technologies that enable congestion pricing

8/3/2019 Technologies That Enable Congestion Pricing

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Contents

The Primer Series and the Purpose o This Volume 2

Congestion-Pricing Options 4

Functional Processes or Tolling and Congestion Charging 6

Primary Tolling and Pricing-System Components 7Paper-Based Systems 7

Manual-Toll Facilities 8

Image-Based Tolling/Automatic License Plate Recognition (ALPR) Technology 9DSRC Free-Flow Toll Using Transponders and Gantries 9

VPS Technologies 11

Cellular Telephone and Pico-Cell Systems 12

Combination Systems 13

Sub-System Technologies 14Inorming and Providing Standardized Signs and Lane Markings 14

Vehicle-Occupancy Detection Technologies 15

Vehicle-Identifcation and Classifcation Systems 15

Telecommunications: Roadside and Centralized Control Equipment 16

Automation o Operations 17

Payment Systems or Pre- and Post-Payment o Tolls and Charges 17

Secondary Enorcement 18

System Reliability and Accuracy o DSRC Systems 18

OBU Distribution Facilities 19

ITS Integration 19

Acronym List/Glossary 20

Reerences 23


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2| C o n g e s t i o n P r i C i n g

The Primer Series and the Purpose of This Volume

States and local jurisdictions are increasingly dis-

cussing congestion pricing as a strategy or improv-

ing transportation system perormance. In act

many transportation experts believe that conges-

tion pricing oers promising opportunities to cost-

eectively reduce trac congestion, improve the

reliability o highway system perormance, and improve the quality o lie or residents, many o whom

are experiencing intolerable trac congestion in re-

gions across the country.

Because congestion pricing is still a relatively new

concept in the United States, the Federal Highway

Administration (FHWA) is embarking on an out-

reach eort to introduce the various aspects o

congestion pricing to decision-makers and transpor

tation proessionals. One element o FHWAs con

gestion-pricing outreach program is this Congestion

Pricing Primer Series. The aim o the primer series isnot to promote congestion pricing or to provide an

exhaustive discussion o the various technical and

institutional issues one might encounter when im-

plementing a particular project; rather, the intent is

to provide an overview o the key elements o con-

gestion pricing, to illustrate the multidisciplinary

aspects and skill sets required to analyze and imple-

ment congestion pricing, and to provide an entry

point or practitioners and others interested in en-

gaging in the congestion-pricing dialogue.

The concept o tolling and congestion pricing is

based on charging or access and use o our roadway

network. It places responsibility or travel choices

squarely in the hands o the individual traveler

where it can best be decided and managed. The car

Teces Tat Eabe

Cest Pc

This volume explores transportation

technologies that enable congestion

pricing. This document considers

the ollowing:

Thefunctionalprocessesfor

tolling and congestion pricing.

Whattechnologiesthereareto

consider.

Howthetechnologiesareapplied.

Examplesofhowtechnologies

have been applied.

Whattechnologiesmaymakeit

work better in the uture.

Abt Ts Pe Sees

TheCongestionPricingPrimerSeriesispartofFHWAsoutreachefforts

to introduce the various aspects o congestion pricing to decision-makers

and transportation proessionals in the United States. The primers are

intended to lay out the underlying rationale or congestion pricing and

some o the technical issues associated with its implementation in a

manner that is accessible to non-specialists in the feld. Titles in this

series include:

CongestionPricingOverview.

Economics:Pricing,Demand,andEconomicEfciency.

Non-TollPricing.

TechnologiesThatEnableCongestionPricing.

TechnologiesThatComplementCongestionPricing.

TransitandCongestionPricing.

Income-BasedEquityImpactsofCongestionPricing.


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t e C H n o l o g i e s t H A t e n A b l e C o n g e s t i o n P r i C i n g |3

is oten the most convenient means o transporta-

tion; however, with a little encouragement, people

may nd it attractive to change their travel habits,

whether through consolidation o trips, car-sharing,

by using public transportation, or by simply traveling

at less-congested times. The use o proven and prac-

tical demand-management pricing, which we reely

use and apply to every other utility, is needed or

transportation.

The application o tolling and road pricing to solve

local transportation and sustainability problems pro-

vides the opportunity to solve transportation prob-

lems without ederal or state unding. It could mean

that urther gas tax, sales tax, or motor-vehicle regis-

tration ee increases are not necessary now or in the

uture. The idea o congestion pricing is a conceptual

rst step, not a complete plan o action. It has to be

coordinated with other policy measures and environ-

mental measures or sustainability.

This toll-technology primer was produced to ex-

amine the use o technology, both primary and ad-

vanced, to support tolling and congestion pricing. It

explains how current tolling and congestion-pricing

technology works and what technologies may make

it work better in the uture.


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Congestion-Pricing Options

In the United States and around the world, several

strategies exist on how to implement congestion

pricing. These strategies consider how best to infu-

ence trac patterns, match the local geography, t

political boundaries, and match the policy rame-

work o the implementing jurisdiction.

The our major types o pricing include:

Priced Lanes: Fees or low-occupancy vehicles to

utilize excess capacity on new or existing high-

occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes (e.g., I-15 Fas-

Trak between Kearny Mesa and Rancho Penas-

quitos, Caliornia1, or the SR-91 Express Lanes in

Orange County). Pricing can be xed per road

segment, vary by occupancy (e.g., HOV2, HOV3,

or HOV4+), vary by occupancy and time o day,

or vary dynamically based on the degree o con-

gestion in the adjacent ree lanes.

Variable Tolls on Entire Roadways: Fees placed

on existing and new roads, bridges, and tunnels

to pay or access onto the road or acility and to

pay or the cost o maintenance and construction

o the road, whether the government or the pri-

vate sector builds the toll acility. The toll is vari-

able, that is, prices rise and all depending on the

measured trac level or estimated trac level

based on time o day.

Zone-Based Charges: Fees levied to charge oraccess or use o a designated road network in

and around heavily congested areas or urban

centers. There are several orms o congestion

pricing, including cordon charges, area charges,

and zonal charges. These variations are explained

as ollows:

Cordon chargeA fat or variable ee levied or

crossing the designated boundary around an

urban center. Cordons can be used or entrance

or exit o any road designated by the cordon(s)

Manchester, England, has proposed a cordon

charge to enter the regional center only during

the morning peak period inbound and the eve-

ning peak period outbound. It uses the natura

boundary o the M-60 motorway, which cir-

cles the regional center and city o Manchester

and includes a proposed second cordon bound-

ary closer to the city center. Stockholm is an

example o a single cordon charge.

Area chargeCharge or all trips whether

they originate outside the boundary and cross

the designated boundary or originate inside

the boundary and never cross the boundaryduring the charging period. The London Con-

gestion Charging System levies a fat ee on

any vehicle on public roads inside the desig-

nated charging zone or crossing into or out o

the boundary. It also charges the same daily

ee or all vehicles regardless o size or time

spent in the charging zone.

Zonal chargeMini-cordons within or around

an urban center where ees are charged or

entering each mini-cordon that can be con-

tiguous or spatially separated with ree roadsin between them. Charging or each mini-

cordon can be the same across all cordons or

vary between them and can also vary by direc-

tion or time o day or peak-period charging

or variable charging based on the degree o

congestion. Mini-zones are typically drawn


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around known geographical or political bound-

aries that are easily and clearly understood by

the local residents. Florence, Italy, has several

mini-cordons based on centuries-old political

boundaries. Residents o any specic mini-cor-

don are not charged or travel within their

home cordon but are charged or entry into a

neighboring mini-zone or cordon.

Area-Wide or System-Wide Charges: Fees levied

on a vehicle based on actors such as vehicle

type, distance traveled, time o day, type o road,

vehicle emissions, or type o power train (e.g.,

diesel engine, gasoline engine, bio-uel engine,

hybrid, electric, or hydrogen). This type o charg-

ing includes:

Truck or heavy commercial vehicle pricing

Fees levied only on trucks or heavy commer-

cial vehicles that typically refect charges or

the weight carried (load) and distance carried

on the road network. Current truck pricing

examples include New Zealands Road User

Charging, Switzerlands truck tolling, and

Austrias and Germanys MAUT systems.

Strategic-road-network chargeLevies imposed

as spot charges on major roads or congested

network links in or into city centers. Strategic-road-network charges can be a continuous se-

ries o charging points along a major access

road into the urban center. These charges can

vary by location and time o day, in addition to

type or classication o vehicle. Strategic-road-

network charges were considered in the Auck-

land, New Zealand, Road Pricing Evaluation

Study(2) and are part o the Singapore Elec-

tronic Road Pricing (ERP) system.(3) In Singa-

pore, these charges apply not only on the stra-

tegic road network approaching the centralbusiness district (CBD), but also to specic

congested areas or streets inside the boundary

o the cordon charge.(3)

These options dene the major types o pricing that

exist today, but the list is not all inclusive, and new

concepts or combinations o the above may develop

in the uture. For example, Milan, Italy, has intro-

duced an environmental charging system, and Hong

Kong has explored a concept o eco-point charging

or personal carbon-based trading in which users

gain or lose eco-points based on their travel choic-es, time, and distance traveled.(4)


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Functional Processes for Tolling andCongestion Charging

The basic unction o any tolling or congestion-pric-

ing system and supporting technologies is to collect

payment rom users. This can vary signicantly de-

pending on particular local conditions; policy rame-

work; strategic, legal, and policy requirements; and

the nature o the outcomes that the charging system

seeks to achieve. The capabilities and/or limitations

o the technologies available have oten played a ma-

jor role in shaping unctional design: As the capabili-

ties o technology have increased, the fexibility o

tolling and road-user charging can more directly ad-

dress and improve the key objectives. In the same

way that some technology limitations have restricted

(and still restrict) some desirable options and unc-

tions, the rapidly developing capabilities o new

technologies can also oer options that may previ-

ously have not been considered.

Whatever system or technology solutions are ad-

opted, the collection o payment rom users within

the ramework o any tolling or road-user pricing

scheme must include consideration o the ollowing

nine unctional requirements:

1. Inorming: Providing adequate inormation to

users and potential users (oten dened by legis-

lation).

2. Detection: Detecting, and in some cases measur-

ing, each individual instance o use (e.g., vehicle

entering a zone).

3. Identifcation: Identiying the user, vehicle, or in

some cases numbered account.

4. Classifcation: Measuring the vehicle to conrm

its class, aligned with the classication rame-

work or the scheme.

5. Verifcation: Cross-checking processes and sec-

ondary means o detection to assist in conrming

transactions, reducing processing costs, and pro-viding a backup or potential enorcement.

6. Payment: Pre- and post-use collecting o pay-

ment rom users based on veried use.

7. Enorcement: Providing the means to identiy

and prosecute violators and/or pursue violators

or payment o charges and/or nes.

8. Exemptions:Providing the acility with the mean

to manage a range o exemptions and discounts

within the context o the scheme.

9. System Reliability and Accuracy: Providing all o

the above through cost-eective systems and

technologies that can meet the required levels o

reliability and accuracy and minimize revenue

leakage and raud.

This base unctional ramework has been used

through several o the ollowing sections o this

primer to consider and compare the unctional capa-

bilities and operation o candidate technologies and

example systems.


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The ollowing sections describe the primary system

technologies and provide examples o locations

where they are being used. Along with the more

advanced technologies, this list also includes basic

systems such as paper-based and manual acilities.

This is partly or completeness, but it is also to assist

in better illustrating and describing the basic unc-

tions or a simple system that will improve under-

standing through the later more complex options.

PAPEr-BASEd SySTEmS

Paper-based systems require road users, who wish

to use (or keep) their vehicles within a dened area

during a dened time period, to purchase and dis-

play a supplementary license or permit. This usually

takes the orm o a paper license displayed on the

vehicles windshield or dashboard as shown by the

examples provided on this page.

There are two main options or implementing

paper-based schemes:

Entry Permit Schemes: Vehicles display a valid

license sticker to enter (or leave) a dened area

(the restricted zone).

True Area Licensing Schemes: Vehicles display a

valid license to travel or park within a dened

area.

The distribution o permits or licenses is usually

managed through a combination o existing retail

outlets and other system operator channels, such as

vending machines, the Internet, and phone-based

mail order. For tolling, coupon books have been

used in a number o acilities. In the Baltimore Har-

bor Tunnels, a user can purchase a book o 10 cou-

pons or paying the toll at a discounted price.

Singapores Area Licensing Scheme, which op-

erated rom 1975 until 1998, required car drivers

entering the CBD during the morning peak period

to pay three Singapore dollars per day (with ex-

emptions or vehicles that carried our or more

people). This was managed by using a paper-based

Example o paper license used in the United Kingdom

Example o a paper license used in Singapore.

Primary Tolling and Pricing-System Components


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(sticker) system with stickers purchased or each

day and placed on the inside o the windshield.

Drivers were able to travel into and around the

priced area several times a day without paying mul-

tiple charges. Enorcement was addressed at check-

points where ocials inspected each vehicle to en-

sure a valid license was displayed.

Street-based equipment is generally provided or

the distribution o permits or licenses. The need or

and location o permit or ticket vending machines

vary by system but in most cases can be installed to

suit the local environment. More advanced units

can be installed with built-in mobile communica-

tions and solar power units, which require no direct

connections to street services.

mAnuAl-Toll FACiliTiES

Manual-toll acilities, toll booths, or plazas have

been used around the United States and the world

or many years and comprise payment points at

which drivers pay a charge by using cash, vouchers,

charge cards, credit cards, or smart cards. Some o

these manual-tolling systems are still in use today.

Replacement modern versions have changed little

in that a manual-toll terminal or cash register is

used to collect and record the toll or charge while atrac light and automatic boom gate hold the car

present in the toll lane until payment is made. At

one time, on acilities such as the Pennsylvania

Turnpike, New York State Thruway, New Jersey

Turnpike, Florida Turnpike, and Kansas Turnpike, a

driver encountered a toll booth upon entry and

exit. A paper ticket was provided on entry to record

the start o the trip on the turnpike, and it was used

upon exit to charge the driver or the distance driv-

en on the road.

Because o (a) the amount o space required or

conventional toll booths in dense urban road net-

works, (b) the congestion caused by the need to

slow down or to stop to pay, and (c) the associated

negative public perceptions, this method is gener-

ally not considered appropriate or urban pricing

Automated payment machines have helped reduce

the costs o manual collection.

One o, i not the only, manual-based conges-

tion charge schemes in operation is the Durham

City, United Kingdom (UK), scheme implement-

ed in 2002, which uses a system o bollard gates

and manual payment machines. Drivers are re-

quired to pay the designated charge when exiting

the city center zone beore the bollard gate will

open. These gates are manned by an ocial, and

drivers who are unable to pay are allowed to pass

but incur a ne.

The street-based equipment required or a man-

ual system includes charging booths, additionalanes to increase throughput, gates at all entry

points, sucient space to install the required equip-

ment, and access to power and communications.

Sticker purchase machine.

Manual toll collection in

Durham City, UK.Manual toll booth.


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imAgE-BASEd Tolling/AuTomATiC

liCEnSE PlATE rECogniTion (AlPr)

TEChnology

ALPR technology is commonly used on most elec-

tronic tolling acilities around the world, both inree-fow and toll-lane-based situations, although

most oten it is used as an enorcement backup to

dedicated short-range communications (DSRC) or

vehicle-positioning system (VPS) technology.

ALPR is based on images taken o vehicle license

plates, which are then processed through optical

character recognition sotware to identiy the vehi-

cle by its license plate. Some systems use ront- and

rear-located cameras to capture the images to im-

prove identication rates. Once identied, the re-

quired charge or permit-checking processes are un-dertaken in a similar way to other systems.

A key issue with ALPR acilities is the level o

reliability o the images. The best systems are capa-

ble o read rates o around 98 percent in good con-

ditions, but this can be reduced as a result o light

refections in the image or dirty or damaged plates.

This leads to the need or manual checking o those

plates and can add signicantly to processing costs.

The London Congestion Charge, an area-licens-

ing scheme, is the only scheme that currently relies

entirely on ALPR on a large scale as an enorcementsystem. Several other toll acilities provide ALPR-

only account options to users, but most require ad-

ditional administration ees to compensate or the

increased cost o processing these types o transac-

tions. The London scheme also requires ALPR sta-

tions within a designated zone, at xed locations,

and on mobile enorcement units.

In the United States, most ALPR systems have

been used on toll roads or payment violation en-

orcement, but this is changing. As toll acilities

move to cashless open-road tolling, they are using

ALPR systems as a tolling account rather than tags

or DSRC transponders. Denvers E-470 and Tam-

pas Selmon Expressway are two examples where

ALPR is used extensively to record the toll transac-

tion. In Torontos 407 toll acility, drivers can use

either tags or their license plate as identication or

paying the toll.

The roadside- or street-based equipment re-

quired or an ALPR system would include pole and/

or gantry-mounted cameras and illumination de-

vices. In some cases, these are combined into one

unit. Depending on the overall system design, there

may be a requirement or additional cameras (ront

and rear), classication devices, and independentverication. In addition to the camera mountings,

some orm o system controller would be required

near each installation, requiring ull power and

communication connections via a purpose-designed

base unit connected to each camera location. Com-

munications connections may need a dedicated or

leased ber-optic network, and the power supplies

may need an uninterruptible power supply.

dSrC FrEE-Flow Toll uSingTrAnSPondErS And gAnTriES

DSRC is the most common orm o primary elec-

tronic congestion-pricing technology in general use

and is the standard on most ree-fow toll acilities.

The technology is based on on-board units (OBUs),

sometimes reerred to as tags or transponders, which

Example o ALPR image.

Typical ALPR camera and illumination device.


12/28


communicate with gantry-mounted equipment at

checkpoints. The roadside equipment identies and

veries each vehicles OBU, and depending on the

type o system, either processes a charge rom its

designated account or conrms its rights o access.

In most multi-lane ree-fow systems, the DSRC

system also acts to locate the vehicle within its de-

tection zone by using an array o DSRC transceiv-

ers. Combinations o toll points can be used to a-

cilitate distance-based charging systems, with

special charging conditions or particular entry and

exit points or times. The enorcement o this type

o scheme is generally addressed by using roadside

enorcement cameras and ALPR technology.

DSRC tolling started in the United States at the

North Dallas Toll Road. It became the harbinger or

electronic toll collection (ETC) that has grown rap-

idly around the world. These early single-lane ETC

acilities can still be ound in New York City at the

Port Authority o New YorkNew Jersey bridges and

tunnels and on the San Francisco Bay area bridges

and tunnels. Multiple lane, ree-fow, or open road

tolling (ORT), removed the toll booth and single

lanes and combined ETC or two or more lanes at

acilities in Oklahoma, Denvers E-470, and most o

the OrlandoOrange County expressway system.

There is a range o DSRC systems in use andunder development. Some use inrared communi-

cations; this technology has not been deployed

widely in higher speed applications and is not gen-

erally considered as an open standard. Most are

based on microwave communication. The most

common systems currently in use are based on a

5.8-GHz requency, using the European CEN-278

standard. This standard is now well developed and

delivers robust and secure OBU devices with an av-

erage battery lie o around 5 years.

The next generation o 5.9-GHz systems, which

are being developed mainly in the United States to

address a wider spectrum o intelligent transporta-

tion systems (ITS) applications, will provide longer

range communication and multiple channels. Al-

though not currently in use on any operational pric-

ing system, these OBUs are planned to become

standard installations in all new vehicles within the

next decade.

DSRC systems can be expanded relatively easily

onto other routes or across adjacent areas through

the deployment o additional toll or check points

However, expanding these types o systems to cover

much wider areas is less cost-eective, because the

numbers o toll points to provide eective coverage

can increase signicantly.

The street-based acilities required or a DSRC

system include a range o equipment, such as pole-

and/or gantry-mounted transceivers, ALPR cameras

and illumination devices, vehicle-classication de-

vices, independent verication devices, and roadside

control cabinets.

In the urban environment, some street layouts

may require modications to improve the opera-

tion o the system (e.g., to provide localized separa-

tion o trac rom opposing direction streams and

to assist in reducing the need or ull gantries instreet situations). The transceiver/classier units are

generally mounted separately rom the cameras to

allow the cameras to detect vehicles in the pricing

zone, although technologies are available to com-

bine all unctions at one location. A urther varia-

tion in some arrangements is the use o ront and

rear cameras, which may require an additional cam-

era support structure.

Some orm o system controller would also be

required in the vicinity o each installation, requir-

ing ull power and communication connectionsvia a purpose-designed base unit connected to

each location.


13/28


In multi-lane situations, an array o transceivers

and classiers will be required, generally mounted

on purpose-built gantries or potentially mounted

on existing structures. Where multi-lane acilities

are to be installed in two directions, the relative lo-

cation o gantries also requires consideration, be-cause a degree o separation is required between

some equipment.

Singapore operates an ETC system as its primary

technology or congestion pricing. Groups (arrays) o

transceivers mounted on entry-point gantries com-

municate with units in each vehicle to locate the ve-

hicle and record the transaction. The OBUs are also

equipped with smart card payment acilities.

In Italy, several major cities operate access con-

trol systems that use the TELEPASS toll system,

which was developed and has been operating onthe Italian motorway network. This system is based

on the use o 5.8-GHz transceivers and OBUs and

is designed or use in single-lane toll-gate situa-

tions only.

VPS TEChnologiES

Internationally, road authorities have been explor-

ing and implementing VPS (e.g., global positioning

system [GPS], Galileo, Global Navigation Satellite

System [GLONASS]), which do not require on-road inrastructure to assign a position to a vehicle.

Instead, these systems use satellite-location systems,

generally GPS, to determine the vehicles position

and to measure location and distance travelled or

the purposes o charging and access control. These

systems oer greater fexibility or authorities to

vary charges to infuence more aspects o travel and

transportation choice. In Europe, the launch o the

Galileo satellite system will complement the U.S.

GPS system with over 30 more satellites in orbit,

ensuring greater accuracy o position and location.The Russian GLONASS is currently being reno-

vated and will add 30 more positioning satellites in

orbit by 2015. In total, the feet o positioning satel-

lites, GPS, Galileo, and GLONASS will provide

nearly 100 total satellites or positioning and navi-

gation systems that will be accurate to less than

3-eet positioning in the next 5 to 7 years.

Although VPS technologies are an eective

means o tracking vehicle position, the inormation

they gather and store needs to be communicated to

central systems on a regular basis, and as such, VPSunits are generally combined with other technolo-

gies (e.g., digital maps, wide-area communications,

and short-range general packet radio service [GPRS]

communications) to charge and enorce the system.

Additional eatures required include enorcement

checkpoints (xed and mobile) and depending on

the ocus o the system, these can be extensive.

New DSRC systems such as the 5.9-GHz technol-

ogy along with Wireless Fidelity (WiFi), Worldwide

Interoperability or Microwave Access (WiMAX),

and other third-generation communications capa-bilities that are being implemented in Baltimore

and in other cities across the United States will

make VPS more popular or navigation, tolling, and

congestion pricing.

Components o Singapores ERP system. Example o vehicle positioning system.


14/28


The current cost o units has been a major actor

in these systems that are only being used or heavy-

vehicle application to date. Once established, VPS-

based systems have the advantages o wide cover-

age and ar ewer checkpoints than do other

technologies. It is expected that on-board VPS

units will become standard eatures in new vehicles

within 10 years; this migration is a specically iden-

tied strategy or the European Union.

VPS-based systems require ar less on-street

equipment than do other systems, with the primary

unction o the street-based acilities being backup

enorcement at selected checkpoints. Fixed on-street

checkpoints are most likely to use DSRC and ALPR

technologies that require a series o pole- or gantry-

mounted devices. These xed enorcement stations

will most likely be supported by mobile units that

will reduce the number o locations required.

VPS-type technology is in use on several wide-

area, heavy-vehicle, road-user charging acilities, in-

cluding systems in Germany and Switzerland. VPS-

based systems have been introduced or considered

(in the United Kingdom) as technology solutions or

the introduction o distance-based charging, primar-

ily or heavy vehicles. The German model is begin-

ning to demonstrate that the technology is moving

toward being proven, but only or a distance-basedcharge.

Nowhere in the world has VPS been used or a

more contained urban-congestion-pricing scheme,

primarily because o diculties in receiving signals

rom satellites in the urban environment (with its

canyon eect) and because the higher costs o in-

vehicle units are prohibitive in smaller areas. In an

urban area, the costs o the scheme would also likely

rise dramatically because o the need or repeater

units to overcome the canyon eects and improve

boundary accuracy. Similar systems have been used

in Seattle or testing driver responses to tolling. Port-

land, Oregon, also ran a test with such a system in

which drivers could pay the distance charge rather

than pay a higher excise tax or uel at the pump. The

pilot test indicated that such a concept could act as a

transition approach to moving away rom uel excise

taxes to distance-based charges.

CEllulAr TElEPhonE And

PiCo-CEll SySTEmS

A cellular network is basically a radio network made

up o several radio cells, each served by a xed

transmitter that is known as a cell site or base sta-

tion. These cells are used to provide radio coverage

over a wider area. Cellular networks use a set o

xed main transceivers, each serving a cell and a set

o distributed transceivers, which provide services

to the networks users.

Pico-cell technology is, in simple terms, a more

concentrated cell network that uses smaller trans-

ceivers and thus develops a cell network that pro-

vides a greater ability to locate mobile devices

within the network. By using this type o network

it is possible to locate properly equipped vehicles

with a high degree o accuracy, thus providing the

potential to introduce distance-based chargingby using a ground-based technology. The sensor

networks being developed or this type o applica-

tion consist o a large number o devices (known

as motes) that are connected by using wireless

technology.

Recent trials in Maryland and Caliornia have

involved the cellular network to gather trac data

based on a static network o motes connected to

bus stops and mobile motes placed on buses

which become transient members o the static

network as they approach a bus stop. The system


15/28


trials have been used to provide position inorma-

tion collected rom the buses. Future intelligent

inrastructure pico-cell systems are based on the

concept o a dense network o low-cost short-

range transceivers located within vehicles and on

roadsides.

Trials o this type o technology have recently

been undertaken in the United Kingdom (Newcas-

tle and London) to test the easibility o this tech-

nology or congestion pricing. These trials have in-

dicated that this type o technology does have the

potential to provide a viable alternative to other

location-based systems such as VPS.

The street-based equipment required or this

type o system includes an extensive network o

short-range communications devices that make up

an integrated web o communications. These de-

vices would be located in vehicles and as part o

roadside inrastructure and would have minimal

impact in terms o space or visual intrusion.

As with VPS-based systems, this type o system

would require some on-street enorcement, al-

though ar less than other systems, with the pri-

mary unction o the street-based acilities being

backup enorcement at selected checkpoints. Fixed

on-street checkpoints are most likely to use DSRC

and ALPR technologies and require a series o pole-

or gantry-mounted devices. These xed enorce-

ment stations would most likely be supported by

mobile units that would reduce the number o lo-

cations required.

ComBinATion SySTEmS

The majority o current pricing systems, including

toll roads and urban charging and access schemes,

use a combination o technologies to manage the

collection and enorcement process. This includes

almost all U.S. toll roads rom Maine to Florida and

rom New York City to San Francisco.

One o the most common combinations is the

use o DSRC OBUs as the primary payment and

identication technology and ALPR technology or

enorcement and casual-user transactions. This

combination allows operators to benet rom the

higher accuracy and lower operating costs o DSRC,

while using ALPR to overcome DSRC limitations

o casual-user management and enorcement. This

package also limits the use o the less accurate and

more operations cost-hungry ALPR technology to a

reduced number o transactions.

Other global example combinations include thedeployment o VPS on the German and Swiss truck

toll systems, which use VPS to address the distance-

and location-based elements; DSRC to provide the

necessary local roadside communication; and ALPR

as a base-enorcement technology.

Pico-cell data transmission illustration.


16/28


Sub-System Technologies

As indicated in the Functional Processes for Tolling

and Congestion Chargingsection o this primer, the

tolling process is a combination o sub-processes

that require close integration. The overall eective-

ness o tolling and congestion-pricing technologies

will be the aggregate improvement in all steps o

the process or reliability and accuracy and mini-mized revenue leakage and raud. There are several

related sub-systems or which a range o technology

options exist, which include the ollowing:

Informingandprovidingstandardsignsandlane

markings to increase driver recognition and un-

derstanding o the tolling or congestion pricing

across the United States.

Vehicleoccupancydetectiontechnologies.

Vehicle identicationandclassicationsystems

(e.g., laser, video, digital loop, axle detection trea-

dles, etc.).

Telecommunications: Roadside and centralized

control equipment (e.g., in-unit, controller-based

processing).

Automationofoperations(e.g.,paymentanden-

orcement processing, account setup and man-

agement).

Paymentsystemsforpre-andpost-collectionof

tolls or congestion-charging ees.

Vericationandsecondaryenforcementsystems

(e.g., scene image capture, mobile and portable

enorcement).

SystemreliabilityandaccuracyofDSRCsystems.

OBUdistributionfacilities.

ITSintegration.

inForming And ProViding

STAndArdizEd SignS And

lAnE mArkingS

As tolling systems have grown across the United

States, toll acilities have been very individual and

unique enterprises. With the introduction o eachacility and the advent o ETC, each o these acili-

ties has developed its own branding o its ETC

package. Today, a plethora o arcane and distinct

brand names or ETC exist in the United States

including E-ZPass, FasTOLL, SunPass, MnPass, and

a host o other names. In an age o standardization

and interoperability, these names may conuse driv-

ers who travel across the country.

A similar situation existed in Sydney, Australia

Each toll road had its own brand name or its ETC

To solve the driver-recognition problem, a standardsymbol o a green square with a yellow E was add-

ed to each toll lane and ree-fow sign to indicate an

interoperable ETC acility where any and all ETC

transponders or OBUs could be read and accepted

With the advent o potential interoperable stan-

dards such as the vehicle inrastructure integration

(VII) or 5.9-GHz technologies, a similar approach

should be taken to mark all interoperable acilities

across the United States. This would allow each tol

acility to retain its branding or local recognition

but as it adopts a national interoperable standard, acommon designation is necessary, as in Australia.

Legally, each toll acility must be marked as a tol

road to advise the user o the requirement or toll-

ing. This is a common requirement across all tol

acilities in the United States. Although this is a le-

gal requirement, there are no standard road signs or

lane markings or toll roads, priced lanes, or conges-


17/28


tion-pricing areas in the Manual on Uniorm Trac

Control Devices (MUTCD) to integrate the eorts

and provide a common set o signs, colors, and

markings as toll roads, priced lanes, and congestion

pricing grow in size and numbers across the United

States. In the United Kingdom, or example, the red

circle with a white C was originally developed or

the London congestion charge. It appeared on all

signs and lane markings to indicate to drivers the

boundary o the congestion-charging zone in Lon-

don and to provide inormation concerning the

London congestion charge.

In addition, color or road designation o these

acilitiestoll roads, priced lanes, and congestion-

pricing areasshould be designated or ease o map

making and recognition. Just as we have standard-

ized icons, colors, and signs or Interstates and high-

ways, we need to develop these designations or

tolling and congestion pricing.

VEhiClE-oCCuPAnCy

dETECTion TEChnologiES

A promising technological advancement that could

improve congestion-pricing operations or priced-

lane operations is the development o a more ac-

curate vehicle-occupancy system. At present, someimaging sotware is able to read closed-captioned

television (CCTV) images and discern the number

o occupants. In addition, inrared sensors can de-

tect human-heat signatures. Although more ad-

vanced algorithms and other advances in available

technologies have made signicant improvements

in the sotwares ability to identiy human occu-

pants, several inherent limitations prevent complete

implementation o automated outside the vehicle

occupancy monitoring. For example, sensors oten

have diculty rendering data rom all seats withina vehicle, particularly in the dark or when one o

the passengers is a small child. Further complica-

tions arise in non-barrier-separated roads where

movement between lanes has minimal physical re-

strictions. For automated enorcement to be imple-

mented, sensors must achieve near perect accuracy,

which thus ar has not been possible to attain.

One potential solution is to instead ocus on oc-

cupancy monitoring rom inside the vehicle. Seat-

belt and air-bag sensors are already standard equip-ment on todays vehicles, monitoring ront-seat

occupancy via mechanical seatbelt closure sensors

and weight/pressure sensors installed within seats.

In the uture, additional sensors could be installed

in the rear seat, allowing the vehicle to have a

complete analysis o the number o occupants in

the vehicle. Additional advanced sensors, including

light-emitting diode (LED) and inrared imaging,

could be added to ensure a more accurate mea-

surement. The in-vehicle system could communi-

cate occupancy inormation with sensors imbed-ded in the inrastructure via a radio transponder/

receiver system, GPS, or cellular signal to allow

single-occupancy and high-occupancy vehicles us-

ing HOT lanes to be assessed the appropriate

charges.

VEhiClE-idEnTiFiCATion And

ClASSiFiCATion SySTEmS

The task o vehicle classication or congestion

pricing varies with the type o scheme and primarytechnology used. For manual or semi-automated

toll lanes, in which vehicles are conned to a single

lane at reduced speed, classication can be mea-

sured by size, weight, or number o axles. In these

situations, devices such as weigh-in-motion (WIM)

detectors, treadles, or lasers can be used with rela-

tive accuracy.


18/28


Once a ree-fow environment is introduced and

vehicles are required to be classied at ull speed

and in a multi-lane environment, the ability to clas-

siy with the use o technology is reduced, along

with the range o technologies available. Current

axle treadles and WIM technology do not provide

sucient accuracy to classiy vehicles in this type o

environment, and a size-based classication system

is thereore required.

There are currently two suciently reliable meth-

ods available to classiy vehicles by size in a multi-

lane ree-fow environment: scanning-laser technol-

ogy and stereoscopic-video technology. Digital loops

also provide an option but are aected by lane-

change movements and do not provide the range o

classication available with laser and video systems.

The technologies or classication are another

area in which standardization is needed across all

toll acilities in the United States. A common reer-

ence system would assist drivers in knowing the

charges they will incur. Current classication sys-

tems and their application create conusion and un-

certainty in the minds o drivers. Only rom a na-

tional perspective can this eort be directed and

then implemented by states and toll agencies.

TElECommuniCATionS:roAdSidE And CEnTrAlizEd

ConTrol EquiPmEnT

All congestion-pricing systems require the continu-

ous processing o large volumes o transactions. De-

pending on the charging scheme and primary charg-

ing technology used, the complexities and volumes

o these transactions can be managed in dierent

ways to achieve a suitable balance between system

reliability and operational cost.

One major area o consideration is the balance

between roadside and centralized processing and

the communications architecture developed to sup-

port these processes. Decisions should be based on

several actors:

The volumes of data that need to be moved

around the system.

Theavailability,reliability,andcostofcommuni-

cations.

Thenumber,security,andaccessibilityof road-

side installations.

Congestion charging schemes rely on large volumes

o transaction data passing between a network o

roadside acilities and the back-oce systems. De-

pending on the type and structure o the system

this data may be relatively low-volume, character-

based les, or much larger (or ALPR) digital-image

les. These system requirements will have a signi-

cant infuence on the architecture o the system

and, in particular, the communications networks

For example, conducting ALPR processing at theroadside may signicantly reduce communications

and storage costs i the system provides or this type

o operation; however, this requires a greater leve

o unctionality within roadside equipment that

may prove too costly to provide at a large number

o locations.

These decisions and the resulting system archi-

tecture can have a major infuence on the cost e-

ectiveness o the entire system. For example, the

London congestion charge is based on a high leve

o centralized processing with large volumes o databeing transerred daily rom many roadside acili-

ties. This leads to higher costs, with recent technol-

ogy reviews and trials highlighting the potentia

savings that could be made through a more ecient

architecture. ALPR-based systems have the most to

gain rom improved architecture design, having the

highest potential data requirements. DSRC systems

Roadside processing equipment.

Centralized processing equipment.


19/28


that use an ALPR enorcement component would

be the next highest user, with VPS and cell systems

most likely to have the lowest demand.

Recent trends in the development o the primary

DSRC and ALPR equipment have led to the con-

solidation o some processing within these units,

thus reducing the unctions o roadside control

units and urther improving cost eciency.

AuTomATion oF oPErATionS

The major operational costs o congestion-pricing

systems result rom the continuous processing o

large volumes o transactions. Depending on the

charging scheme and primary charging technology

used, these transactions and processes can be auto-

mated to reduce cost and improve the overall e-

ciency o the system. A key objective is to minimize

manual processing, particularly where there is no

direct customer contact.

The use o OBUs is a major contributor to re-

ducing operational cost across most ree-fow acili-

ties. As the most reliable means o automating ve-

hicle (or account holder) identication, this

technology reduces the level o manual processing

required and thus minimizes cost.

Other areas o automation include account setupand management processes through interactive

voice response (IVR) and the Internet, ordering o

statements, and account top-up acilities.

The selection o appropriate systems to auto-

mate back-oce unctions is critical to developing

a cost-eective road-charging system. Congestion

pricing is based on high-transaction volumes and

relatively low-transaction values that lead to a ocus

on small costs to ensure a cost-ecient system.

PAymEnT SySTEmS For PrE- And

PoST-PAymEnT oF TollS AndChArgES

There is a wide range o payment options available,

and the selection o an appropriate package o op-

tions needs to address the specic needs o each

scheme. A key issue is the balance between provid-

ing security o payments at a reasonable cost and

providing user convenience.

Where manual or machine-based payment op-

tions are available, the use o cash and standard

card-payment options is easible, and although the

management o cash payments involves some cost

to the operator, the convenience and anonymity o

cash addresses a key concern o some users.

For most electronic tolling and congestion-pricing

systems, the primary and preerred payment mecha-

nism is through customer accounts. These provide

greater security o payment or the operator (as us-

ers are generally required to prepay and provide

bank account or credit card details) and reduce the

cost o operation. Accounts are also more conve-

nient or most users, because they are not requiredto make individual payments or each transaction.

Account-based payments can be used with any

OBU or ALPR-based system and are the most com-

mon orm o payment or ree-fow toll acilities.

A urther option is the use o smartcards, as used

in the Singapore ERP system. These cards are used

with the vehicles OBU, and payment is debited

rom the card balance. This provides a urther level

o convenience that is preerred by some customers,

and as the balance on the card is prepaid, there is a

degree o security or the operator. The main disad-vantages are the increased complexity and cost o

the OBU and the need to provide real-time road-

side processing o payments.

One advanced electronic-payment technology

with potential application in congestion-pricing

programs involves the use o contactless bank cards.

Contactless smart bank cards, such as the Visa WaveBack-ofce operations.


20/28


ALPR enorcement.

or the MasterCard PayPass, are being distributed by

several U.S. banks already, and more plan to ollow.

These cards allow payment by radio requency

identication (RFID) transactionjust tapping the

card on the readerinstead o requiring the mag-

netic stripe o the card to be run trough the reader

(a slow and raud-prone process). EMV is a proto-

col, developed by Europay, MasterCard, and Visa

(EMV), or authenticating credit and debit card

payments at point-o-service (POS) terminals and

automated teller machines (ATMs) through the use

o interoperable chips.

Although it has ailed to gain traction in the

United States, this standard is used throughout

most o the world, including Europe and Asia. The

version o EMV used on the contactless bank cards,

called contactless EMV, uses an encryption algo-

rithm that makes them essentially raud proo. In

congestion-pricing programs, the contactless EMV

cards could be used in OBUs that act as the toll-tag

transponder. OBUs with contact smartcard card

readers are in use in Singapore, and the Norwegian

company Q-Free built OBUs with contactless card

readers that were used at the 2006 Winter Olym-

pics in Turin, Italy. By using such transponders and

cards, congestion-pricing programs could avoid hav-

ing individual user accounts to administeruserswould pay directly by bank card.

SECondAry EnForCEmEnT

ALPR is eectively the oundation o all electronic

ree-fow charging, because it is the only common

point o reerence or all vehicles passing through a

toll checkpoint or zone boundary.

In most ree-fow tolling applications, ALPR is

used only as an enorcement tool, with the majority

o users charged and veried through an OBU. Evenin this situation, secondary enorcement systems,

such as color-scene images, are recorded or evi-

dence and to back up the basic ALPR records.

However, in situations in which either ALPR is

the primary technology or there is a need or ur-

ther enorcement backup, other backup systems

and technologies can be used, such as ront and rear

ALPR systems or digital video recording o trac

that can be accessed later to assist in identiying o-

ending vehicles. These systems can provide an al-

ternative view o trac rom the primary ALPR

systems and can overcome adverse environmenta

conditions such as sunlight or shadow eects.

SySTEm rEliABiliTy AndACCurACy oF dSrC SySTEmS

Pricing systems using vehicle-based OBUs are used

widely across the world or a range o tolling and

road-charging applications. These systems generally

use a microwave signal at or around 5.8 GHz to

provide the critical vehicle-to-roadside communi-

cation unction. The most widely used standard or

this requency range is the European CEN-278

standard.

As the planned role or vehicle-to-roadside andvehicle-to-vehicle communications becomes more

widespread (i.e., moving into dedicated saety sys-

tems, traveler inormation, and other ITS applica-


21/28

t e C H n o l o g i e s t H A t e n A b l e C o n g e st i o n P r i C i n g |19

tions), the 5.8-GHz standard is being superseded

by a standard in the range o 5.8505.925 GHz.

This developing standard, known as WAVE, has

greater range and greater multi-channel capability.

Although there are no current road-charging appli-

cations in operation, it is likely that this standard

will replace and enhance current systems over the

next 10 years or so.

In the United States, the implementation o

DSRC-enabled devices serves as part o the VII ini-

tiative, which brings together vehicle manuactur-

ers, government agencies, and proessional organi-

zations in the design o architecture, standards,

policies, and potential business models o a system

that will enable vehicles to communicate with each

other and roadside equipment. It is envisioned that

VII transponders will be installed soon in all vehi-

cles and that roadside equipment will be deployed

at major intersections and along roadways through-

out the nation to orm a nationwide network. Ap-

plications or VII include public saety, traveler in-

ormation, and demand management. The vision

or VII is to deploy roadside units throughout the

country, thus creating a uniorm, nationwide data

network. Combined with GPS, all connected vehi-

cles will know their location and have the ability to

communicate location, trac conditions, and otherinormation to the system. The ability to exchange

such inormation could be useul in congestion

pricing.

oBu diSTriBuTion FACiliTiES

The distribution and management o OBUs or

DSRC and VPS-based systems incorporate a range

o technologies and systems designed to address the

specic requirements o particular schemes. The

majority o OBUs would be distributed rom a cen-tral acility by mail, by customer collection, or

through agent networks. However, the use o vend-

ing machines has helped improve distribution and

availability, as is the case with the Austrian Motor-

way toll system.

Banks and nancial institutions also distribute

tags, OBUs, and transponders. For example, in Spain

and southern France, the VIA-T project proved that

drivers could sign up or toll accounts through

banks and nancial institutions. These institutions

provide the OBUs and the account mechanism or

drivers by linking payments to (a) the bank-issued

credit card, (b) a persons checking account (direct

payment), or (c) a savings account/debit account.

Just like the issuance o a credit card, the OBU was

dispatched rom a central depository to the indi-

vidual by express and registered mail.

As toll roads, priced lanes, and congestion pricing

become more common, the business model or

standardized OBUs should change, as well as the

business model that people use to secure them.

iTS inTEgrATion

The level and type o ITS integration will depend

on the type o pricing system adopted and the pay-

ment structures and technologies used, but oppor-

tunities exist to integrate at many levels. Another

major area o ITS integration is the use o pricing-

system data to provide travel time and congestioninormation. One o the best-developed systems is

the Italian TELEPASS system that has been in op-

eration on the motorway network or many years.

The large numbers o OBUs continually moving

across the motorway network are tracked by pur-

pose-designed stations to provide real-time travel-

time inormation, linked into traveler inormation

systems.


22/28


ALPRAutomatic License Plate Recognition. Sot-

ware that enables authorities to match the vehicle

license plate with identity inormation in registration

data.

ALSArea Licensing Scheme. Singapores ALS, op-

erated rom 1975 until 1998, required car driversentering the CBD during the morning peak to pay

three Singapore dollars per day (with exemptions or

vehicles carrying our or more people).

ATMAutomated Teller Machine. A computerized

telecommunications device that provides the cus-

tomers o a nancial institution with access to nan-

cial transactions without the need or a human clerk

or bank teller.

CCTVClosed-Circuit Television. The use o video

cameras to transmit a signal to a specic place, such

as a limited set o monitors.

CBDCentral Business District. The commercial

and oten geographic heart o a city.

CENEuropean Committee or Standardization.

The CEN was ounded in 1961 by the national stan-

dards bodies in the European Economic Community

and European Free Trade Association countries. CEN

contributes to the objectives o the European Union

and European Economic Area with voluntary tech-nical standards, which promote ree trade, the saety

o workers and consumers, interoperability o net-

works, environmental protection, exploitation o re-

search and development programs, and public pro-

curement.

DSRCDedicated Short-Range Communications

A short- to medium-range communications service

that supports both public saety and private opera-

tions in roadside-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-vehicle

communication environments.

EMVEuropay, MasterCard, and Visa.

ERPElectronic Road Pricing. Electronic toll-col-

lection system that prices roads based on usage.

ETCElectronic Toll Collection. The collection o

tolls based on the automatic identication and clas-

sication o vehicles by using electronic systems that

do not require drivers to stop or slow down.

GHzGigahertz. A unit o alternating current (AC)

or electromagnetic (EM) wave requency equal to

one thousand million Hertz (1,000,000,000 Hz)The gigahertz is used as an indicator o the requency

o ultra-high-requency and microwave EM signals.

GLONASSGlobal Navigation Satellite System

Based on a constellation o active satellites that con-

tinuously transmit coded signals in two requency

bands, which can be received by users anywhere on

the earths surace to identiy their position and ve-

locity in real time based on ranging measurements

The system is a counterpart to the United States

global positioning system (GPS), and both systemsshare the same principles in the data transmission

and positioning methods. GLONASS is managed or

the Russian Federation Government by the Russian

Space Forces, and the system is operated by the Co-

ordination Scientic Inormation Center (KNITs) o

the Ministry o Deense o the Russian Federation.

Acronym List/Glossary


23/28


GPSGlobal Positioning System. A U.S. space-

based radio-navigation system that provides reliable

positioning, navigation, and timing services to civil-

ian users on a continuous worldwide basisreely

available to all. For anyone with a GPS receiver, the

system will provide location and time.

GPRSGeneral Packet Radio Service. A packet-

oriented mobile data service available to users o

Global System or Mobile Communications.

HCVHeavy Commercial Vehicles. Includes all

heavy motor vehicles used or the transportation o

passengers or hire, or constructed or used or trans-

portation o goods, wares, or merchandise.

HOTHigh-Occupancy Toll. On HOT lanes, low-occupancy vehicles are charged a toll, whereas high-

occupancy vehicles are allowed to use the lanes ree

or at a discounted toll rate.

HOVHigh-Occupancy Vehicle. Highway lanes

are typically reserved or these vehicles with two or

more occupants.

ITSIntelligent Transportation Systems. An elec-

tronic toll-collection system without toll plazas,

where all drivers are charged the toll without stop-

ping, slowing down, or being in a specic lane.

IVRInteractive Voice Response. A phone technol-

ogy that allows a computer to detect voice and touch

tones using a normal phone call.

LEDLight-Emitting Diode. A semiconducter di-

ode that emits light when an electric current is ap-

plied.

MUTCDManual on Uniorm Trafc Control De-

vices. Denes the standards used by road managers

nationwide to install and maintain trac control de-

vices on all streets and highways. The MUTCD is

published by the Federal Highway Administration.

OBUOn-Board Unit. Also called an on-board

transponder. The in-vehicle device component o an

ETC system. A receiver or transceiver permitting the

Operators Roadside Unit to communicate with,

identiy, and conduct an electronic-toll transaction.

ORTOpen Road Tolling. An electronic toll-col-

lection system without toll plazas, where all drivers

are charged the toll without stopping, slowing down,or being in a specic lane.

POSPoint o Service (or Sale). A retail shop, a

checkout counter, or the location where a transac-

tion occurs.

RFRadio Frequency.

RFIDRadio Frequency Identifcation. A technol-

ogy similar to bar-code technology. With RFID, the

electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the RF

portion o the electromagnetic spectrum is used to

transmit signals. An RFID system consists o an an-

tenna and a transceiver, which read the radio re-

quency and transer the inormation to a processing

device and a transponder, or tag, which is an inte-

grated circuit containing the RF circuitry and inor-

mation to be transmitted.

RUCRoad-User Charging. A mechanism through

which motorists pay to use a dened area o road,

usually through payment o a toll.

U.K.United Kingdom. The United Kingdom is a

state consisting o our countries: England, Northern

Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.

UPSUninterruptible Power Supply. A device that

maintains a continuous supply o electric power to

connected equipment by supplying power rom a

separate source.

U.S.United States. A constitutional republic con-

sisting o 50 states and 1 ederal district.

VIIVehicle Inrastructure Integration. VII will

work toward the deployment o advanced vehicle

vehicle and vehicleinrastructure communications

that could keep vehicles rom leaving the road and

enhance their sae movement through intersections.


24/28


VPSVehicle Positioning System. Satellite-based

system or vehicle tracking and positioning.

WAVEWireless Access in Vehicular Environ-

ments.Wireless communications that will let motor

vehicles interact with roadside systems to accesssaety inormation and travel-related services, even at

high speeds.

WiFiWireless Fidelity. A term or certain types o

wireless local area networks that use specications in

the 802.11 amily.

WIMWeigh in Motion. Devices designed to cap-

ture and record truck axle weights and gross vehicle

weights as the trucks drive over a sensor.

WiMAXWorldwide Interoperability or Micro

wave Access. A telecommunications technology thatprovides or the wireless transmission o data by

using a variety o transmission modes, rom point-to

point links to ull mobile-cellular-type access.


25/28


1. San Diego Association o Governments. (2008). FasTrak. Retrieved on November 10,

2008, rom http://astrak.511sd.com/

2. New Zealand Ministry o Transportation. (2005).Auckland Road Pricing Evaluation Study,

Final Report. Retrieved on November 10, 2008, rom http://www.transport.govt.nz/

arpes-index/

3. Singapore Land Transportation Authority. (2008). Retrieved November 10, 2008, rom

http://www.lta.gov.sg/

4. Hong Kong Transportation Department. (2001). Feasibility Study on Electronic Road

Pricing: Final Report. Retrieved November 10, 2008, rom http://www.td.gov.hk/

publications_and_press_releases/publications/ree_publications/easibility_study_

on_electronic_road_pricing_nal/index.htm

References


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For more inormation, contact:

Jimmy Chu

OfceofTransportationManagement,HOTM

FederalHighwayAdministration

U.S. Department o Transportation

1200NewJerseyAvenue,S.E.

Washington,DC20590

Tel: 202-366-3379

E-mail: [email protected]


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ofc tapa Maam

Fda Hhway Adma

U.s. Dpam tapa

1200 nw Jy Avu, s.e.

Wah, DC 20590

t: 202-366-6726

www.p.hwa.d.v/dx.hm

technologies that enable congestion pricing

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