teachers' perceptions of the fairness of their workload and their commitment, job satisfaction,...

Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 5:291-302, 1992 © 1992 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston - Manufactured in the United States of America

Teachers' Perceptions of the Fairness of Their Workload and Their Commitment, Job Satisfaction, and Morale: Implications for Teacher Evaluation

PEDRO REYES University of Texas at Austin, Department of Educational Administration, 310 Education Building, Austin, TX 78712

MICHAEL IMBER Umversity of Kansas, 1 Bailey Hall, Lawrence, KS 66049

Maximizing human resources in schools is one of the goals of school administrators. However, some teachers have too much work, while others have less to do. Adminis- trators may try to equalize the burdens of teachers within a building or district, but administrators do not always know how much work is involved in a given position because of the demands made by different kinds of positions such as high school teaching, elementary teaching, and teaching in small schools that have more than one grade in a room.

These differences in workload may create an environment of inequality, which has the potential to produce feelings in some teachers that they are being treated unfairly. Intuitively, we may postulate that such feelings may adversely affect job performance. The purpose of this study was to test the proposition that teacher perceptions of the fairness of their workload are related to varying levels of commitment, job satisfaction, and morale.

Theoretical and research background

Workload

Friesen and Williams (1985) concluded that teachers often lack sufficient time for uninterrupted teaching, preparation, meetings with peers, and breaks from work. The research on teacher morale suggests that workload affects teacher behavior and student learning. For instance, Smith and associates (1986) suggested that teaching load influences teacher morale and has a negative effect on the ability of teachers to respond to individual student. This, in turn, affects student achievement. Coates

292 e. REYES & M. IMBER

and Thoresen (1976) reported that teaching overload may be associated with lowered student achievement levels. Coates and Thoresen cited the following negative student outcomes: "high student anxiety levels, lowered student achievement levels, lowered morale, increased negative feelings among students toward teachers, and reduced community support" (p. 39). In addition, Miller (1981) noted that staff morale can have a positive effect on student attitudes and learning.

The U.S. National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) has sponsored several studies of the workloads of teachers responsible for writing instruction in secondary schools. These studies show that class size is not an adequate measure of workload and that evaluation of student work is extremely time-consuming in composition classes. For example, Bennett (1986) noted that a high school teacher with 150 students will spend 50 hours per week evaluating composition. Moreover, Applebee (1978) reported that 25 percent of secondary English teachers met six classes per day, with 26 to 30 students per class. Overall, the mean student load was 127 students per day.

The NCTE recommends levels of 100 students per teacher with 20 minutes per student per week for evaluation of writing. This suggests that teachers may spend 33.3 hours grading student compositions, in addition to instruction, preparation, and other work activities. Thus, it appears then that the typical workload of composition teachers is well over the 40-hour workweek. On the other hand, teachers of some subjects (e.g., driver education) may spend relatively little out-of- class time evaluating student work. Similar variation may exist in the time demands of various elementary teaching positions such as the special education teacher versus the regular classroom teacher. Thus, differences in teacher workload become important in trying to understand the effect of workload on faculty commitment, satisfaction, morale, and, ultimately, performance. Nonetheless, the teachers' perception of fairness plays a critical role in evaluating the concept of workload.

Fairness

Fairness is the most elusive of the concepts considered in the study. Following the dominant tradition of Western philosophy, we postulate that fairness relates in part to equality of treatment (Rawls, 1971), which in employment means equal compensation for equal work. However, both compensation and workload are extremely difficult to quantify because although some contributing factors such as salary and number of hours worked are relatively easy to measure, others such as intrinsic rewards and intensity of work (some jobs demand significantly more per hour than others) are not. Fortunately, we need not overcome these difficulties for this study because we are concerned with teachers' perceptions of the fairness of their workload, not with fairness in any absolute sense. Thus, for our empirical purposes, fairness means whatever our respondents think it means. However, in drawing conclusions and formulating recommendations based on our findings, we must be careful not to confuse perception of fairness, a psychological variable, with the philosophical notion of fairness; we use fairness as a psychological variable.

TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR WORKLOAD 293

Morale

This study made the assumption that morale is the result of a number of interrelated factors concerning conditions of employment. Morale is seen as an employee attitude toward working conditions, on-the-job services, personnel policies, and relationships with superordinates. Thus morale is a function of the interaction of an individual's needs and an organization's practices.

Although the research on morale is not extensive, it is clear that teacher morale is critical in any school district. For instance, Anderson (1953) found that when morale was high, teacher productivity increased. He concluded that teachers in secondary schools whose pupils' scholastic achievement is relatively high have higher morale than do teachers in schools with relatively low pupil achievement. Koura (1963) also found that student achievement increased under teachers with high morale and decreased under teachers with low morale. Moreover, morale has been associated with absenteeism. Shaw (1980) found that teacher morale differed significantly in schools with high, average, and low absenteeism. He also found differing teacher perceptions of principal leadership in high and low morale schools. Consequently, it is plausible to postulate that morale may make a difference in teacher effectiveness and pupil achievement. However, we know little about the relationship between workload fairness and teacher morale.

Organizational commitment

Commitment is usually viewed as loyalty to the organization. A committed teacher identifies closely with the school and district and is heavily involved in the affairs of the organization, meaning that the extent of involvement of a committed teacher goes beyond personal interest. Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982) defined commitment as the employee's acceptance or organizational values, willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization, and the desire to remain an employee of the organization.

The research on commitment has addressed antecedents and outcomes, variables associated with commitment, and factors that contribute to commitment. After examining antecedents and outcomes, Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1982) reported that commitment was related to higher employee performance. In replicating the same study, however, Angle and Perry (1981) did not find a significant commitment- performance relationship but did find an association between higher commitment and lower tardiness, absenteeism, and job turnover.

Considering the variables associated with commitment, Hall, Schneider, and Nygren (1970) suggested that commitment can be affected by personal characteristics, job characteristics, and work experiences. Morris and Sherman (1981) found that personal characteristics such as age, opportunities for advancement, sense of competence, and job involvement were related to commitment. Other authors report correlations between job characteristics such as challenge, amount of feedback, social interaction, and role conflict and level of commitment (Buchanan, 1974;

294 P. REYES & M. IMBER

Porter & Steers, 1973; Sheldon, 1971). Finally, Steers (1977b) reported that commitment varied with quality of work experiences, perceptions of personal investment, and rewards or realization of expectations.

The work on teacher commitment is rather unsystematic. For instance, Bredeson, Kasten, and Fruth (1983) analyzed commitment to teaching and found that intrinsic motivation was the most powerful link to teacher commitment and performance. Rosenholtz (1987) examined the effects of school reforms on teacher commitment, concluding that for the most part career ladder and merit pay systems (new reforms) have not increased teacher commitment. In another study on career ladders, Reyes (1990) showed similar findings--teachers' sense of commitment decreased from one year to the next. Moreover, Rosenholtz (1989) indicated that teacher commitment may be explained by providing teachers with learning opportunities, autonomy and discretion, and some kind of psychic rewards such as verbal praise. Kaufman (1984) examined teachers' commitment to the profession using Herzberg's motivation hygiene theory and concluded that teachers characterized as motivation-seekers were more committed to the teaching profession than nonmotivation-seekers. Knoop (1980) found that job involvement of teachers was related to job motivation, job satisfaction, and marital status. Similarly, Huszczo (1981) examined the relationship among job involvement and satisfaction and motivation. He found that motivation was a more important predictor of job involvement than satisfaction for laborers, clerical workers, professionals, and teachers. Snyder and Spreitzer (1984) also analyzed the variables of identity and commitment to the teaching role. They found that the elements of commitment included intrinsic and extrinsic satisfactions as well as personal investment in the teaching role.

In brief, the literature suggests that commitment is related to or influenced by personal or job-related variables. However, the idea that teacher workload, fairness of workload, or perception thereof is related to commitment is absent from the literature.

Job satisfaction

Like commitment, job satisfaction has received extensive treatment in the literature. Vroom (1964) defined job satisfaction as the degree to which employees have a positive affective orientation toward employment by the organization. Locke (1976) also defined job satisfaction as "the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job as achieving or facilitating one's job values" (p. 316). On the other hand, Porter and associates (1974) defined it as "the difference between what a person thinks he should receive and what he feels he actually does receive" (p. 309).

Much job satisfaction research has dealt specifically with school teachers. Lortie (1975) suggested that a relationship existed between motivation and job satisfaction of teachers. Bridges (1980) tested the relationship between teacher absenteeism and job satisfaction, concluding that job satisfaction contributed to less absenteeism


among elementary school teachers. Holdaway (1979) showed that teachers' job satisfaction was related to stimulation at work. Engelking (1986) identified sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Satisfaction factors included recognition and achievement, while dissatisfaction factors were relationships with students and parents, lack of achievement by students and teachers, district policy and its administration, and communication with administrators. Morris and Sherman (1981) found that teacher job satisfaction was affected by the work environment and strong principal leadership. Sweeney (1981) found a positive relationship between teachers' overall job satisfaction and professional discretion. Imber, Neidt, and Reyes (1989) reported that under certain circumstances, participation in school-level decision making can contribute to teacher job satisfaction. Finally, Knoop and O'ReiIly (1978) found that perceived school effectiveness is related to satisfaction of teachers with coworkers, with supervision, and with the work itself.

In summary, job satisfaction is a variable associated with less absenteeism and is related to motivation and work environment. However, research has not demonstrated that teachers' perceptions of the fairness of their workload is related to their job satisfaction.

Rationale and hypotheses

The literature provides some evidence that organizational commitment is associated with employee performance, absenteeism, tardiness, and level of job involvement. The literature also shows that job satisfaction is positively related to motivation and perceived school effectiveness, while morale appears to affect student achievement and overall school social climate. Although workload, fairness of workload, and in particular perceptions of fairness of workload have not received extensive treatment in academic literature, it is reasonable to postulate that these variables may affect employee attitudes and performance. Thus, the following hypothesis guided this study:

Teachers who perceive their workload as fair will have higher levels of morale, commitment, and job satisfaction than will teachers who perceive their workload as unfair.

Method

Sampling and data collection procedures

High school teachers in a midwestern state in the United States were the subjects in this study. The data were gathered from 550 randomly selected subjects, stratified so as to include a representative sample of teachers from school districts of varying size. Survey instruments were mailed to and self-administered by the subjects.

296 r,. REYES & M. IMBER

Fifty-three teachers did not complete the questionnaires, reducing the number available for analysis to 497. Further incomplete questionnaires reduced the total sample to 472, for an 85 percent usable rate of return. The subjects in this group had a mean age of 39.5 years and a mean of 13.7 years of teaching experience and 9.6 years of employment in their current school. Sixty-three percent of the subjects were female.

The unit of analysis was the individual teacher. Two groups were obtained: those perceiving their workload as fair and those perceiving their workload as unfair. Of the 472 respondents, 155 reported that their workload was unfair (35 percent) while 317 (65 percent) reported that their workload was fair. Group membership then became the independent variable, with morale, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment as the dependent variables. The procedure recommended to analyze two groups on more than one dependent variable is multivariate analysis of variance (Hays, 1981; Kirk, 1982; Marascuilo & Levin, 1983).

Instrumentation

The theoretical constructs used in this study included perception fairness of workload, morale, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. To measure these concepts, three questionnaires were used that contained items measured on a Likert- type scale.

Independent variable. Workload was measured using a single item, which read: "Consider all aspects of your job such as preparation, instruction, evaluation of students' work, and extracurricular activities in answering the following question. Do you feel that your workload is fair or unfair?"

Dependent variables. Faculty morale was defined as teachers' attitudes toward working conditions, on-the-job services, personnel policies, and faculty-adminis- trator relationships. The Faculty Morale Scale (FMS) was used in this study. The FMS has been found to have a reliability of r = .89 (Reyes, 1990) and to have a moderate to strong correlation (.68) with the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)--a measure of employee commitment indicating construct validity. The FMS contains 20 items measured on a Likert-type scale; two sample items are provided below:

1. The administration is concerned with faculty working conditions. 2. There is an adequate balance of work among the faculty of this school.

Organizational commitment was defined as the relative strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular organization (Mowday & Steers, 1979). This variable has been widely studied, reviewed, (e.g., Dubin, Champoux, & Porter, 1975; Steers, 1977a) and tested with professional groups. The OCQ was used


in this study. It has high reliability and high validity (Mowday & Steers, 1979, Reyes, 1989). The reliability coefficient alpha for the OCQ is r = .90 (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). OCQ items include the following:

1. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this school. 2. I really care about the fate of this school.

Teacher job satisfaction, on the other hand, is the degree to which employees have positive affective orientation toward employment in the organization (Locke, 1976; Vroom, 1964). This variable also has been thoroughly examined and researched (Bayfield & Rathe, 1951; Quinn & Staines, 1979; Weiss et al., 1976). The instrument used in this study is the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). The MSQ is highly reliable and highly valid (Reyes, 1990; Lofquist & Dawis, 1969). The internal reliability coefficient for the index of general satisfaction is reported to be .90 (Reyes, 1989). This instrument has also been tested with several professional groups. Those tests demonstrated that the MSQ has high construct validity and high face validity. Examples of the items used in this instrument are provided below:

On my present job, this is how I feel about: 1. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities. 2. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the job.

Organizational tenure, gender, years of experience, and years at present job were obtained by using a series of single-item objectively worded questions.

Data analysis and results

Multivariate test (MANOVA) was used to analyze the relationship between teacher perception of fairness of workload and morale, commitment, and job satisfaction. Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations for the dependent variables.

Using perception of fairness of workload as the independent variable, MANOVA

Table 1. Means and standard deviations of teachers who perceive workload as fair or unfair.

Variable Group N X Standard Deviation

Morale Fair 317 57.6 8.37 Unfair 155 52,9 7.99

Commitment Fair 317 75.3 14.3 Unfair 155 69.2 14.5

Job satisfaction Fair 317 77.2 10.94 Unfair 155 69.8 11.34


Table 2. Manova test for differences in commitment, job satisfaction, and morale of teachers who perceive the workload as fair of unfair

Root No Eigenvalue % Variance Canonical 1 2.24 100% Correlation

Test Value Approx F Hyp d.f. Err df Sig of F

Pillais .09754 16.861 3.0 468 .000 Hotelling' s .10809 16.861 3.0 468 .000 Wilk's .90246 16.861 3.0 468 .000 Roy's .09754

N = 470

Univariate F-tests (1,470) D.F.

Variable Hyp. MS Err MS F Sig

Morale 2314.75 67.966 34.057 .000 Commitment 3860.77 205.865 18.753 .000 Satisfaction 5723.53 122.749 46.63 .000

was used to test for differences in commitment , job satisfaction, and morale. Results o f the omnibus M A N O V A test suggest that statistically significant ( p < .000) differences in commitment morale and job satisfaction exist between teachers who perceive their workload as unfair and those who perceive it as fair (see table 2).

Post hoc analysis completed with univariate F-tests revealed statistically significant differences in morale (F[1,470]=34.05, p< .001) . Teachers who perceived their workload as fair had higher levels of morale than those who perceived their workload as unfair. Similarly, the teacher 's commitment was different and statistically significant (F[1,470] = 18.75, p < .001) between the two groups. The commitment level was significantly higher among teachers perceiving their workload as fair than those perceiving their workload as unfair. Finally, the level of job satisfaction between the two groups was significantly correlated (F[1,470] = 46.63, p < .001) with the perception of workload fairness. Again, those teachers perceiving the workload as fair were more satisfied with their jobs than those teachers who had the opposite perception.

Discussion

The findings of this study suggest that teachers' perception of the fairness of their workload is related to teachers ' levels of morale, commitment to school, and job satisfaction. Teachers who perceive their workload as fair exhibit higher levels o f


morale, commitment, and job satisfaction than teachers perceiving their workload as unfair.

Previous research indicated that staff morale is correlated with teacher productivity, pupil scholastic achievement, teaching effectiveness, and teacher absenteeism. Therefore, teachers who perceive their workload as unfair may not as effective in their teaching or productive, and they may experience higher levels of absenteeism than teachers who perceive their workload as fair. In the research reported here, about one-third of the teachers perceived their workload as unfair and had low morale.

Similarly, the research on commitment has demonstrated that employees committed to an organization are more likely to perform better, have lower turnover rates, and exhibit a higher degree of involvement in organizational matters than noncommitted employees. Teachers perceiving their workload as fair experienced higher levels of commitment than teachers who perceived their workload as unfair. One may conclude, then, that as a group, teachers perceiving their workload as unfair tend to perform at lower levels, tend to leave their jobs more readily, and tend to exhibit a lower degree of involvement in school activities than teachers who perceive their workload as fair.

Furthermore, teachers who perceived their workload as unfair tended to experience higher levels of job dissatisfaction than did teachers having the opposite perception. Teacher job satisfaction is related to motivation, absenteeism, stimulation at work, and school effectiveness. Again, the conclusion that may be drawn is that teachers who perceive their workload as unfair are likely to be less motivated at work, be absent more often from school, be less stimulated by work, and be unproductive in contributing to school effectiveness.

These findings have implications for administrative practice. The study shows that commitment, morale, and job satisfaction of teachers are associated with by teachers' perceptions of their workload. If teacher commitment, morale, and job satisfaction are associated with teacher performance, school effectiveness, and pupil achievement, then school administrators are well advised to try to structure teacher workloads so as to maximize the number of teachers who view their own workloads as fair. This may prove to be an extremely complex task in part because the burdens of teaching some subjects, grades, or types of students may be far greater than others and in part because teachers' perceptions of what constitutes an unfair workload may be inconsistent with one another. A reasonable starting point, however, is to attempt to approximately equalize (preferably at some agree-upon level) the total number of hours of work, in school and out, required of all teachers. This effort, insofar as it necessitates significant restructuring of workload, will require the cooperation of teachers and their unions.

In order to accomplish even this first step, it will also be necessary to develop further our understanding of the elements of a teacher's workload. The efforts of the National Council on Teacher Education (NCTE) in analyzing the workload of English teachers are a beginning and should be expanded to other categories of teachers. Perhaps a formula could be developed with includes specific elements of


workload such as preparation, correction of student work, and participation in cocurricular activities such as concerts. Douglass (1928, 1951; Webb, Greer, & Norton, 1987) attempted to develop such formulas, but his efforts are now outdated.

Even if idealized formulas are developed and the theoretical workload of all teachers equalized, some particular teachers will still find it necessary to work longer hours than other because some people accomplish more than others in a ~iven period of time. But the knowledge that all teaching jobs have been designed to be equally time-demanding for people of average speed may decrease the likelihood that even slower working teachers will view their workload as unfair.

The variance associated with teachers' perception of workload has implications for personnel evaluation. Studies (Rosenholtz, 1989; Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982) indicate that less satisfied and committed teachers seem to perform at lower levels than those highly satisfied and committed to the school. Consequently, the local personnel director may consider using teacher commitment, job satisfaction, and morale as predictors of teacher performance.

That is, when teachers are highly committed and satisfied, those attitudes get translated into higher levels of teacher performance in the classroom. Similarly, when teachers are found to have lower levels of satisfaction and commitment, those attitudes may be indicators of lower levels of teacher performance in the classroom. It should be noted, nonetheless, that teacher satisfaction, commitment, and morale may not be the only indicators of teacher performance. However, these indicators are the most obvious to spot and easy to measure for personnel directors.

In an era in which teacher performance evaluation is being emphasized as an answer to education problems, practitioners and researchers must find new ways to help improve teacher performance. In this article, we offer a modest proposal to use teacher affective attitudes to spot potential problems such as low levels of teacher performance in the classroom. We believe that teacher job satisfaction, school commitment, and morale are related to how teachers perform in the classroom.

Moreover, we need to develop a comprehensive system of evaluation that can help personnel directors be more effective. Personnel directors or principals need not wait until the end of the academic year to find out which teachers are ineffectual in the classroom. A preventive indicator system may be developed to help teachers perform effectively. Teachers who view their workload as unfair are more likely than others to perform poorly in their jobs and thus may require closer scrutiny and more supervision and assistance than others. On the other hand, it may be possible to improve the performance of some teachers simply by reducing their workload to a level that they themselves view as fair.

References

Anderson, L.W. (1953). Teacher morale and student achievement, Journal of Educational Research, 46, 693-98.


Angle, H.L., & Perry, J.L. (1981). An empirical assessment of organizational commitment and organizational effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26, 1-13.

Applebee, A.N. (1978). A survey of teaching conditions in English, 1977. Urbana, IL: NCTE and ERIC. Baldridge, J.O., Curtis, D.V., Ecker, G., & Riley, G.L. (1978). Governing academic organizations.

Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing. Bayfield, A.H., & Rothe, H.F. (1951). An index of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 35,

307-11. Bennett, S. (1986). Synthesis of research: Class size, teacher load, and academic achievement.

Unpublished report, University of Wisconsin-Madison, National Center on Effective Secondary Schools.

Bentley, R.R., & Remple, A.M. (1970). Manual for the Purdue teacher opinionnaire. West Lafeyette, IN: The University Book Store.

Bredeson, P., Kasten, K.L., & Fruth, M.J. (1983). Organizational incentives and secondary school teaching. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 6(4), 52-58.

Bridges, E.M. (1980). Job satisfaction and teacher absenteeism. EducationalAdministration Quarterly, 16, 41-65..

Buchanan, B. (1974). Building organizational commitment: The socialization of managers in work organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 19, 533-546.

Coates, T.J., & Thoresen, C.E. (1976). Teacher anxiety: A review with recommendations. Review of Educational Research, 46, 159-184.

Douglass, H.R. (1928). Measuring teacher load in the high school. The Nation's Schools, 2, 22-24. Douglass, H.R. (1951). The 1950 revision of the Douglass high school teaching formula. The Bulletin,

35, 13-24. Dubin, R., Champoux, J.E., & Porter, L.W. (1975). Central life interests and organizational

commitment of blue-collar and clerical workers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 20, 411-421. Engelking, J.L. (1986). Teacher job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Spectrum, 4, 33-38. Friesen, D., & Williams, M. (1985). Organizational stress among teachers. Canadian Journal of

Education, 10, 13-34. Grant, G., & Riesman, D. (1978). The perceptual dream: Reform and experiment in the American

college. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hall, D.T., Schneider, B., & Nygren, H.T. (1970). Personal factors in organizational identification.

Administrative Science Quarterly, 15, 176-189. Hays, W.L. (1981). Statistics. New York: CBS College Publishing. Holdaway, E.E. (1979). Facet and overall satisfaction of teachers. Educational Administration

Quarterly, 14, 30-47. Huszczo, G.E. (1981). Job involvement, satisfaction and motivation: A comparison of predictors. Paper

presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Detroit. Imber, M., Neidt, W.A., & Reyes, P. (1989). Factors contributing to teacher satisfaction with

participative decision making. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 23, 216-225. Kaufman, J.W. (1984, April). Relationship between teacher motivation and commitment to the

profession. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.

Kirk, R.E. (1982). Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Knoop, R. (1980, October). Job involvement of teachers. Paper presented at the meeting of the Mid- Western Educational Research Association, Toledo, OH.

Knoop, R., & O'Reilly, R.R. (1978). Job satisfaction of teachers and organizational effectiveness of elementary school. Ontario, Canada: University of Ottawa.

Koura, H.S. (1963). An experimental study of student's achievement to high school morale of selected secondary school teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Locke, E.A. (Ed.). (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction, handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. M.D. Dunnette, Chicago: Rand McNaUy.


Lofquist, L.H., & Dawis, R.V. (1969). Adjustment to work. New York: Appleton-Century. Lortie, D.C. (1975). School teacher: A sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Marascuilo, L A . , & Levin, J.R. (1983). Multivariate statistics in the social sciences. Monterey, CA:

Brooks/Cole Publishing Co. Miller, W.C. (1981). Staff morale, school climate, and educational productivity. Educational Leader-

ship, 38, 483-486. Morris, J.H., & Sherman, J.D. (1981). Generalizability of an organizational commitment model.

Academy of Management Journal, 24, 512-526. Morris, M.B. (1981). The public school as workplace: The principal as a key element in teacher

satisfaction (Tech. Rep. No. 32). Los Angeles: California University. Mowday, R., Porter, L.W., & Steers, R.M. (1982). Employee-organization linkages. New York:

Academic Press. Mowday, R., & Steers, R.M. (1979). The measures of organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational

Behavior, 14, 224-247. Porter, L.W., & Steers, R.M. (1973). Organizational work, and personal factors in employee turnover

and absenteeism. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 151-76. Porter, L.W., et al. (1974). Organizational commitment, job satisfaction and turnover among psychiatric

technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 603-609. Porter, L.W., Steers, R.M. Mowday, R.T., & Boulian, P.V. (1974). Unit performance situational factors

and employee attitudes in specially separated units. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 19, 475-479.

Quinn, P.P., & Stains, G.L. (1969). The 1977 quality employment survey. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, survey Research Center, Institute of Social Research.

Rawls, J. (1971). A theory o f justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Reyes, P. (1990). School incentives, teacher commitment, morale, and job satisfaction: A study of public

schools. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Education Research Association, San Francisco, CA.

Reyes, P. (1989). The relationship between autonomy in decision making to commitment to schools and job satisfaction: A comparison between school teachers and mid-level administrators. Journal of Research and Development, 22, 62-70.

Rosenholtz. J. (1987). Education perform strategies: Will they increase teacher commitment? American Journal of Education. 95, 535-562.

Rosenholtz, S.J. (1989). Teachers' workplace. New York: Longman. Sheldon, M.E. (1971). Investments and involvements as mechanisms producing commitment to the

organization. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 142-150. Shaw, V. (1980). Teacher morale and absenteeism. Journal of Educational Research, 20, 360-369. Smith. W.L., et al. (1986). Class size and English instruction m the secondary school. Urbana, IL: NCIE

and ERIC. Snyder, E.E, & Spreitzer, E. (1984). Identtty and commitment to the teacher role. Teachtng Soctology,

11, 151-66. Steers, R.M. (1977a). Antecedents and outcomes of organizational commitment. Administrative Science

Quarterly, 22, 46-56. Steers, R.M. (1977b). Organizational effectiveness: A behavioral view. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear

Publishing Company. Sweeney, J. (1981). Professional discretion and teacher satisfaction. High School Journal, 65, 1-6. Vroom V.H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley. Webb, L.D., Greer, J., Montello, J., and Norton, S. (1987). Personnel administration in education.

Ohio: Merril. Weiss, D.J., et al. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minneapolis: University

of Minnesota.

teachers' perceptions of the fairness of their workload and their commitment, job satisfaction,...

Documents