Tasks and CurriculumTasks and Curriculum

By Miroslav Grzyb and By Miroslav Grzyb and Kristína MaťováKristína Maťová

TASKTASKSS

are a feature of everyday life in the personal, are a feature of everyday life in the personal, public, educational or occupationalpublic, educational or occupational domainsdomains

involve involve following following language activitieslanguage activities: :

creativecreative (painting, story writing) (painting, story writing) skills basedskills based (repairing or assembling something) (repairing or assembling something) problem solvingproblem solving (jigsaw, crossword) (jigsaw, crossword) routine transactionsroutine transactions (interpreting a role in a (interpreting a role in a

play, taking part in a discussion, giving a play, taking part in a discussion, giving a presentationpresentation))

‘‘real-life’, real-life’, ‘target’ or ‘target’ or ‘rehearsal’ tasks‘rehearsal’ tasks

are chosen on the basis of are chosen on the basis of learners’ needs outside learners’ needs outside the classroom, whether in the classroom, whether in the personal and public the personal and public domains, or related to domains, or related to more specific occupational more specific occupational or educational needs.or educational needs.

Pedagogic TasksPedagogic Tasks

are only indirectly related are only indirectly related to real-life tasks and to real-life tasks and learner needs, and aim to learner needs, and aim to develop communicative develop communicative competence based on what competence based on what is believed or known about is believed or known about learning processes in learning processes in general and language general and language

acquisition in particularacquisition in particular

Communicative Communicative pedagogical pedagogical taskstasks

(as opposed to exercises (as opposed to exercises focusing specifically on focusing specifically on decontextualised practice decontextualised practice of forms) aim to actively of forms) aim to actively involve learners in involve learners in meaningful communicationmeaningful communication

Classroom tasksClassroom tasks

whether reflecting ‘real-whether reflecting ‘real-life’ use or essentially life’ use or essentially ‘pedagogic’ in nature,‘pedagogic’ in nature,are communicative to the are communicative to the extent that they require extent that they require learners to comprehend, learners to comprehend, negotiate andnegotiate and express express meaning in order to meaning in order to achieve a communicative achieve a communicative goal. The emphasis in a goal. The emphasis in a communicativecommunicative task is on task is on successful task completion successful task completion and consequently the and consequently the primary focus is onprimary focus is on meaning as learners meaning as learners realise their realise their communicative intentionscommunicative intentions

TASK PERFORMANCETASK PERFORMANCE

it is necessary to take intoit is necessary to take into account both account both the the learner’s competences learner’s competences andand the conditions and the conditions and constraintsconstraints specific to a specific to a particular task (which particular task (which may be manipulated in order to modify the level may be manipulated in order to modify the level of difficulty ofof difficulty of classroom tasks), and classroom tasks), and the strategic the strategic interplay of learner competences interplay of learner competences andand task task parametersparameters in carrying out a task.in carrying out a task.

CompetencesCompetences

Tasks of any kind require the activation of a range oTasks of any kind require the activation of a range of f appropriate general competencesappropriate general competences::

knowledge and experience of the world;knowledge and experience of the world; sociocultural knowledge sociocultural knowledge (concerning(concerning life in the target life in the target

communitycommunity, , the learner’s own society);the learner’s own society); intercultural skillsintercultural skills (mediating between the two cultures), (mediating between the two cultures), learning skillslearning skills everyday practical skillseveryday practical skills know-howknow-how the language user or learner draws also on communicative the language user or learner draws also on communicative

language competences (linguistic, sociolinguistic and language competences (linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic knowledge and skillspragmatic knowledge and skills

individual personality and attitudinal characteristics affect individual personality and attitudinal characteristics affect the user or learner’s task performance.the user or learner’s task performance.

Conditions and constraintsConditions and constraints

may be designed so that the same input may be may be designed so that the same input may be available to allavailable to all learners but different outcomes learners but different outcomes may be envisaged may be envisaged quantitativelyquantitatively (amount of (amount of informationinformation required) or required) or qualitativelyqualitatively (standard (standard of performance expected).of performance expected).

TASK DIFFICULTYTASK DIFFICULTY Individuals may differ considerably in their Individuals may differ considerably in their

approach to the same task.approach to the same task. ease or difficulty of tasks cannot be predicted ease or difficulty of tasks cannot be predicted

with certaintywith certainty

What is necessary to take into account?What is necessary to take into account?

user/learner’s competences and characteristics, user/learner’s competences and characteristics, including the learner’s own purposesincluding the learner’s own purposes and learning and learning style;style;

task conditions and constraints which may affect task conditions and constraints which may affect the language user/learner’s performancethe language user/learner’s performance in in carrying out specific tasks, and which, in learning carrying out specific tasks, and which, in learning contexts, may becontexts, may be adjusted to accommodate adjusted to accommodate learner competences and characteristics.learner competences and characteristics.

Learner competences and Learner competences and characteristicscharacteristics

Cognitive factorsCognitive factors

• the type of task and operations involved

• the theme(s) • type of text (genre) • interactional schemata

(scripts and frames) the learner assists in anticipating text content and organisation;

• necessary background knowledge (assumed by the speaker or writer);

• relevant sociocultural knowledge (knowledge of social norms, conventions and rules)

Linguistic factors

The stage of development of The stage of development of the learner’s linguistic the learner’s linguistic resources is a primary factor resources is a primary factor to be considered in to be considered in establishing the suitability of establishing the suitability of a particular task or in a particular task or in manipulating task manipulating task parameters: level of parameters: level of knowledge and control of knowledge and control of grammar, vocabulary and grammar, vocabulary and phonology or orthography phonology or orthography required to carry out the task.required to carry out the task.

A task may be linguistically A task may be linguistically demanding but cognitively demanding but cognitively simple, or vice versa,simple, or vice versa,

one factor may be offset one factor may be offset against the other in task against the other in task selection for pedagogicselection for pedagogic purposespurposes

Affective factorsAffective factors

Self-esteemSelf-esteem: a positive self-: a positive self-image and lack of inhibition is image and lack of inhibition is likely to contribute to likely to contribute to successful task completionsuccessful task completion

Involvement and Involvement and motivationmotivation: intrinsic : intrinsic motivation is important motivation is important because of its perceived because of its perceived relevance (real life needs)relevance (real life needs)

StateState: learner’s physical and : learner’s physical and emotional state emotional state

AttitudeAttitude: is affected by : is affected by learner’s interestlearner’s interest

Task conditions and constraintsTask conditions and constraints

Interaction and Interaction and ProductionProduction

SupportSupport TimeTime Goal Goal PredictabilityPredictability Physical ConditionsPhysical Conditions ParticipantsParticipants

ReceptionReception Task supportTask support Text Text

CharacteristicsCharacteristics Type of response Type of response

requiredrequired

What we should consider in task What we should consider in task dealing?dealing?

principles for the selection and weighting of ‘real life’ and principles for the selection and weighting of ‘real life’ and ‘pedagogic’ tasks for their‘pedagogic’ tasks for theirn n purposes, including the purposes, including the appropriateness of different types of tasks in particular appropriateness of different types of tasks in particular learninglearning contextscontexts

the criteria for selecting tasks which are purposeful and the criteria for selecting tasks which are purposeful and meaningful for the learner, andmeaningful for the learner, and provide a challenging but provide a challenging but realistic and attainable goal, involving the learner as fully asrealistic and attainable goal, involving the learner as fully as possible, and allowing for differing learner interpretations and possible, and allowing for differing learner interpretations and outcomesoutcomes

the relationship between tasks that are primarily meaning-the relationship between tasks that are primarily meaning-oriented and learningoriented and learning

experiences specifically focused on form so that the learner’s experiences specifically focused on form so that the learner’s attention might be focused in a regular and useful manner on attention might be focused in a regular and useful manner on both aspects in a balanced approach to the development of both aspects in a balanced approach to the development of accuracy and fluencyaccuracy and fluency

ways of taking into account the pivotal role of the learner’s ways of taking into account the pivotal role of the learner’s strategies in relatingstrategies in relating competences and performance in the competences and performance in the successful accomplishment of challenging tasks under successful accomplishment of challenging tasks under varying conditions and constraints; ways of facilitating varying conditions and constraints; ways of facilitating successful task accomplishment and learning (including successful task accomplishment and learning (including activation of the learner’s prior competences in a activation of the learner’s prior competences in a preparatory phase)preparatory phase)

criteria and options for selecting tasks, and where criteria and options for selecting tasks, and where appropriate manipulating taskappropriate manipulating task parameters in order to parameters in order to modify the level of task difficulty so as to accommodate modify the level of task difficulty so as to accommodate learners’learners’ differing and developing competences, and differing and developing competences, and diversity in learner characteristics (ability,diversity in learner characteristics (ability, motivation, motivation, needs, interests)needs, interests)

how the perceived level of difficulty of a task might be how the perceived level of difficulty of a task might be taken into account in the evaluation of successful task taken into account in the evaluation of successful task completion and in (self) assessment of the learner’s completion and in (self) assessment of the learner’s communicative competencecommunicative competence

CurriculumCurriculum

Curriculum is a general statement of Curriculum is a general statement of the institution’s values, approach the institution’s values, approach and the way these will be put into and the way these will be put into practice, plus an overall view of the practice, plus an overall view of the levels system.levels system.

Options for curricular designOptions for curricular design

According to the 1st principle promoting plurilingualism and According to the 1st principle promoting plurilingualism and linguistic diversity should be in line with the overall objective linguistic diversity should be in line with the overall objective of curriculaof curricula

2nd principle is economical, its aim is to avoid 2nd principle is economical, its aim is to avoid unnecessary unnecessary repetition, and to promote the economies of scale and the repetition, and to promote the economies of scale and the transfer of skills which linguistic diversity facilitates.transfer of skills which linguistic diversity facilitates.

According to the 3rd principle languages sAccording to the 3rd principle languages should be hould be approached in terms of their role in a general language approached in terms of their role in a general language education, in which linguistic knowledge and skills, along with education, in which linguistic knowledge and skills, along with the ability to learn play not only a specific role in a given the ability to learn play not only a specific role in a given language but also a transversal or transferable role across language but also a transversal or transferable role across languages.languages.

Three main principles Three main principles within an overall concept of within an overall concept of curriculum diversification:curriculum diversification:

Partial and transversal aspects ofPartial and transversal aspects of ccurriculum designurriculum design

According to the CEFR between related languages According to the CEFR between related languages knowledge andknowledge and skills gained in one language could skills gained in one language could influence the second one. With reference to curricula, it influence the second one. With reference to curricula, it should be stressed:should be stressed:

all knowledge of a language is partial, however much of a ‘mother all knowledge of a language is partial, however much of a ‘mother tongue’ it seems to be. It is always incomplete tongue’ it seems to be. It is always incomplete

any partial knowledge is also more than it might seemany partial knowledge is also more than it might seem

it is necessary to acquire knowledge and skills which can also it is necessary to acquire knowledge and skills which can also be used for many other purposes. Such ‘spin-off’ value is be used for many other purposes. Such ‘spin-off’ value is however a matter for the learner however a matter for the learner

those who have learnt one language also know a great deal about those who have learnt one language also know a great deal about many other languages.many other languages. The learning of further languages The learning of further languages facilitates the activation of this knowledge and increases facilitates the activation of this knowledge and increases awareness of itawareness of it

Curriculum and variation of Curriculum and variation of objectivesobjectives

objectives on which to base language learning objectives on which to base language learning may vary enormously depending on the context, may vary enormously depending on the context, the target group and the level in question.the target group and the level in question.

objectives for the same type of public in the same objectives for the same type of public in the same context and at the same level could also vary context and at the same level could also vary regardless of the weight of tradition and the regardless of the weight of tradition and the constraints imposed by the education systemconstraints imposed by the education system

In modern language teaching discussionsIn modern language teaching discussions, t, there is a great here is a great deal of variety and controversy. Therefore many objectives deal of variety and controversy. Therefore many objectives could be combined or accommodated with others.could be combined or accommodated with others.

in drawing up a curriculum the selection and balancing of in drawing up a curriculum the selection and balancing of

objectives, content, ordering and means of assessment are closely objectives, content, ordering and means of assessment are closely linked to the analysis components.linked to the analysis components.

throughout the language learning period – there may be continuity throughout the language learning period – there may be continuity with regard to objectives or they may be modified and their order with regard to objectives or they may be modified and their order of priority adjusted;of priority adjusted;

in a language curriculum accommodating several languages, the in a language curriculum accommodating several languages, the objectives and syllabuses of the different languages may either be objectives and syllabuses of the different languages may either be similar or different;similar or different;

radically different approaches are possible and each can have its radically different approaches are possible and each can have its own transparency and coherence with regard to options chosen own transparency and coherence with regard to options chosen

reflection on the curriculum may therefore involve the reflection on the curriculum may therefore involve the consideration of possible scenarios for the development of consideration of possible scenarios for the development of plurilingual and pluricultural competences and the role of the plurilingual and pluricultural competences and the role of the schoolschool

TwoTwo differentiated curriculum scenariosdifferentiated curriculum scenarios

Two types of organisation and curriculum decisions for a particular school system are outlined

The first scenario: language learning start in primary school, and the other, in lower secondary school, with a third being introduced as an optional subject at upper secondary level. it does not correspond to all national education systems. programmes can easily be transposed and adapted

In the second scenario, as in the first: the level of proficiency in the languages varies the cultural aspects are unequally developed for the different languages ‘partial’ competences are integrated. one of the aims of curriculum design, whatever the particular curriculum, is to make learners aware of categories and their dynamic interrelationship as proposed in the model adopted for the reference framework

Assessment and school, out-of-Assessment and school, out-of-school and post-school learningschool and post-school learning

If the curriculum is defined, travelled by a learner through a If the curriculum is defined, travelled by a learner through a sequence of educational experiences, then a curriculum sequence of educational experiences, then a curriculum does not end with leaving school, but continues in a process does not end with leaving school, but continues in a process of life-long learning.of life-long learning.

the form of this competence is notthe form of this competence is not immutable and the immutable and the subsequent personal and professional experiences will subsequent personal and professional experiences will cause it to evolve and change its balance through cause it to evolve and change its balance through further developmentfurther development

Three complementary aspects may be considered in Three complementary aspects may be considered in relation to thisrelation to this..

The place of the school curriculumThe place of the school curriculum Portfolio and profilingPortfolio and profiling A multidimensional and modular approachA multidimensional and modular approach

Bibliography:Bibliography:

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

http://www.acels.ie/docs/Working%20with%20the%20Common%20European%20Framework%20Presentation.ppt

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