Recommendation for minimizing Groundwater Pollution due to Road

Maintenance and Operation

Technical Report

March 5, 2006

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Course Title EAC592BB

Final Report

Recommendation for Minimizing Groundwater Pollution from

Road Maintenance and Operation

Prepared by: Tewodros Aregahegn

Prof.: Rob Colter

Prof.: Meininger-Dyk, Wendy

To Ms. Barbara Chappell (OACETT)

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Table of Contents

Part I

1.1 Acknowledgments 5

1.2 Abstract 6

1.3 List of Illustrations 7

1.4 Introduction 8

Part II

2.0 Policy 10

2.1 Guidelines and Policies Affecting the Regulation

of Ground Water 11

2.1.1 Groundwater policy 11

2.1.2 Groundwater Pollution/ Policy 12

2.2 Federal Water Act 15

2.2.1 Application of the Act 16

2.2.2 Policy Reinforcement/Environmental Impact 17

2.3 Environmental Site Assessment 18

2.3.1 Concept 19

Part III

3.0 Groundwater Pollution 20

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3.1 General 21

3.1.1 Process 22

3.1.2 Ways 22

Part IV

3.0 Road Operation/Maintenance & Pollution Control 23

3.0 Road Salt 25

4.2 Chemical Transport 26

Part V

4.0 Mitigation Measures 26

4.0 Street sweeping 27

4.1 Road Salt 28

4.2 Paving Operation 29

5.0 Conclusion 30

6.0 Recommendations 32

8.0 List of Reference 33

9.0 Bibliography 35

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Acknowledgments

I am grateful for the thoughtful technical review of this report by Prof.

W. Meininger-Dyk, for every important insights and comments she

provided. I am also grateful for the general review in the overall

content of the report by Prof. G. Scott and Prof. R. Colter. To Prof. B.

Humber, to Prof. B Habkirk, to Prof. P. Stepan, to Prof. G. Johnson,

to Prof. C. Vatandoust, to Prof. J. Dawes, to Ms. Sharon Tracy and to

all Seneca College Staffs who assisted me in several ways in my

schooling period at the College. I always give glory to the almighty

God who is working my work.

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Abstract

Ground water pollution has been slow to emerge as a public concern, as it is the

unseen resource. In May 2000, seven people died and over 2000 were sickened

as a result of the contamination of drinking water by e-coli bacteria obtained from

ground water well in Walkarthon, Ontario.

Today ground water contamination is a critical environmental issue. Sustainable

development can be maintained when there is a serious focus on the quality and

quantity of ground water for the sake of public’s health. When the amount of

water that percolates through the layer of soil is decreased, and on the other

hand overland flow is increased, the chance of surface water pollution is at its

highest. The more water stays on the surface, the higher is the degree of

pollution due to an activity on the surface. Surface water has a direct or indirect

contact with groundwater and is therefore it is susceptible to contamination.

Groundwater is clean, when the presence of chemicals inside it doesn’t pass the

amount or standard limited by Provincial Water Quality of Ontario.

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List of Illustrations

Figure number Page Number

1 sample Declaration Paper 14

2 Common site activities 18

3 Natural Hydrologic Cycle 21

4 Road Maintenance 23

5 Deteriorating Pothole 24

6 Street Sweeping 24

7 Street Condition 26

8 Erosion and Sediment

Control 28

9 Covering Storm Drain Inlet 29

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Introduction

Road maintenance and operation is among the several development activities

that have certain contribution for surface water contamination. Its impact on the

environment is best studied by looking to the desirability and feasibility of the

project. An effective land use planning is also the best way of preventing the

pollution of ground water due to a project (road operation and maintenance). As

environmental assessment and policy development conserve, restore, develop

and manage the conditions of a watershed, developing guidelines and codes of

practices that deals with contamination of ground water is the primary step under

the Federal Policy and Green Plan,

Roadway systems are a large part of the infrastructure of urban areas across

Canada, and require regular repairs and maintenance due to traffic use and

climate conditions. This includes:

Resurfacing operation of road and bridges (porous asphalt for pothole repair).

Deicing of roadways in cold weather

Removing debris and sediments from roadways mostly in spring.

As all these tasks are carried out on the surface, they obviously contribution to

the quality and quantity of surface water flow. A concern for the quality and

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quantity of surface flow does mean a concern for the quality and quantity of

ground water, which is the source of drinking water in most parts of the province.

This report discusses the different mechanisms implemented to prevent

groundwater pollution caused by road operation and maintenance in Toronto. In

preparing this report, several resources as references are used. Some of the

sources are reference books, Internet resources, and interviews with

professionals and textbooks. The most recent resources available are used in

defining and explaining some of the important terms.

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2.0 Policy

2.1 Guidelines and Policies Affecting the Regulation of Groundwater

Elected legislatures and parliaments enact legislation but administrative bodies

acting under the authority given by such laws, develop and implement

regulations. Environmental regulations can best be understood by comparing it to

a more common type of government regulations. Under the authority given by

laws, the Conservation Authority Act studies and investigates watersheds to

determine a program where by the natural resources of the watershed may be

conserved, restored, developed and managed. Preparing regulations to the

approval of the Ministry of Natural Resources is part of their responsibility. To

assist its goals and objectives each Conservation Authority formulates a set of

Policies. Government work to maximize compliance by appointing agents with

special powers, the police, to detect illegal actions. When violations are detected

government prosecutes in the courts in order to impose sanctions, such as fines

or imprisonment. These decisions are intended to deter future illegal actions on

the part of both the individual involved and others. If a project is on progress

illegally, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has the power to issue a stop

order, under the Environmental Protection Act of Ontario. The industry causing

the pollution will be forced to cease operation, until any pollution problem

detected is resolved.

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2.1.1 Groundwater Policy

Groundwater Protection Policy (1992) is based on the concept of vulnerability of

resources and refers to four factors, which define vulnerability. These are:

1- Nature of Strata

2- Nature of overlaying soil covers (its ability to attenuate pollutants).

3- The presence of natural drift

4- The depth of the unsaturated zone.

The guiding principles of ground water policy are based on these important

factors. Activities such as: Improving any altered strata, investigating the

situations of the soil cover by improving its quality or taking remedial actions,

affects the ability to attenuate pollutants. Studying the presence of natural drifts,

checking the depth of the unsaturated zone is part of the guiding principles.

In addition the policy anticipates and prevents pollution to groundwater by

applying the precautionary approach, whenever there is either concern about

serious harm to human and the ecosystem, health, or if there is the lack of full

scientific certainty to the above factors.[1]

Hence government policy to protect natural resources plays an important role in

protecting against pollution of groundwater. When the policy is respected, the

quality of groundwater should be safe. As a result, efforts to protect the

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ecosystem will be more effective, by reducing the environmental impact of

urbanism.

2.2.1 Groundwater Pollution and Policy

As more sources of surface water have become off limit, the degree of

groundwater pollution has increased. A need to manage the quality and the

quantity of surface runoff is essential.

The main objective of groundwater pollution policy is pollution prevention.

Pollution prevention is defined as; “The reduction or elimination of pollutants or

wastes at the source” (MOEE, August 1997, Ontario’s Progress on Pollution

Prevention).

A broader and more detailed definition of pollution prevention is;

“The use of processes, practices, materials, products, substances or energy that

avoid or minimize the creation of pollutants and waste and reduce the overall risk

to the environment or human health” (Reference Canadian Environmental

Protection Act, 1999). [2]

Pollution prevention promotes continuous improvement through operational and

behavioral changes. Pollution prevention is a shared responsibility among

governments and individuals, industrials, commercial, institutional and

communities. It provides a means of reducing pollutant loading resulting in an

associated benefit of water quality. It is generally achieved by controlling

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pollutants at the source so that they do not enter the flow of water either on the

surface or in stream.

Contamination of groundwater has occurred in most parts of the city with

increasing frequency. Regulatory agencies and courts have been developing

guidelines, laws and rules to protect this resource. Groundwater quality laws deal

with both the prevention of contaminants and assigning responsibility for

protection or cleanup. Hence the conduct of any activity which could affect or

pose risk to human health is regulated by groundwater pollution policy. When an

activity alters the vulnerability of groundwater that are defined by four factors

[section 2-1-1], statutory provisions call for government or private party response

to the incidents of contamination. To affect a groundwater protection strategy,

both the Federal and Estate governments have implemented legislation to curtail

activities that may result in the degradation of groundwater quality. Federal

statues restricting underground injection of waste and human activities in

recharge zone of vulnerability ground water system have been enacted in the

safe drinking water Act. [3]

They may assign penalties or other legal liability to the polluters. A company that

has a plan to conduct a project has a pre-defined responsibilities clearly listed on

Environmental Policy declaration signature paper that has to be signed by its

representative before proceeding to its project. This minimizes public health

safety risk and environmental disorder.

Figure 1 shows a sample of declaration paper prepared for such purpose

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Sample Environmental Policy

With this declaration Company xxx publicly recognizes and commits to conduct its business in full

awareness of obligations to the environment. The company understands that it must provide a positive

attitude towards compliance with regulatory requirements that govern its industry, minimize risks to

adverse effects from its operations and share responsibility of stewardship with employees, customers,

shareholders and community. In recognition of this responsibility the company will:

1 Endeavor to ensure familiarity with industry standards and compliance with all pertinent federal,

Provincial and municipal regulatory requirements.

2 Encourage suppliers, agents and distributors to pursue sound environmental practices and programs.

3 Ensure that all employees are aware of their environmental responsibilities and that they are app-

ropriately trained, involved and motivated.

4 Minimize environmental, health and safety risk, conserve energy and natural resources and minimize

waste of all kinds.

5 Commit sufficient resources to allow for the proper implementation of efforts and programs to achieve

Environmental goal.

We wish to promote and challenge everyone in this global community to join us and adopt these statements

as basic elements of their responsibility to their respective community and our planet.

__________________________ __________________

President Date

Figure 1: Sample of Declaration Paper

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2-2 Federal Water Act

Canada’s geography both the country’s location on the face of the globe and its

physical make up has had an effect on the national culture and political evolution

that carries over to environmental prevention laws and policies.

Since 1960’s Canada has had laws and policies in place to prevent or reduce

pollution. The Planning Act of 1947 is the foundation of the present Planning Act.

New developments are managed under this planning act for the sake of public

health. Environmental Impact Assessment is the tool used to predict the impact

of any development. It reduces, mitigates or ameliorates adverse environmental

effects of a project. The planning, construction and maintenance of transportation

facilities have been controlled by the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Act. Clean

Water Act of 1947 & 1987 that included wetland protection and elimination of the

discharge of pollutants have also great contribution for pollution prevention of

groundwater due to a project such as road operation and maintenance or lake of

proper workmanship in its utilization’s.[4]

2.2.1 Application of the Act

Even though, groundwater is the unseen resource of drinking water, it is more

professional and ethical to be aware of its quality and quantity before any

negative consequences is heard on public’s health safety. It is hidden from

view, exists in a complex environment and difficult to work with may not be

sufficient reasons, for not to predicting on any defect in its quality.

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If science is able to see microorganisms and works with the smallest invisible

particles in particle dynamics and quantum mechanics (applied physics), what

about groundwater? Why is groundwater hydrology not an exact science”? As

some books boldly say. We all know that groundwater hydrology is a science

and not…. If we keep on saying this when will be the time to assure and make a

difference on public’s uncertainty on its quality? In a recent survey conducted by

Compass inc., it was determined that 86% of Ontario residents are concerned

about the quality of our drinking water and these people are not confident that

action will be taken to improve both the quality and quantity issues relating to the

water environment and water quality. As an example let’s see what is being said

by some reports about the death of six people in Walkerthon Ontario.

‘Six people died when a complex array of factors, unique to the Walkerthon

situation, let fatal contamination of the towns drinking water supply’.

A closer look at this sentence clearly shows that, it is written to convince the

public. The words used in the sentence i.e., Unique, complex array of factors,

Walkerthon situations…… seem projections. The fact should be Professional

Ethics and due diligence could have developed a good understanding of the

particular system, if attention was paid to the almost clear fundamental principles

of groundwater hydrology.

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2.2.1 Policy Reinforcement/Environmental Impact

The process and impact of groundwater pollution can be noticed immediately, if

attention is paid to its quality and quantity before hand. Not only for public health

safety and also large water bodies that are havens for fish and other habitats

could be protected too. As the quality of groundwater is either directly or

indirectly related to the quality of surface flow, managing the quality and quantity

of overland flow is very important. Attention and focus to the factors that

determines the vulnerability of groundwater makes a difference to a proper

utilization of this free gift of natural resource.

The current attention being made to the proper utilization is a good step even it is

done after the consequences at Walkerthon. The government has introduced the

groundwater protection regulation in three phases. The first phase has begun to

take effective on November 1, 2004 with registration of qualified well drillers and

well pump installers. Starting November 1, 2005, all wells, whether for single,

domestic, industrial, irrigation or multiple supply of water, must be properly

capped. Newly constructed wells must be scaled, if unused deactivated or

closed, according to the new standards. (Canadian Environmental Protection

Magazine).

With respect to sources of pollutants, applying the definition of pollution

prevention is more or less sufficient. As mentioned earlier, pollution prevention is;

the reduction or elimination of pollutants or wastes at the source. Managing

activities that could add pollutants in the environment is essential. This is done by

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studying the desirability and feasibility of projects through Environmental

Assessment.

2.3 Environmental Site Assessment

Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) is a decision making process used to

promote good environmental planning by assessing the potential effects of

certain activities.

See figure 1 below for an illustration of these activities.

Figure 2: Common developmental activities that have a direct or an

indirect impact to the quality and quantity of groundwater.

Transport, and in particular vehicle road traffic is another activity that has many

impacts on the soil. Raw materials leaching out of road surface to water and soil,

due to vehicle washing, road safety measures i.e. salt application in winter, street

brushing and road maintenance are some of the major activities causing pollution

to groundwater. In addition to the above activities, substantial pollution is caused

by road wear (6.5 million tones a year, tire wear (24000 tones), and brake wear

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(6000 tones) in FRG. Leaking oils and lubricants have also a certain contribution

to concentrate the amount of pollutants discharged.

Over one- quarter of the Canadian Urban population lives in Municipalities that

continue to discharge wastes directly to the environment with no form of prior

treatment. Licensing the pollution associated with waste disposal can be

achieved by reducing the quality of waste initially generated and by upgrading

the design and operation of the disposal facility

An environmental assessment must be conducted in addition to the standard

licensing approach. This requirement for environmental assessment is set out in

specific legislation or is simply a matter of policy. One of the jurisdictions of 1990

that have enacted specific legislation devoted to environmental assessment is

(the 1976 Ontario Environment Assessment Act).

2.3.2 Concept

The concept of Environmental Assessment was introduced by the federal

government as a policy in 1973. In 1975, it was developed as legislation in

Ontario. Environmental Impacts of a proposed project are prevented by

predicting when the project is in planning stages. It is possible to avoid or reduce

them depending on the predicted scale of impact on the environment. Any

assessment to be decided on a proposed project is open for public opinion

before any final decision.

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There are several types of assessments and audits that can be conducted to

obtain information regarding environmental activities and issues that may be

associated with a property and its use. ESA is made in three to four stages

before an approval of a proposed project and we will not look at them here as

these are not the scope of this report.

3.0 Groundwater pollution

Groundwater pollution occurs either from a point source or a non point source.

Pollution due to road maintenance and operations is categorized under non point

source. There are three reasons why it is critically important to protect

groundwater.

1- If it becomes polluted it is very difficult to rehabilitate.

2- Aquifers act as natural low cost storage systems for large volume of potable

water, which requires relatively little treatment before use.

3- Groundwater provides the base flow of many surfaces, which may be of

amenity value.

3.1 General

Surface water is commonly hydraulically connected to ground water, but

interactions are difficult to observe and measure. Groundwater feeds surface

water supplies but surface water also affect groundwater. Water that runoff

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polluted lands carry pesticides and road pollutants that can make their way into

the groundwater.

3.1.1 Process

The natural cycle moves water throughout the ecosystem by the process of

precipitation, runoff, infiltration, evaporation and condensation.

Figure 3: Schematic representation of the natural hydrologic cycle

The transport and fate of chemicals released in the groundwater environment are

dictated by hydrologic processes for their migration in the subsurface. Their

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attenuation and transformation is dictated by geo-chemical and biological

processes. The thickness, permeability and composition of the unsaturated zone

exert a major control on the groundwater recharge and the movement of

contamination from surface to an underlining aquifer. An aquifer serves two

functions; one as a conduit through which flow occurs, and the other as storage

reservoir.

3.1.2 Ways

The sources of groundwater contamination could be in any of the following listed

categories.

1 Sources designed to discharge substances

2 Sources designed to store, treat and or dispose of substances, discharged

through unplanned release.

3 Sources designed to retain substances during transport or transmission.

4 Sources discharging substances as a consequence of other planned

activities,

- Salt application

- Urban runoff

5 Sources providing conduit or inducing discharge through altered flow pattern

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6 Naturally occurring sources where discharge is created and or exacerbated

by human activity

4.0 Road Operation / maintenance & Pollution control

Roadway systems are a large part of the infrastructure of urban areas across the

country and require regular repair and maintenance due to traffic use and

climatic conditions.

Figure 4: Road Maintenance

Factors that affect the level of pollutants on roadway include, surrounding land

use, the design of roadway, the presence of roadside vegetation, the use of

insecticides and the frequency of accidents and spills that can introduce

hazardous chemicals. Certain pollutants can be reduced by the application of salt

in colder climate, depending on the amount of deicer applied to melt ice and

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snow. Proper planning for road resurfacing operation is a simple but effective

method to control pollution.

When practical, the use of porous paving material for sidewalk, parking lots, and

streets can significantly reduce runoff from surfaces. The usual impervious

concrete or asphalt may be replaced with gravel or crushed rock. In some cases,

an even better solution is to use modular pavement, which consists of impervious

material, usually concrete, interspersed with void areas filled with porous material

such as Sod, Sand, or Gravel.

Figure 5: Deteriorating pothole

In suburban areas where the slope of the

land is not too great, the traditional curb

and gutter system may be replaced with

gently sloped grassed channels or swales.

In addition to reducing surface runoff, it is

necessary to control and minimize the

amount of sediments from surfaces.

By using recent sweeping technology, it is possible to pick up the fine-grained

sediment particles that carry a substantial portion of the storm water pollutant

load.

Figure 6: Street sweeping

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Street sweeping is practical in most urban areas often as aesthetic practice to

remove sediment build up and large debris from curb gutters. It is practical in the

spring snowmelt to reduce pollutant loads from salt and to reduce sand export to

receiving waters.

4.1 Road Salt

Transport Canada recognizes the importance of road salts in protecting roadway

safety. Road Salt plays a large role in keeping Canadian roads safe and efficient

during winter. Winter maintenance activities include the use of road salt, keep

transportation moving and help to reduce injuries and loss of life.

On the other hand its application poses a risk to plants, animals and the aquatic

environment, if the amount is in excess. It can create significant adverse health,

environmental and infrastructure problem.

4.1.2 Chemical Transport

Groundwater contamination occurs when chemicals are detected where they are

not expected and not desired. This situation is a result of movement of chemicals

in the subsurface from some source that may be located some distance away.

The physical transport process is the primary concern in defining and treating

groundwater contamination. Water that runoff polluted lands carry pesticides and

road pollutants that can make their way into the groundwater. Surface flow can

be diluted when it mixes with other elements on its course. But groundwater once

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polluted can travel extensive distance over long period of time with little or no

change in pollutant level.

5.0 Mitigation Measures

Mitigation measures, that should be considered, include enhancement of existing

wetland, creation of new wetland, and erosion control. It should be noted that any

mitigation measures should be related to the actual adverse impact caused by a

project or activities.

5.1 Street sweeping

There are several factors to be considered in this activity to achieve effective

pollutant removal caused by non- point sources.

- Condition of the street

- geographical location

- the operators skill

- the presence of parked cars

Figure 7: Condition of street

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- The amount of impervious area devoted to roof top

Careful considerations of the above factors and by using the most sophisticated

sweepers; greatest reduction in sediment with pollutant can be achieved.

5.2 Mitigation of the effect of road salt application

To mitigate the effect of road salt application during deicing in winter, there are

some measures to be considered.

1- Managing the quantity

As the effect on plants and animals is directly related to the amount applied,

avoiding excess usage minimizes its effect on the environment.

2- Proper storage

2- Use of Road Salt Alternatives

For deicing operation, it is possible to use Calcium Magnesium Acetate as an

alternative to Sodium Chloride. Relatively CMA is harmless than Sodium

Chloride to plants and animals, non-corrosive to metals and non-destructive to

concrete and other highway materials. The other alternative to sodium chloride is

Potassium Acetate with low environmental effect relative to NACL.

Therefore, CMA & kA both appear to be viable road salt alternatives. No

significant health, environmental or infrastructure impact occurs with the use of

these alternatives. The only disadvantage in using them is they are more

expensive than the usual sodium chloride.

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5.3 Paving operation

-Paving operations should be performed in dry weather using concrete, asphalt

or other sealers to prevent contamination of runoff.

Figure 8: Paving operation

Figure 9:

-Proper staggering should be used to reduce the spillage of paving materials

during the repair of potholes and worn pavement, i.e. covering storm drain inlet

and manholes during paving operations using erosion and sediment control

measures to decrease runoff from sites.

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Figure 10: Covering storm drain inlet

By utilizing pollution prevention material

such as drip pans and absorbent material

for all paving machines to limit leaks and

spills of paving material fluid, it is possible

to block pollutants from entering the

groundwater.

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6.0 Conclusion

Urbanism increases the amount of impermeable surface that leads to an

increased overland flow. By careful planning of developments and managing

them during implementation, it is possible to minimize the risk of surface water

pollution. Careful Planning in coordination with application in the office and on

site can have a fruitful result in protecting the quality and quantity of surface flow,

that has a direct or an indirect impact on the quality of ground water. It is very

important to balance policy development and its application.

We can develop new policies or reinforce the existing one; it is not as difficult as

its application on the real world activities (road maintenance and operation).

When every citizen, whether a developer or an investor, shares the responsibility

of protecting the environment, then policy application will be more practical and

effective. We should come to a state where we care to the environment not only

for fear of laws and penalties.

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7.0 Recommendation

Limit roadwork to dry weather conditions, it is cheaper, safer and cleaner. If

you must perform roadway grading under wet condition, consider the ambient

temperature and wind conditions. They directly affect how quickly the ground

will dry out while it is being worked.

To provide technology useful in selecting and designing various

environmental protection operations and processes which ecologically and

reliably fill identified needs.

When performing road constructions and maintenance activity, you must

comply with all standards set forth by federal, state, and local environmental

regulations. At minimum, this applies to erosion control, preserving clean air

and water, sensitive area regulations, construction material selection, and

chemical applications.

With careful planning it is possible to reduce the amount of overland water

flow. For example, one can intercept runoff from rooftops and percolate it

directly into the ground with the use of dry wells, or similar devices. This

minimizes the chance of surface water pollution by reducing its exposure to

the environment.

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If land area is available and if the soil is sufficiently porous, it may be possible

to route land runoff to recharge basins where the water has a chance to

percolate into the soil, rather than running off the land. Runoff from road

maintenance operations can be routed to the recharge basins.

Inspecting and avoiding poorly managed dump sites in unsuitable locations to

minimize microbial pollution.

…………………………………..///………………………………………….

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8.0 List of references

1 Boulding, J. Russell, Practical Handbook of Soil, Vadose zone and

Groundwater Contamination Assessment, Prevention, and Remediation.

Lewis Publishers [page 13]

2 Center Larry W., Robert C. Knox, and Deborah M.Fairechild.

Groundwater Protection. Lewis Publishers, Inc. 1987[page 21]

3 Meininger-Dyk, Prof. Wendy. Remidiation of the Built Environment. Seneca

College, 2000. [Gage 7]

4 Lerche Ian Evan K. Paleologose, Environmental Risk Analysis. Department of

Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, 2001[page 15]

5 Pitt, Robert Elvin, Groundwater Contamination from Storm Water Infiltration.

Chelsea, Michigan: Ann Arbor Press, Inc. c1996 [page 16]

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9- Bibliography

Blymer Engineers, Environmental Compliance Manual for the Road

And Rail Transportation Industries. Blymer Engineers Inc., 1998.

Boulding, J. Russell, Practical Handbook of Soil, Vadose zone and

Groundwater Contamination Assessment, Prevention, and Remediation.

Lewis Publishers.

Center Larry W., Robert C. Knox, and Deborah M.Fairechild.

Groundwater Protection. Lewis Publishers, Inc. 1987.

Homberger George M. Jeffrey P. Raffensperger, Patricia L. Wiberg. Elements of

Of Physical Hydrology. Virginia University Department of Env. Science.

Lerche Ian Evan K. Paleologose, Environmental Risk Analysis. Department of

Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, 2001.

Meininger-Dyk, Prof. Wendy. Remidiation of the Built Environment. Seneca

College, 2000.

Pitt, Robert Elvin, Groundwater Contamination from Storm Water Infiltration.

Chelsea, Michigan: Ann Arbor Press, Inc. c1996.

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Simmons, I.G. The Ecology of Natural Resources. New York, Wily Publishers.

1974.

Scott, Prof. G.A. Technical Report Overview. Seneca College 2000.

Thomson J.A. W. Rast, M.M. Holland, G. Jolankai and S.O. Ryding. Assessment

And Control of Non Point Source Pollution of Aquatic Ecosystems a Practical

Approach. Man and the Biosphere series. The Parthenon Publishing Group.

1999.

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i Seneca College School of Civil Engineering Technology