepreneurs should seek to replicate the innovation in other fields and industries.

6.1 Limitations

During the research, the authors recognized that there were some situations that could

not be controlled. These include the sample size which do not allow for generalization of

the Swedish market since a small qualitative approach was taken. This size affected the

sample profile of the companies interviewed, thus these findings cannot be applied to

other markets. Additionally, since the topic of the study was sensitive and private, the

answers that were collected might not exactly resemble the truth. Finally, with the time

restraint and risks such as the difficulty to interview job seekers with ASD, the study only

explored the companies’ perspectives on employing people with ASD.

6.2 Final Remarks

Companies have adapted to changes due to technological change, such as the Internet

and remote work. Companies, and cultures on a larger scale, have adjusted to cultural

differences from globalization and migration. Socially conscious organizations should

have goals to tap into the potential of neurodiverse human capital. As humans, they view

working as a means to apply their knowledge, skills, and interests to ultimately achieve

self-actualization (Baldwin et al., 2014). Integrating ASD into the workplace has an impact

on countries’ economies. In welfare countries, instead of being a tax burden, they can

actually contribute and help to build the economy. The continual focus on past corporate

culture and social norms, especially in the workplace, should not be used to exclude ASD

or any other neurodiverse individuals capable of performing and contributing to a

company. The focus should be on integrating and including different variations of the brain


46

in society (Lorenz et al., 2017). In summary, this research explored whether employers

have established a proper support system and/or process to help them to integrate well

into the workplace in order to maximize their full potential, while benefiting the company.

Embracing neurodiversity in the workplace should be the new normal of employment. The

strengths and attributes of ASD have been shown in previous studies to increase the

efficiency of teams, leading to improved products and services, and most importantly a

more inclusive society.

6.3 Further Research

Exploring the perspectives and experiences employers in Sweden have with ASD

expanded on previous studies in various markets throughout the world. Further

quantitative analysis would gauge the Swedish market more holistically. Approaches

should be taken on the conventional autism specific roles, such as software testers and

developers, or on the unconventional autism approach in people-oriented positions, such

as hospitality.

From the observations, companies’ behaviors should be tested to see if they align with

their beliefs. This again is difficult because companies are not recording this data. And

doing so is unethical in many or all companies in Sweden. After confirming that

companies’ behaviors align with their beliefs, future studies could then narrow the focus

to first identify specific obstacles companies have when creating an ASD inclusive

workplace. Successful strategies could be replicated in other organizations. Solutions

could later be tested to overcome the unsolved identified obstacles. The survey provided

by Scott et al. (2018) could be used to analyze the tool’s outcome on employers’

confidence and support.

In the research process, several established intermediaries as well as companies were

found to have already begun to tap into the potential of ASD. Additional research could

study these programs in greater depth in order to publish their processes and measured

impact in the academic arena. Potential questions to study could be:

● What companies, industries, and roles in Sweden have an interest in HFA

professionals?

● What challenges do companies face when integrating HFA employees into their work

environment?

● How ASD intermediaries collaborate with companies with no experience of working

with HFA professionals?

● How ASD-specific companies survive and scale their business?


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7. REFERENCES

Acker, F., 2005. Autism and Engineers: Is There a Connection? Ingenia December

2005, Issue 25, pp. 39-42

Annabi, H., Sundaresan, K., and Zolyomi, A., 2017. It's Not Just About Attention to

Details: Redefining the Talents Autistic Software Developers Bring to Software

Development. Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System

Sciences.

Annabi, H., 2018. The Untold Story: The Masked Experiences of Women with Autism

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https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0040162517303505?token=5ECC73110219B68048341FCE8023930FA8DFE9BBD0640A8E611A680002F03F88B089FCB33B176969E33A30E16940A867

https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0040162517303505?token=5ECC73110219B68048341FCE8023930FA8DFE9BBD0640A8E611A680002F03F88B089FCB33B176969E33A30E16940A867

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf

https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/itgg.2008.3.1.11

https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/itgg.2008.3.1.11


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Appendix A. Literature reviews of support system for individuals with ASD

Literature Review of Employment and Autism

Study Method Purpose Result Suggestions

Evaluating the Effectiveness of an Autism-Specific Workplace Tool for Employers: A Randomized Controlled Trial (Scott, et al., 2018)

Integrated Employment Success Tool (IEST™)

“To increase employers’ awareness and understanding of autism, including highlighting the strengths of employees on the autism spectrum, to assist employers in identifying potential environmental workplace challenges and to provide strategies, recommendations and modifications required to assist and resolve the environmental workplace challenges encountered by employees on the autism spectrum” (p. 3379).

"The findings that the IEST™ did not significantly improve employers’ self-efficacy and attitudes compared to the control group may be explained by the issue of compliance in the study” (p. 3387).

The “study reinforced the continued need for new research approaches allowing a better understanding of employers’ needs and the key role they play in the employment process” (p 3389).

Education and employment status of adults with autism spectrum disorders in Germany – a cross-sectional-survey (Frank et al., 2018)

Cross-sectional- survey

To “examine employment status, type of occupation and inadequate employment in a sample of clinically mostly late-diagnosed and most likely not intellectually disabled adults with ASD in Germany” (p. 1).

“Adults with ASD … are disadvantaged regarding their participation in the German labour market, especially with respect to rates of unemployment, early retirement and overeducation” (p. 1).

“Employment support programs should be developed to improve employment outcomes” (p. 1).

A piece to the puzzle? A study identifying visual narratives job coaches use to prepare individuals with autism

qualitative study To “explore the perceptions of job coaches regarding how job coaches can use visual

...“visual narratives are indeed a positive strategy for developing the


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for employment (Ballard, 2016)

narratives as a strategy to develop the skills needed to gain and maintain employment for individuals with autism and the perceived benefits and challenges of using visual narratives among individuals with an (ASD)" ( p. 7)

skills needed to gain and maintain employment within individuals exhibiting symptoms of ASD” (p. ii)

Viewpoints on Factors for Successful Employment for Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (Scott et al., 2015)

Q method “to identify, categorise and reveal the viewpoints of adults with ASD and employers on factors for successful employment” (p. 2).

To “highlight the need to facilitate communication between employees and employers to ensure a clear understanding of the needs of both groups are met” (p. 1).

“The use of an ASD-specific workplace tool may assist in facilitating the necessary communication between these two groups” (p. 1).

Bridging the Research-to-Practice Gap in Autism Intervention: An Application of Diffusion of Innovation Theory (Dingfelder et al., 2011)

diffusion of innovation theory / framework

“to further our understanding of the dissemination and implementation of efficacious autism interventions” (p. 597).

...“a practical set of questions facing administrators as they decide about the use of interventions” (p. 598).

Autism intervention researchers must change current practice within communities by (a) partnering and (b) developing new collaborations (p. 607).


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Appendix B. Interview Questionnaires

Below are the examples of the questionnaires sent to the companies.

Employer Demographics

In which location do you work?

Which of the following best describes the industry in which you work?

Which of the following best describes your role in the organization?

Workers Scale Form (using Likert’s scale, showing agreement and disagreement)

Workers with ASD get the job done.

A business will hire anyone who meets its employment standards.

People with ASD won't be able to meet the job standards.

Everyone ought to have the opportunity to work.

Employees with ASD have a positive influence on employees without ASD.

People with ASD should have the chance to work.

Employer Self-Efficacy Scale

How confident do you feel that you can support an adult with autism spectrum disorder?

Do you have any prior experience working with people with autism spectrum disorder in

an employment setting?

What is your role in relation to the employee(s) with autism spectrum disorder?

Do you have the support of a Disability Employment Service provider?

TRITA -ITM-EX 2019:219

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