teaching reading to the intellectually disabled today’s agenda 8:30 overview and housework 8:45...

Teaching Reading To The Intellectually Disabled

Today’s Agenda

8:30 Overview and Housework8:45 Self, Personality and the Intellectually

Disabled?10:15 Mid-morning Break10:30 Language and Reading12:00 Lunch1:00 Teaching Reading To the Intellectually

Disabled

P R E S E N T E DB Y

C H A R L E S W. K A L I N S K I , M E D , M A , M E D , M E D , E D S , E D D , S A I F, A T R , A E T

AND

ELAINE HOLDEN, AGOPE


P R E S E N T E D

B Y

ELAINE HOLDEN, AGOPE

A N D

C H A R L E S KA L I N S K I M E D, M A , M E D, M E D, E D S, E D D, S A I F, AT R , A E T


Thought Experiment

Take a moment to reflect on when you were a student in school. After a moment of reflection, take the single sheet of white paper provided to you and draw a school picture. Put yourself, your teacher, and a friend of two in the picture. Make everyone doing something. Try to draw whole people and make the best drawing you can. Draw yourself, your teacher, and a friend or two and make them doing something.

Intellectual Disability Definition

If someone asked you to provide them with a definition of an Intellectual Disability, what would you tell them?

Intellectually Disability Definition

At this time defining what an Intellectual Disability continues to be a challenge as there continues to be differing views as to what this disorder involves

There is difficulty with the definition of Intelligence

There is difficulty with defining Adaptive Behavior

H. N. Switzky and S. Greenspan (eds.) (2006). What is mental retardation? Ideas for an evolving disability in the 21st century. American Association of Mental Retardation

Intellectually Disability Definition

Intellectual disability is a disability that occurs before age 18. People with this disability experience significant limitations in two main areas:

1) Intellectual functioning 2) Adaptive behavior.

These limitations are expressed in the person’s conceptual, social and practical everyday living skills. A number of people with intellectual disability are mildly affected, making the disability difficult to recognize without visual cues. Intellectual disability is diagnosed through the use of standardized tests of intelligence and adaptive behavior. Individuals with intellectual disabilities who are provided appropriate personalized supports over a sustained period generally have improved life outcomes.

American Association on Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities. (2011). Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Supports, 11th Edition.

Washington, DC: American Association on Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities.

Classification of Intellectually Disabled

Intellectual Disability with known Organic Etiology –

* 25 - 30% of population

Intellectual Disability due to being Environmentally Deprived –

* 70 - 75 % of the population

E. Zigler and R. M. Hodapp. (1986). Understanding Mental Retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, (p. 8).

Understanding Individuals

When you are interacting with people, what goes through your mind as you to try to understand their behavior?

Brief History To Understanding Individuals

Psychoanalytic SchoolBehavioral SchoolHumanistic SchoolExistential SchoolCognitive SchoolNeurocognitive

The ABC’s of Psychology

A is for affect (emotion/feeling).

B is for behavior (observable event).

C is for cognition (thoughts/beliefs).

Affective Dimension

The Latin phrase for Affect is “moveo moti motum” and is defined as: to move, arouse, affect, influence.

Affect is a key part of the process of an organism's interaction with stimuli.

Affective states are considered psycho-physiological constructs and are split up into three main categories: valence, arousal, and motivational intensity.

Affect is the conscious experience of an emotion. Emotion is the umbrella term for all of the behavioral, expressive, cognitive and physiological changes that occur. Think “feelings.”

Cognitive Dimension

This word comes from the Latin verb “cognosco” (con 'with' + gnōscō 'know'), itself a cognate of the Ancient Greek verb gi(g)nόsko "γι(γ)νώσκω" meaning 'I know, perceive' (noun: gnόsis "γνώσις" = knowledge), so broadly, 'to conceptualize' or 'to recognize'.

Cognition is the set of all mental abilities and processes related to knowledge: attention, memory & working memory, judgment , evaluation, reasoning, problem solving, comprehension, and production of language. Think “intelligence.”

Behavior Dimension

behave + -ior (on model of havior, variant of havor < Middle French (h) avoir Latin habēre to have); replacing ≪late Middle English behavoure, behaver

Although there is some disagreement as to how to precisely define behaviour in a biological context, one common interpretation based on a meta-analysis of scientific literature states that "behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli"

Behaviors can be either innate or learned.

*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior

Conative Dimension

The word conative falls within the list of one thousand words that are most obscure in English

Latin “conatus,” meaning any natural tendency, impulse, striving, or directed effort

The conative drives how one acts on one’s thoughts and feelings. It has to do with desire, volition, and striving. Think “volition or willpower.”

When thinking about students which dimension influences a teacher’s perceptions about the ability to learn?

Affective Dimension

Cognitive Dimension

Behavior Dimension

Conative Dimension

Dimension Most Often Used

Think

Intelligence

Intelligence Reflected In Language

We need to begin by reflecting on the idea that the word “Intelligence” is a relative term

Who is considered intelligent depends on:

- The range of intellectual competence in a group

- The demands and affordances of the environment

- What a culture values

R. J. Sternberg. (1985) A triadic theory of human intelligence.


The meaning of this word is not fixed

Different people use this word in different meanings

As an example, if you are focused on measuring intelligence, than you attempt to make explicit and to refine, what is implicit in the common usage of the word

D. J. Bartholomew. (2004). Measuring intelligence – facts and fallacies.


Intelligence theorists disagree on whether Intelligence should be characterized as a noun

When you make use of the word Intelligence as a noun, you are focused on a structural property of the brain or a trait possessed in a certain amount

“He writes with intelligence and wit.”

J.M. Collis and S. Messick. (2001) Intelligence and personality – bridging the gap in theory and measurement.


Intelligence theorists disagree on whether Intelligence should be characterized as a verb

When you make use of the word Intelligence as a verb, you are denoting certain varieties of cognition and action

“He intelligently reasoned through that issue.”



Intelligence theorists disagree on whether Intelligence should be characterized as an adjective

When you make use of the word Intelligence as an adjective, you are focused on identifying certain types of people

“He is such an intelligent individual isn’t he?”



Intelligence theorists disagree on whether Intelligence should be characterized as an adverb

When you make use of the word Intelligence as an adverb, you are focused on describing the qualities of cognition or behavior such as its speed or efficiency

“Was he able to intelligently respond to you?”



Sternberg has identified several metaphors that underlie the experts’ conceptions of intelligence:

Geographic MetaphorComputational MetaphorBiological MetaphorGenetic-Epistemological MetaphorAnthropological MetaphorSociological MetaphorSystems Metaphor

R. J. Sternberg. (2000). The Conception of Intelligence. R.J. Sternberg. The Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.


Always keep in mind that the word “Intelligence” is only one word that is used to describe a complex set of behaviorsD. F. Lohman and T. Rocklin (1995). Current and recurring issues in the assessment of intelligence and personality. In D. H. Saklofske and M. Zeidner. (1995). International Handbook of personality and intelligence. N

WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE

WHEN IT IS PUT INTO ACTION?

Intelligence

• SPEARMAN PACED GREAT EMPHASIS ON “G”

• HE SPECULATED THAT WHAT UNDERLIES INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN “G” IS A “MENTAL ENERGY” THAT VARIES IN LEVEL FOR EACH PERSON

• HE SPECULATED THAT OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED COGNITION INCLUDED MEMORY, FATIGUE, AND CONATIVE CONTROL

P. C . K Y L L O N E N . 1 0 0 6 ) . I S W O R K I N G M E M O R Y C A P A C I T Y S P E A R M A N ’ S G ? I N I . D E N N I S & P. T A P S F I E L D . ( 1 0 0 6 ) H U M A N A B I L I T I E S – T H E I R N A T U R E A N D M E A S U R E M E N T. N A H W A H , N J : L A W R E N C E E R L B A U M A S S O C I A T E S , P U B L I S H E R S .

Intelligence involves more than cognitive processes


Raymond Cattell is noted for his research on personality (16 PF Questionnaire) and intelligence (Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligences)

From his studies he attempted to describe the relationship between different cognitive abilities in relation to personality and motivation

R.B. Cattell. (1971). Abilities: their structure, growth, and action. NH: Houghton Mifflin.


David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Scales which is one of the most widely used assessment instruments in assessment

Wechsler perceived intelligence as a manifestation of personality as a whole and made the case that certain motivational and affective factors such as volition and interest are integral parts of intelligence. He believed that affective and conative factors function in concert thus influencing intellectual performance

D. Wechsler. (1950). Cognitive, conative, and nonintellective intelligence. American Psychologist, 3, 78-83.


John Gittinger took the Wechsler Scales and developed the Personality Assessment System (PAS)

Gittinger was an assessment specialist after WW II who observed while administering the Wechsler Scales that certain behavioral traits appeared to be connected to various subtests. He developed a dynamic trait model to predict client behavior based on observation and research. His research demonstrated a clear relationship between cognitive processes and personality.

C. J. Kauskopf and D. R. Saunders. 1994).Personality and ability –the personality assessment system. Lantham, NY: University Press of America.

Intelligence: What does it look like in action?

Think of intelligence as being “situated” (Lohman, p. 90)

- Psychometrically applied (testing)

- Academically applied (classroom)

- Functionally applied (daily life) - Indigenous cognition (Dennis & Tapsfield, p. 23)

- Ecologically valid cognition (Ritchhart, p. 16)


Think Intelligence as being characterological

Characterological intelligence describes a disposition(s) that shape and motivate intellectual behavior

A characterological view of intellect recognizes that is more than meets the eye since it is influenced by affect, attitude, beliefs, habits, sensitivities, inclinations, dispositions, values, and motivation

R. Ritchhart.2002).Intellectual character – what it is, why it matters, and how to get it. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.


Characterological intelligence might be conceived as a disposition which is comprised of:

Motivation - willing to act Inclination - desire Awareness - open to world around Ability - skills that allow one to learn Values - what is important to a person Beliefs - thinking that guides actions Will Power - wanting to achieve

Predict the IQ of these two American icons.

Think

Developmentally

Disabled

Which one do you focus on:

Cognitive Dimension

Affective Dimension

Behavior Dimension

Conative Dimension

When Making Decisions About ID Students


The research indicates that individuals that work with Intellectually Disabled individuals they always focus on the cognitive ability of the individual when making decisions

Edward Zigler, Personality and Motivational Differences in Persons with Mental Retardation, 2001


A review of the scientific literature has demonstrated that individuals who work Intellectually Disabled individuals attribute all atypical behavior to their cognitive deficiency

E. Zigler. (1999). Personality development in individuals with mental retardation


Most research on Intellectually Disabled individuals has focused on the failure of the client they work with

Defectologist thinking prevent professionals from accurately perceiving human action

Edward Zigler. (2001) Personality and Motivational Differences in Persons with Mental Retardation

Attribute Overextension

Low ability/IQ is a defining characteristic of Intellectually Disabled

The emphasis on low ability leads many to make judgments that lead to the discounting of other plausible explanations for behavior such as insufficient effort

E. Zigler D. Bennett-Gates. (1999). Personality development in individuals with mental retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press.

What Is Forgotten?

What is neglected and forgotten by many professionals is that an individual’s behavior is a lot more than the result of formal cognitive processes (Unidimensional thinking)

Motivational and emotional factors influence all individuals and will vary as a function of a particular task (Multidimensional Thinking)

H. N. Switzky, (2001).Personality and Motivational Differences in Persons With mental Retardation

What Is Neglected?

Many forget that the Intellectually Disabled have personality traits that influence their actions like all human beings

Many forget that the Intellectually Disabled have desires and goals like any other person

What is needed is to perceive the Intellectually Disabled as a whole person

Edward Zigler. (1999), The individual with mental retardation as whole person. In Personality Development in Individuals With Mental Retardation.

Personality and Intellectually Disabled and Developmentally Delayed

The behavior of the Intellectually Disabled is complex and multidetermined

While one cannot change IQ a great deal, changes in personality traits and motivational structures can be influenced

E. Zigler and R. M. Hodapp. (1986). Understanding Mental Retardation

Psychological Characteristics

It must be kept in mind that any cognitive theory of the behavior of individuals with low IQ is insufficient because few behaviors are purely cognitive in nature?

The self-image of a person is shaped by experience, but it also can organize experience and motivate behavior

The Intellectually Disabled encounter certain experiences that frequently affect their self-image in a negative manner

M. Glick. Developmental and experimental variables in the self-images of people with mental retardation. In E. Zigler D. & Bennett-Gates. (1999). Personality development in individuals with mental retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press.


When one examines the research on personality and the Intellectually Disabled the focus is on discovering how they are different, rather than how they are similar

Has research on the Intellectually Disabled delved into any of psychological personality traits?

E. Zigler D. & Bennett-Gates. (1999). Personality development in individuals with mental retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press.


Research on Learned Helplessness has found that Intellectually Disabled tend to begin academic tasks with the expectancy of failure

These feelings grow as the Intellectually Disabled mature

The Intellectually Disabled are often perceived as lacking intelligence, which leads to an overextension that emphasizes ability to learn for lack of progress and no other plausible causal factors such as insufficient effort as a reason for not developing a skill

J. R. Weisz. (01999). Cognitive performance and learned helplessness in mentally retarded persons. In E. Zigler D. & Bennett-Gates. (1999). Personality development in individuals with mental retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press.


Intellectually Disables individuals tend to have lower self-image due to many failure experiences that they have

E. Zigler, D. Balla, and N. Watson. (1972). Experiential determinants of self-image disparity in institutionalized and noninstitutionalized retarded and normal children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 225 -224)

Being labeled Intellectually Disabled and being placed in self-contained special education classrooms may result in a less positive view of self and in lowered aspirations



A research project that focused on the development of academic skills and self-concept among the Intellectually Disabled:

- Revealed a positive relationships between self-concept and intelligence/achievement scores.

- Gains in achievement were significantly related to higher scores of self-concept.

- This study found that children with mild intellectual disabilities exhibit positive relationships between their academic progress and the way that they feel about themselves.

D. K. Donohue, "Self-concept in Children with Intellectual Disabilities" (2008). Psychology Theses. Paper 46.


Locus of Control is the extent to which individuals believe they can control events affecting them. An Internal Locus of control leads to more adaptive and functional behavior

Intellectually Disabled individuals tend to hold a more External Locus of Control orientation

M.L. Wehmeyer. (1994). Perceptions of self-determination and psychological empowerment of adolescents and adults with mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental retardation and Developmental Disbility,29,9-21.


Self- Efficacy is the expectation that we are capable of performing a task or succeeding in an activity, influences our motivation for the task or activity. Think of it as an optimistic sense of personal competence.

Research with Intellectually Disabled individual have found that they tend to have lower Self-Efficacy

M. L. Wehmeyer. (2001). Self-determination and mental retardation: assembling the puzzle pieces. In H. N. Switzky. (2001.) Personality and motivational differences in persons with mental retardation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawre4nce Erlbaum Associates, Publisher.


Self-Determination is the ability to perceive one’s behavior to being personally controlled or self-regulated, which empowers us to have choices in our actions rather than being controlled or pressured

Research shows that youth/adults with disabilities are less self-determined than their non-disabled peers.

Wehmeyer, M. L., Kelchner, K., & Richards, S. (1996). Essential characteristics of self-determined behavior of individuals with mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 100, 632-42.

Research indicates that Intellectually Disabled individuals tend to have a greater orientation toward being Outer Directed

E. Zigler and R. M. Hodapp. (1986). Understanding Mental Retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Motivational Characteristics

Prior to the sixties, researchers focused their studies on cognitive processes and the difference between Intellectually Disabled individual and persons without an intellectual disability, but for what reason?

Research on developmental and personality /motivational processes were practically ignored because they were viewed as “confounding variables” needing to be controlled so as to allow the researches more clearly focus on the infinitely more and important cognitive and learning processes

H. N. Switzky (2001). Intrinsic motivation and motivational self-system processes in persons with mental retardation: a theory of motivational orientation. E. Zigler D. & Bennett-Gates. (1999). Personality development in individuals with mental retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press.


There is research that demonstrates that all children possess a motive to explore and gain mastery over the environment they live in.

This desire for mastery includes competence and curiosity motives

H. N. Switzky, L. Ludwig, and H. C. Hayward. (1979). Exploration, curiosity and play in young children. Effects of object complexity and age. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 86, 637-646.


Exploratory behavior of Intellectually Disabled individual frequently meets with failure which leads to less frequent:

Exposure of self to novel stimuli To gather information from their encounters with

their environment To gather basic information about their world so

they may evaluate, understand , and elaborate new information that will induce generalizations about the structures and rules of their world



The lack of development of curiosity and competence leads to the development of the personality trait of “task-extrinsic motivation”

This is the tendency to attend to non-task and non-failure producing aspects of the environment so that the Intellectually Disabled individual can avoid failure and dissatisfaction instead of seeking satisfaction and success



Two reaction tendencies were identified early on in the research that focused on personality-motivation functioning for individuals with an Intellectual Disability. There are two tendencies:

Positive-Reaction Tendency – a heightened desire for social reinforcement from a socially supportive adult

Negative-Reaction Tendency – a wariness of and reluctance to interact with strangers.

The research shows that combined dependency on adults and a fear of interacting with them leads to a general attenuation in Intellectually Disabled individuals’ social and cognitive effectiveness’. Their positive and negative reaction tendencies move them toward behaviors of overdependency and withdrawalD. Bennett-Gates and E. Zigler, (1999). Motivation for social reinforcement: positive and negative- reaction tendency. E. Zigler D. & Bennett-Gates. (1999). Personality development in individuals with mental retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press.


Effectance/Mastery Motivation is the tendency of an individual to “effect” various acts that will enable then to cope with the demands of the people they interact with and the environment that they operate within

It involves the desire of making use of one’s cognitive resources to its fullest


Motivational Orientation is a trait that reflects the source of the incentives that are effective in motivating individuals

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic sources of motivation

Research suggests that with increasing chronological age and mental age Intellectually Disabled individuals become less intrinsically motivated and more extrinsically motivated

H. C. Hayward. (1986). Psychometric motivation and the efficiency of learning and perform in the mentally retarded. In B. W. Richards (ed.). Proceedings of the first congress of the international association for the scientific study of mental deficiency. Reigate, England: Michael Jackson.

Research on Effectance/Mastery Motivation with Intellectually Disabled

Starting early in life, individuals compare themselves to the individuals around them and become aware of their relative weaknesses

An individual’s beliefs in one’s self whether they are based on real life experiences or not will influence their achievement and learning

Any individual that lacks confidence in their academic ability and who are socially rejected do not perform to their potential

The socially rejected and low academic performing child will avoid situations that will expose their relative weaknesses to others

This results in less investment of the self in challenging situations so as to preserve their self-image

Such behavior prevents an individual from developing strategies and personal beliefs so as to be able to become a problem solver.

Research on Effectance/Mastery Motivation with Intellectually Disabled

Research on Effectance/Mastery Motivation with Intellectually Disabled individuals indicate:

They appear to be satisfied with the affirmation of their existing capabilities

Intellectually Disabled individuals do experience Effectance/Mastery Motivation, but they do so in a way that insures assured success

The potential for failure in performing a challenging task reduces the potential of finding enjoyment in taking on such a challenge

Intellectually Disabled individuals can increase their Effectance/Mastery Motivation by sequencing with small increases in difficulty

Scaffolding should be offered so as to support an Intellectually Disabled individuals completion but always in a way that does not make them feel like they are not in control

D. Bennett-Gates and E. Zigler, (1999). Effectance motivation and the performance of individuals with mental retardation. E. Zigler D. & Bennett-Gates. (1999). Personality development in individuals with mental retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press.

Getting To Know The Intellectually Disabled Individual

There are a number of instruments that can be used to sensitize yourself to the individuals you wish to support their growth and development:

EZ- Yale Personality Questionnaire (EZPQ) The ARC’s Self-Determination Scale The Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire

(ASRQ) The Self-Perception Profile For Children Perceived Competence Scale For Children Picture Choice Motivation Scale Autonomous Function Checklist

Creating A Multidirectional Classroom

Begin by adopting the Reciprocal Empowerment Model developed by McCombs and Whisler:

B. L. McCombs and J. S. Whisler. (1997). The learner-centered classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This model advocates that all individuals have the potential for positive functioning

Create an interpersonal environment that helps each individual get in touch with the abilities they possess

It is essential that reciprocal social support from persons they value be provided

Creating A Multidirectional Classroom

Intellectually Disabled individuals can acquire understanding and knowledge by providing Mediated Learning Experience

B. R. Feuerstein, E. L. Klein, and A. J. Tannenbaum (eds). (1991). Mediated learning experience (MLE) theoretical and psychosocial and learning implications. London: Freund Publishing House, Ltd.

Inborn intrinsic motivation can be set in motion by exposure to environmental stimuli appropriate for the ability of the individual

Significant others whose relationship are valued can set in motion cognitive and motivational processes that stimulate learning

It is important to treat individual separately and always look for appropriate incentives

What Does It Take To Teach Reading

Create a supportive Interpersonal Environment

Understand teaching strategies/Mediated Learning Experiences – think modifications

Understanding Direct Systematic Instruction

Adopt the Psycho-cognitive Developmental Approach, emphasizes the idea that the interventionist who is teaching reading to the Intellectually Impaired must be cognizant of the individual needs of that person and look well beyond the IQ number, while keeping the current stage of development of the student in mind.

Sources: Psychology and the Intellectually Impaired

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H. N. Switzky and S. Greenspan (eds.) (2006). What is mental retardation? Ideas for an evolving disability in the 21st century. American Association of Mental Retardation

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M.L. Wehmeyer. (1994). Perceptions of self-determination and psychological empowerment of adolescents and adults with mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental retardation and Developmental Disbility,29,9-21.

Wehmeyer, M. L., Kelchner, K., & Richards, S. (1996). Essential characteristics of self-determined behavior of individuals with mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 100, 632-42.

E. Zigler and R. M. Hodapp. (1986). Understanding Mental Retardation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.


Sources: Reading To The Intellectually Impaired

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Sources: Reading To The Intellectually Impaired

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