technology, the recording and distribution of music

8/14/2019 Technology, the recording and distribution of music

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/technology-the-recording-and-distribution-of-music 1/17

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Contents

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 3

DISTRIBUTION................... ................... .................. .................. .................. ................... .................. ............... 4

RECORDING....................................................................................................................................................11

CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................................14



3

Introduction

Thereislittledoubtthattechnologyhashadagreatimpactontheworldofmusic.The

PAsystemsofthe1960sthatmadebiggerconcertspossible,newinstrumentssuchas

theelectricguitarorthesynthesizerhasalsomadenewtimbrespossible.Inthe

recordingstudiothedigitalagehasgivenmusiciansamazingpossibilitieswhenitcomes

tocreatingnewsoundsormanipulatingrecordedsounds1.Nowonecanrecordfor

exampleapianochordandthenmanipulateittochangetheactualnoteswithinthe

alreadyrecordedsound.

Inthisessaymygoalistolookathowwhatkindofresearchthathasbeendonewith

regardstohowmusichasbeeninfluencedbytechnology.Therearemanydifferentways

toapproachthisandIhavetriedtofocusonsomeoftheaspectsofthisfield.

Needlesstosay,technologyisfartoolargeasubjecttotackleinanyonebodyofwork.

Thetermcouldincludenotationtechniques,theinventionordevelopmentofnewor

currentinstruments,andtosomeextentthedifferentvocaltechniquespracticedin

variouscultures.Ihaveattemptedtonarrowmyfocusdowntotwodifferentaspectsof

technology:

1) Thedistributionprocess,bywhichImeanhowmusichasbeendistributedfrom

theinventionofthephonograph,onecouldofcourselookatthedistribution

modesofnotation,travellingbardstakingthesongswiththemtonewplaces,or

justthesongsthemselvesbeingtransferredthroughwordofmouth.Although

thesesystemsofdistributionstillexistitisfairtosaythatthephysical

distributionofmusichastakenoverinalargeextent.



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2) Therecordingprocess,thepossibilityofactuallybeingabletorecordsoundand

transferittoaphysicalmediumisafairlynewone.Sincethephonographthe

processhasbecomelesslaboriousbutperhapsmoreimportantly:the

possibilitiesforintentionallymanipulatingthesoundasgivennewopportunities

andfieldsofinterestforcomposersandmusicians.Thissectionisintendedto

provideaninsightintosomeofthecharacteristicsofrecordedsoundthat

separatesitfromthe“live”sound.

Distribution

Toalargeextent,distributionandconsumptionfunctioninrelationtoeachother.The

distributionwillaffecthow,andwhat,isconsumedbythemarket,andthisappliesof

coursetomusic.Likewisethedemand,orconsumptionpatternswillinfluencethe

distribution,thisisperhaps,evenmoretrueincommercialmusic.Ihavetherefore

chosentoincludetwomodelsofdistribution.Firstlythemodelofculture,orinthiscase

music,asbeingconsumed“top-down”.ThisisaccordingtoTaylor;“theso-calledculture

industriespromulgatetheirproductsonapublicthatacceptsthemunquestioningly”.2

Theissuesofagency,issomethingwewillcomebacktobutfornowwewilllooksolely

ontheconsumption.Examplesofthiscanbefoundinmostpopmusic,especially,music

foundinthechartsinDecember.Thisiswhentheconsumersarebeingbombardedwith

advertisement.Thishappensinmanyways,theobviousonecouldbeadsinnewspapers

ofintelevision,buttherearemoresubtleways,suchasencouragingtherecordsstores

toplayspecificalbumsintheshop,theChristmassuggestionsfoundinnewspapersor

justthroughinstoreevents.Thereare,ofcourse,justafewofmanymarketingtools.

Theseconddistributionistheopposite;thisisthe“bottom-up”,definedbyTayloras

“peoplemaketheirownmeaningoutofmass-producedandmass-mediatedcultural



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forms”.Somesongsorartistsbecomefamouswithouttherecordindustryanticipatingit

inadvance.Theymayreceiveanunexpectedlygoodreview,havetheirmusicappearin

amovie,besooriginal,orperhapsappearonthecoverofRollingStone.Thereis

howeveratendencythathasbeenintensifiedthelastdecadeorso,especiallyafterthe

Internet,tocreateanimpressionofanartistbecomingfamousthroughabottom-up

modelwhen,infact,itistheotherwayaround.Therehasbeenanincreasingly

professionalapproachwithinrecordcompanieswhenitcomestocreatingafake“hype”

aroundtheartists.Itisforinstancenotacoincidencewhensongsappearonthe“Rock

Band”orthe“GuitarHero”gamesorwhenRøyksoppappearsinAmericanTV-ads.This

isaresultofhardworkbyrecordcompanies,andgivetheimpressionthattheirartists

arepopularorcontemporary.Thetwofollowingexamplesdemonstratewaysinwhich

therecordindustry,“simulate”a“bottom-up”model.Thefalsehypecreatedwhen

ChristinaAguilerawasreleasingherfirstalbumisanexampleofthemoretypicalwayof

doingthis.3ButafarmoreinteractiveexampleisthemarketingsurroundingtheNine

InchNailsalbumYearZero,inthiscaseacompanythatproducesvideogameswas

employed.SeveralUSBstoragedeviceswerefoundafteraNineInchNailsconcert,these

linkedfanstowebsites,withcodesandriddlesthatgavethemnewwebsites.Thesesites

weredesignedinawaythatcoincidedwiththesubjectmatterofthenewalbumbutalso

gavefanssnippetsofnewsongsandvideos.Thismarketingplanalsocausedthefansto

discussthewebsitesandriddlesondifferentforums.Effectivelyleavingittothefansto

spreadthewordoftheupcomingrelease.4Thisisprettymuchanaturalextensionof

word-of-mouth,utilizingthepossibilitiestheInternetprovides.Theideabehindthe

marketingitselfhasbeennamed,viralmarketing.Despitethedramaticnameitissimply

theideathattheconsumers,spreadthemessagethemselves,whereasthe“traditional”

marketingrequiresconstantlyremindingtheconsumersofyourmessagethrough



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advertisementorsimilarmethods.Taylorarguesthatweshouldnottrytochoseone

theoryovertheotherbutratheracceptadualityasheputit:“sometimessome

consumersinsomeplacesandtimesareduped;sometimessomeindustriesinsome

placesandtimesfailtofooltheircustomers”5.

Thewholeconceptofviralmarketing,again,bringsustotheissueofagency.Arepeople

simplydoingwhattheyaretoldhere?Dopeoplesimplyreceivethemessagethroughthe

technology,inthiscasetheInternet,andspreadtheword?Therehavebeentwomain

camps,whentalkingaboutagencyandtechnology;thefirstoneistheideaof

voluntarism,technologyisviewedasnothingmorethanatool,dependingonthewillof

theuseriscanbevoluntarilyusedforgoodorbad.Thusbeingessentiallyneutralin

itself.6Thesecondideaisthenotionoftechnologicaldeterminism,thisisessentiallythe

opposite,statingthatthetechnologytransformstheused.Thesenotionsareverymuch

supportedbytheliteratureofMarshallMcLuhan.Thisisinasenseapessimisticview

suggestingthatiteffectivelyrobstheuserofagency.Technologicalsomnambulismisin

asensetheideathatattemptstocapturethebestofbothworlds.Itisamarginalstance

comparedtodeterminismandvoluntarism.Thebasisforthisdirectionisthe

assumptionthattechnologyismadebyengineersandusedbyeveryoneelse;itis

nothingmorethanatoolanddoesthereforenotneedanylookinginto.Ifweattemptto

transferthesetheoriestotheactualworldtheycanquicklyseemtooabsolute.They

clearlyneedmorerefinement.WiebeE.Bijkercitesthreedifferentmodesofanalysis;

thefirstmodeisthesystemsapproach,thisisanapproach“inwhichlargetechnological

systemsarethemainfocalpointofanalysis”.7Thesecondapproachisnamedactor

networkand“attemptstoanalyseanysociotechnicalensemblewiththesameanalytical

frameworkforbothhumanandnonhumanactors”,thiswillofcoursegivesomeformof

agencytoobjects,orinthiscase,technology.Thethirdapproachisthesocial



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constructionoftechnology.Hereonestartsbyexaminingthe“relevantsocialgroups”,

theonesresponsibleforthetechnology.InthetraditionalcontextIassumethe“relevant

socialgroup”istheengineers,ofteninacommercialsetting(creatingsomethingin

ordertomakemoney).However,alotofinnovationthesedayscomesfrompeople

workingoutsidethetraditionalsocialgroupofengineers,suchashackers,innovative

musiciansor,inadigitalcontext,anyonewithsomeknowledgeofOpenSourcesoftware.

YannSeznec,alsoknownasTheAmazingRolo,hascreatedtheWiiLoopMachine8.At

theBimucconferenceinBergenlastyearclaimedthathedidnotregardhimselfasa

computerexpert.Simplysomeonewhowasveryinterestedinmusic,hadanidea,and

taughthimselfenoughtofollowthroughwiththecomputerprogramming.Ifonethinks

alongtheselinesspecificallyinthecontextofdistributionandrecordinghistoryone

mightquicklyseethelimitationsofthesetheories.Yetanotherexampleofproblems

aroundagencyisthemp3file.Theinventionofthemp3filesstemsbacktothelate

eightiesandearlyeighties,whenengineerswereattemptingtocreateadigitalwayof

transportingvideoandaudiotogether.Thiswasprimarilydesignedforthemovie

makingbusinessandreliedonencodingthefilesinsuchawayasthattheyremovedall

unnecessary“extra”informationthatisnotaudibleorvisualforthehumans.Later,this

technologywasutilizedbyotherprogrammerswhoalteredthefilesandusedthemfor

thestoringanddistributionofmusic.9Theseprogrammerswerenotworkingina

commercialsettingbutdidthisontheirowninitiative.Thisbecomesthenanexampleof

usersalteringthetechnologyandgivingitnewuses.Itwasofcoursenotuntilthemp3

filesweremarriedwiththep2p(filesharing)technologythatitcouldtrulybecomea

globaldistributionmedia.10Thismeansthatitwasnotnecessarilyonerelevantsocial

group,butseveralgroups,workingisolatedondifferentprojectsintheformof

developingthemp3formatandthep2ptechnology.Taylorseemstothinkthatneither



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ofthesetheoriesadequatelymanagestofocusonthepeople.Heisnotinterestedinthe

specifictechnologiesbutratheronpeople’sinteractionwiththem.11Hearguesforan

adoptionofpracticetheory,12whenlookingattechnology.Thetheoryisbasedonthe

ideathat“consciousnessofindividualselfasasubjectcomerintobeingthrough‘labour’

ofexpressiveexternalization,reflectiononandreappropriationofthatwork.”13The

ideahereistoapproachtechnologiesastextsthatpeoplerelatedto(orareforcedto

relateto)andhowthisinteractioncreatesidentities,categories,etc.However,SherryB.

Ortnerpointsoutthatpracticetheoryshouldbeviewedmoreasafoundationtobuild

newtheoriesonratherthanacceptitasareadytheory.14MosttheoristsintheScience

andTechnologystudies(STS)tendtoemphasizetheactor-networkapproachto

thinkingoftechnology.Theideaisbasedonthenotionthattheengineerswhodevelop

thetechnology“inscribe”15theirideaupontheartefact,orinthiscaseitcouldbethe

gadget.Andpeoplewhousethetechnologylatersimplyusetheideasalreadyinthe

gadgets,thus,effectively,becomingsimplyobjectswithoutagency.Theagencyisinthe

object,notthepeople.Thisisanideathatcouldworkwhenonetalkaboutverysimple

technologiesorobjectsthatarebasedaroundonefunctionandcannotbemanipulated.

Inordertodemonstratethis,Iwillcontinuewithafewexamples,lookingatthemp3

files,sinceitprovidestheuserwithalevelofinteractionandadaptionofusesthathas

notbeenpossiblewithpreviousformats.

Mp3filesenablesustodigitalizethemusic,removingitfromaphysicalobjectand

distributeitthroughtheInternet.ThishashadseveralconsequencesandIchooseto

focusontwoofthemhere;Whereasweusedtobuyalbumsofartiststogetourfavourite

songswecannowpurchase/downloadthespecificsongswewant.Whenyoucombine

thiswiththeeaseofcreatingplaylistswecanseethatthenotionsof“concept”albums

becomeslessrelevant.Weare“freed”fromhavingtoacceptthemusicthewayitis



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presentedonalbumsbythemusicindustry.Taylorclaimsthat“today’stechnology

makespossibleforagreaterdegreeofeclecticisminconsumptionthaneverbefore

becauseofpurchases(ordownloads)fromthewebofsingletracksofrecordedmusic”,

theconsequenceinhismindisthat“…itisnoweasytoacquire,cheaplyorfornocostat

all,justaboutanykindofmusiconemightwantfromtheinternet”.16Thisisalso

supportedbythesecondconsequenceofthemp3files;Thedistributioncannowbe

donewithouthavingtomakephysicalcopiesofthemusic,meaningthatonecansell

moredigitalunitswithouthavingtotaketheriskofendingupwiththousandsofCD

unitsthatitwasnotpossibletosell.Thisalsomakesiteasiertogetholdofmoreobscure

musicquicker,ratherthanhavingtowaitforweeksforaCDfromanothercontinent,ifit

waspossibletoorderinthefirstplace.Katz,whodescribesanewapproachto

discoveringmusic,alsosupportsthisview.Hetermsthe“divergentapproach”17asa

newwayofactivelyseekingoutnewmusic.Theideaisthatratherthansearchingfor

specificartistsyoucansearchonkeywords,Katzusestheexampleofsearchingfor

“Cello”givingyou“CelloSongs”byNickDrake,Bach,andApocalyptica.Thisallowsyou

todiscovernewmusicfromcompletelynewgenresthatyouprobablywouldnotfind

withouttime-consumingresearchifyouweretodoitwithouttheInternetorp2p

networking.Whentalkingaboutthemp3sandthenewpossibilitiesofinteractionit

seemsfittingtomentionanotherexamplefromthebandNineInchNails,thisonedeals

tosomeextentwithtechnologicaldeterminism,ormorespecifically,howtheconsumers

oftheproductcanadaptitinwaysthatwerenotoriginallyconceivedbythe“engineers”

orinthiscase,theband.Afterreleasingthe“YearZero”record,thebandreleaseda

recordcalled“Y34RZ3R0R3M1X3D” thisconsistedofacompleteremixof“YearZero”

byaseriesofguestmusicians,butmorerelevantly,itwasreleasedwithabonusdisc

consistingofthemixdownfilesofthealbum.18Fanswerethenencouragedtoupload



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theirversionsofthesongsontoadesignatedsite(http://remix.nin.com/)whereother

peoplecanhear,download,commentandrateremixes.Thismakesthenotionthatwe

simplyconsumefinishedproductswithspecific“messages”alreadyinscribedontothem

complicated.Thetechnologyofdigitalprocessingofsoundaswellasthetechnologythat

makessuchdistributionpossible.ThiscouldbeseenasaculminationofwhatKatz

mentionswhenhesays:“…listenerscanbecomeamateursoundengineers…”19.When

onelooksatvoluntarismanddeterminismagencybecomesacentralissue.Itistoover

simplifytosaythatyouare“eitheragentsinthefaceoftechnology,orunagentic”20.One

couldlookatwheneverpeopleuseexistingtechnologyinanewway,theyarenotusing

itinthewaythatisalready‘determined’bythetechnology.Thisbecomesespeciallytrue

becauseofthemp3files.ThepracticeofDJingwouldforinstancenothavehappenedif

peoplemindlesslyusedthetechnologyinthewaytheengineersintended.TheLPplayer

wasintendedtolistentomusicwiththerecordspinningbyitself,nottobetouched.

However,thisisexactlywhattheDJsstartedexperimentingwith,andbybreakingthe

rulestheyalsoillustratethelimitationsoftheSTSapproachtoactornetwork.According

toKatztheDJing“…subverts the intended functions of the phonograph and the disc. It

transforms a sound reproduction mechanism into a musical instrument and treats

records –typically finished musical products –as raw material…” 21Thisapproachis

faultyevenintheverybeginningofrecordinghistory,theintendeduseandtheactual

useofthephonograph.22



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Recording

Music,orthedistributionofithasundergonesomedramaticchangesovertheyears.

Frombeingperformeditmovedontonotationintheninthcentury.Thishasbeen

attributedtoCharlemagne23.Thischangedthewaymusicwasdistributed,nowone

couldbringthemusiconpaperandiftheperformersweretrainedtheycouldreproduce

itwithouthavingeverheardthemusicbefore.Theinventionofmovabletypealso

acceleratedthedistributionofmusicinthesixteenthcentury,makingthedistributionof

musicevenmoreefficient.Eventthoughtheinventionofthephonographin1877

heraldedanewageofrecordedsound,itdidnotreachthemassesuntilyearsafter.In

fact,Edison’sfocuswasoncreatingadictaphone,notamusicrecordingdevice24.Had

theworldstrictlyadheredtosomeofthetheoriesthetechnology’sagencywewouldnot

havelistenedtomusicbutonlythespokenword,sincetheprimaryintentionofthe

“engineer”wastocreateadictaphone.Infact,itwasnotuntilthe1890sthatonecould

firstseethecontoursofacommercialmarketdeveloping.25

Katzpresentsseveralpropertiesoftherecordedsounds,whichheclaimshasgreatly

impactedthewaywerecord,listenanddistributemusic.Inowintendtodescribesome

ofthesetraitsandrelatethemtoactualexamples.Thefirstqualityistangibility,the

actualmusicisstoredonamediumthatisaconcrete,tangibleobject.Thismakes

transportationofmusicmucheasier,whereasonehadtomovetotheperformersor

havetheperformersmovetoyou(orperformyourself).Thisrelatesofcourse,tothe

distributionprocess,wherethenextdevelopmentisthatthemediumitselfhasbecome

intangible,simplybinarycodesthatonecancopywithease.Thisbringuptheissueof

portability,thenextqualityKatzcites.Thisiswheretherecordedmusictruly

differentiatesfromthelivemusic.Theauthorcitesthefactthatyoucantakethe



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recordingandlistentoitsomewhereelsethenwhereitwasrecorded,however,the

portabilityoftheactionofrecordingisalsosignificant.Onemajorchangehasbeenthat

therecordingstudioisnotwhatitusedtobe,inthe1970sand1980s“thestudio”

impliedalocalewithexpensiveequipment,mixers,monitors,microphonesetc.There

hasbeenachangefromthisexpensiveandprofessionalstudiotothehomestudio.These

daystheprocessorsofregularcomputershavebecomesopowerfulthatonedoesnot

necessarilyneedtobookastudioasonedidbefore.Entirealbumscannowbecreated

onlaptops.Theportabilityallowsyoutolistentothemusic,removedfromitsoriginal

livesetting.Listeningtomusicintheprivacyofyourownhome,byyourselfforinstance.

Youcanalsorepeattherecordinganditwillremainstatic,whereaslivemusicwillvary

invariousways,dependingonfactorssuchasacoustics,skilloftheperformer,

positioningoftheperformeretc.Thefactthatourperceptionofthemusicchanges,as

wellasthefactthatthe“work”becomestherecording,wediscovernewaspectsofthe

music.ThisisalsousedcreativelyinDJing,wheretheDJtakessmallsamplesandloops

theminnewandinterestingways.Therepeatabilityisinthiscontextusedasawayof

manipulatingtherecording,whichisthenexttraitdescribedbyKatz.Hepointsoutthat

recordinghasgivenusthepossibilitytomanipulatethemediumthatstoresthesound,

openingupformanytechnicalmanipulationsoftherecording.Althoughthese

manipulationsaretechnicalincharactertheycanbeusedmusically.Therhythmicuseof

samplesinDJing,modulationeffectsfornewandinterestingtimbres,mixingtogether

“unrealistic”mixesinstereoorsurroundcouldbeexamplesofthetechnicalused

musically.Anotherexampleofthepossibilitiesformanipulationoftherecordingisto

lookatthenewpossibilitiesthathaveappearedoverthelast20years.Whenlookingin

theLogicStudiorecordingsoftwaremanualtherearemorethan100differentvirtual

instrumentsthatcanbeeitherpunchedinorrecordedonamidisynth.Thereisevenan



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extrainstructionbook(let)regardingthepossibilitiesforinstrumentsandeffectanditis

668pageslong26.Andthisisrecordingsoftwarethatcanberunononlylaptops,maybe

connectedtoanmicrophoneThepossibilitiesinthedigitaleffectsandinstruments

worldaremassive.Therearethosewhoarguethattheincreaseinpossibilitiesnot

necessarilyequatesanincreaseinfreedom.ForBrianEnoitistheotherwayaround:

moreoptionsblockintuitivework,takeuptoomuchofthebrain’sfunctionthatshould

beleftrespondwith“attentionandsensitivitytothechangingtextureofthemoment”.27

Arecordingcouldbeseenasintrinsicallyunrealisticsincethesoundisseparatedfrom

thevisualstimuli,thataccompaniesitinthe“natural”,live,world.Visibilityisthenext

traitonKatz’list.Thisissomethingwemightnotbeabletofullyappreciateinourday

andageseeingaswehavebeenraisedwithrecordingtechnologyaroundus.Anasa

consequenceofthepossibilitytomanipulatesounditmustalsobeacceptedthatmany

ofthesoundwearehearingarenot“natural”inanyway.ArtistssuchasMuslimgauze

andBancodeGaiaappearasbandsbutareinrealityone-manprojects28.Thisis

electronicsamplebasedmusic,whichimpliesthecomposingisinselectingandediting

theloopstogether.Thereisnovisualstimulithataccompaniesitsimplybecausethe

recordingisdonebyaddingdifferenttracksinrecordingsoftware.Thereisno“live”

musictorecordinthefirstplace.Theideathatthesonghasbecomerecordedandthat

thework“lasts”for4minutesinthe“real”worldthereforebecomesanillusionatbest.

Theysimplydonothavenaturalvisualstimulithat,accompaniesit.Thisbringsustothe

issueoftemporality,whenavoiceisrecorded;itiscapturedandinasensefreedfrom

time.Dependingonthemediumitisstoreduponitcanlastforyears,andbereplayedin

adifferenttime,maybeevenwhenthepersonisdead.Weheartherecordingina

differentplacebothphysicallybutalsopsychologically.Wedonotappreciatethe

uniquenessofarecordingnow,whereasin1880,wewouldhavebeeninaweonsucha



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reproductionofsound.Itopensupforhearingthingsthatarenolongerinexistence,

suchascastratosingersforinstance.

TheexamplesofMuslimgauzeandBancoDeGaiasupportTaylorwhenheclaimsthat

“Musicasasocialactivityisbecomingathingofthepastformanymusicians”29.When

youalsolookatthepricereductionofequipmentsuchassynthesizersanddrum

machinesonecanseethatitisnowpossibletofor“anyone”tobuildtheirownstudio.

This,coupledwiththeeaseofdistributingmp3files(nottheeaseofmakingmoneyon

thedistribution)hasledtowhatmanycallademocratizationofthemusicmaking.,

HoweveraccordingtoTaylorthisisanissuethatisrarelyelaboratedbeyondthe

obviousreasonofavailabilityandtheeaseofmakingit.30

Conclusion

InthisessayIhavetriedtodemonstrateanddiscusssomeoftheaspectsofboththe

distributionandrecording.Inthedistributionfieldwehaveseenhowthedifferent

consumptionmodelsareappliedtothetotherecordindustryandhownew

technologiessuchasthemp3formatandp2pfilesharingchallengethehegemonyofthe

recordcompanies,whorelyonthecommercialphysicalformats.Thiscanalsobeseenin

relationtotheissueofagency.Arewesimplyusingthetechnologyastheengineers

intended,oristhetechnologyanextensionofourownwill?Theintentionwastolistthe

relevanttheoriesonagencyanddemonstratetheminthedigitalworld.Whenitcomes

torecording,itisclearthatrecordedmusicdiffersfundamentallyfromlivemusic.The

differenttraitsKatzlistshaveimpactedthewaywelisten,howwedistributeandhow

werecord.Theyalsoprovideuswithconcept;theyinturn,makeiteasierto

differentiatebetweentherecordedandthelivemusic.Clearlymuchmorecouldbesaid



15

onthissubject.Ihavebeenforcedtolimittheamountmaterialinthissectionbut

hopefullythematerialusedsayssomethingaboutthequalitiesthatcanberelatedtothe

distributionprocessandshedsomelightondifferentaspectsofthetheoriesofagency

andconsumptioninthefaceoftheworldofthecommerciallyrecordedmusic.

1Youtube.Com,melodynepromotionaltrailerviewed16.10.08http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFCjv4_jqAY2Taylor,2001:223Taylor,2001:284Ninwiki.com,viewedonthe16.10.08

http://www.ninwiki.com/Timeline_of_Year_Zero_Discovery5Taylor,2001:256Taylor,2001:267

Taylor,2001:318WiiLoopMachinewebsite,viewedonthe8.11.08:http://www.theamazingrolo.net/wii/?page_id=14

9Katz,2005:16010Katz,2005:16111,Taylor,2001:33,3412Taylor,2001:3413GroveMusicOnline,Ethnomusicology,§IV:Contemporarytheoreticalissues,Chapter

9,PracticeTheory14Taylor,2001,3415Taylor,2001,3216Taylor,2001:1917Katz,2005:16718NineInchNailsofficialwebsitehttp://yearzero.nin.com/remix/viewedonthe30.10-0819Katz,2005:16920Taylor,2001:3121Katz,2005:13222Katz,2005:7123Taylor,2001:324

Blokhus/Molde,2004:3425Blokhus/Mole,2004:37



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26LogicStudio:InstrumentsandEffects(2007)27Taylor,2001,11128Talor,2001:14029

Taylor,200113930Taylor,2001,161

BibliografiBlokkhus,Y.,&Molde,A.(2004).Wow!PopulærmusikkensHistorie.Oslo:Universitetsforlaget.

Katz,M.(2005).CapturingSound:HowTechnologyHasChangedMusic.Berkley,

California:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Sterne,J.(2003).TheAudiblePast:CulturalOriginsofSoundReproduction.Durham,D.C,

U.S.A.:DukeUniversityPress.

Taylor,T.D.(2001).StrangeSounds:Music,Techology&Culture.London:Routledge.



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technology, the recording and distribution of music

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