1

Southwestern Kuril

Geologic setting: The Miocene to Recent Kuril magmaticarc extends approximately 2,200 km from the northeasternKamchatka peninsula to southwestern Hokkaido, where itconnects to the Aleutian and northeastern Japan arcs, respec-tively (Fig. 11; Table 1). The southwestern portion of theKuril arc is associated with the Kuril backarc basin, whichformed before the middle Miocene, due to northeast-south-west rifting (Baranov et al., 2002). The basement rocks of thesouthwestern Kuril arc consist of a Mesozoic accretionarycomplex with a cover of Cretaceous and Paleogene sedimen-tary rocks. Eocene to middle Miocene ilmenite-series grani-toids intrude the basement rocks (Ishihara et al., 1998). Thevolcanism of the southwestern Kuril arc has changed frommiddle Miocene andesitic activity to middle to late Miocenebimodal basalt and rhyolite, including a period from 12 to 8Ma with basalt-only volcanism. The andesitic and bimodalvolcanic activity migrated trenchward during the middleMiocene (Watanabe, 1995). The middle to late Miocene bi-modal and basalt-only volcanism occurred mainly in a north-south–trending graben perpendicular to the arc trend(Watanabe, 1995). The basalts of the Miocene bimodal as-semblage changed from island-arc type at 13 to 11 Ma tobackarc basin basalt at 9 to 7 Ma and again changed into is-land-arc type at 5 to 4 Ma (Ikeda et al., 2000). Since thePliocene, bimodal volcanism in the backarc has disappearedand andesitic volcanic activity at the volcanic front has be-come dominant. This Plio-Pleistocene activity was associatedwith formation of calderas several to ten kilometers in diam-eter, which erupted large amounts of felsic ignimbrite (Ikeda,1991).

East-northeasterly trending right-lateral strike-slip faultswere active during the late middle Miocene nearby the vol-canic front of the southwestern Kuril arc due to oblique sub-duction of the Pacific plate (Watanabe, 1995). This faultmovement led to the westward migration and collision of theKuril forearc sliver with the northeastern Japan arc at south-ern Hokkaido, forming the present concave joint between theKuril and northeastern Japan arcs (Kimura et al., 1983).

Mineral deposit styles: More than 40 low-sulfidation ep-ithermal gold and mercury deposits and prospects are distrib-uted in northeast Hokkaido at the southwestern Kuril arc(Fig. 11, App. 2). They are associated mainly with rhyolitic

intrusions and domes of the Miocene bimodal assemblage.The host rocks of these deposits are Cretaceous to Paleogenesedimentary rocks and Miocene sedimentary and volcanicrocks. These deposits occur mainly as gold-bearing quartz-adularia veins in the east-northeasterly strike-slip faults,whereas some of them are disseminated in the host rocks(Watanabe, 1995). The timing of the epithermal gold miner-alization ranges from 14 to 4 Ma, with a hiatus from 12 to 8Ma, which corresponds to the period of the backarc basin vol-canism. A few 3 to 1.5 Ma low-sulfidation gold deposits arealso located near the present andesitic volcanic front (Yahataet al., 1999). Representative deposits in northeast Hokkaidoare Konomai (73.2 t Au, 1,243 t Ag), Sanru (6.7 t Au, 46.4 tAg), and Itomuka (3,086 t Hg).

Small volcanic islands in the middle and northeastern partsof the Kuril arc have not been well explored. The middle andnortheastern parts contain polymetallic base metal vein-typeprospects of middle and late Miocene age, which are associ-ated with intrusive rocks (Ishihara, 1994).

Japan (northeastern and southwestern)

Geologic setting: The Japan arc extends approximately1,800 km from southwest Hokkaido to north Kyushu, whereit connects to the Kuril and Ryukyu arcs, respectively (Fig.11; Table 1). The arc has a concave configuration toward thePacific Ocean, consisting of a north-trending northeast seg-ment and east-trending southwest segment. Presently thesesegments are bounded by a major fault zone (Itoigawa-Shizuoka tectonic line), which also marks the boundary be-tween the North American and Eurasian plates (Uyeda,1991). The Izu-Bonin arc is connected with the Japan arcnear the joint between the northeast and southwest segments,and the Pacific and Philippine Sea plates subduct beneath thenortheast and southwest segments, respectively.

The basement rocks of the Japan arc consist of continentalblocks of Permian-Triassic gneiss (the Hida belt, centralJapan) and high pressure-temperature schist, and a Jurassicaccretionary complex (Isozaki, 1997a, b). Mesozoic andPaleogene I-type granitoids related to oceanic plate subduc-tion intruded into these basement rocks (Ishihara and Sasaki,1991). The Japan arc was a part of the Eurasian continentuntil latest Oligocene but was separated from the continentdue to backarc spreading mainly along the Japan and Yamatobasins during the early Miocene, with about 60º clockwise

Supplement to

Tectonic Setting, Geology, and Gold and Copper Mineralization in Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific

STEVE GARWIN, ROBERT HALL, AND YASUSHI WATANABE

(Note: Figure and table numbers correspond to those cited in the printed part of the paper)

APPENDIX 1

Descriptions of the Geologic Settings and Mineral Deposit Styles for Major Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific

©2005 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volumepp. 891–930

and counterclockwise rotation of the southwest and northeastsegments, respectively (Otofuji et al., 1985; Hoshi and Taka-hashi, 1999).

Since the early Miocene, arc volcanism has been active inboth segments. This volcanism is divided into rift-related ac-tivity including bimodal volcanism of basalt and rhyolite inthe backarc during the early-middle Miocene and subduc-tion-related andesite-dacite activity during the late Miocene,Pliocene, and Quaternary (Tsuchiya, 1990, Nakajima et al.,1995; Kimura et al., 2003). Rift-related basaltic activityoccurred during the Plio-Pleistocene in northern Kyushu, atthe western end of the southwest segment of the Japan arc.This rifting is related to the backarc spreading along the Oki-nawa trough (Kamata and Kodama, 1999).

The tectonic regime of the northeast segment of the arcsince the Miocene has changed from early to middle Mioceneextension, characterized by arc-parallel normal faulting withrifted basins, to late Pliocene to Quaternary shortening witharc-parallel thrusting and folding, through a late Miocene toearly Pliocene transitional regime without significant tectonicdeformation (Sato, 1994). The middle Miocene rifting and re-lated bimodal volcanism is best developed in the middle partof the northeast segment. Bimodal volcanism is not clear ormixed with andesite-dacite volcanism in the northern andsouthern margins of the northeast segment, where the Okhotskcontinental block and the Izu-Bonin arc have collided withthe Japan arc during the middle Miocene, respectively (Kimuraet al., 1983; Amano, 1991. East-northeasterly trending right-lateral strike-slip faulting occurred during the Pliocene in thenorthern part of the northeast segment due to the westwardmigration of the frontal Kuril arc (Watanabe, 1990).

Significant faulting and folding have not been recognized inthe southwest segment of the Japan arc during the Mioceneand Pliocene. Since the latest Pliocene, east-trending right-lateral strike-slip faulting has occurred along the Median tec-tonic line and other tectonic zones, as well as thrusting alongthe north-northwest–trending Itoigawa-Shizuoka tectonicine. These tectonic movements are ascribed to the obliquesubduction of the Philippine Sea plate beneath the southwestsegment of the Japan arc (Itoh et al., 2002) and convergencebetween the North American and Eurasian plates (Uyeda,1991), respectively.

Mineral deposit styles: Metallic mineral deposits of the Japanarc include middle Miocene Cu-Pb-Zn (-Ag-Au) Kuroko de-posits and late Miocene to Pleistocene Cu-Pb-Zn and Au-Agepithermal deposits (Fig 10; Watanabe, 2002). About 70Kuroko deposits, including massive gypsum and barite de-posits, have been discovered in the 800-km-long northeast seg-ment of the Japan arc (Sato, 1974). These deposits are associ-ated with monogenetic rhyolite volcanism of the middleMiocene backarc bimodal assemblage in a submarine environ-ment. In spite of the wide distribution of the Kuroko depositsin the northeast segment, economic deposits are limited to themiddle part of the segment. In particular, productive Kurokodeposits cluster in submarine calderas in the Hokuroku district.Representative deposits in the Hokuroku district are Hanaoka(0.96 Mt Cu, 1.3 Mt Zn, 0.3 Mt Pb), Shakanai (0.1 Mt Cu, 0.3Mt Zn, 0.1 Mt Pb), Kosaka (0.6 Mt Cu, 1.7 Mt Zn, 0.4 Mt Pb;Ohmoto et al., 1983), and the gold-rich Nurukawa deposit (6.8t Au, 123 t Ag + Zn + Pb + Cu).

Some Kuroko-type gypsum deposits are distributed in thebackarc in the southwest segment of the Japan arc (Sato,1974). An Re-Os age of the Wanibuchi deposit in the south-west segment, 18.4 ± 0.6 Ma (Terakado, 2001), is older thanthe range of ages (15.4–12.4 Ma; Sawai and Itaya, 1993) forKuroko mineralization in the northeast segment, suggestingthat Kuroko-style settings occurred slightly earlier in thesouthwest segment than in the northeast segment of theJapan arc.

Some middle (or early) Miocene epithermal Au-Ag de-posits occur in the northeast segment of the Japan arc and arerelated to felsic volcanism (Watanabe, 2002). These includethe Sado deposit (72.7 t Au, 2,278 t Ag), which has character-istics of an intermediate-sulfidation type. Because differentsets of mineralization ages, 24.4 to 22.1 Ma (Ministry of In-ternational Trade and Industry, 1987a) and 14.5 to 13.4 Ma(Shikazono and Tsunakawa, 1982), are reported for the de-posit, the relationship between the Kuroko and epithermalmineralization is not clear.

Late Miocene to Pleistocene Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag epithermal andAu-Ag epithermal deposits are mainly distributed in thenortheast segments of the Japan arc, associated with calc-al-kaline andesite-dacite volcanism in a terrestrial environment.These deposits are mostly of vein type and hosted bytranstensional faults. Although there are numerous mineralprospects of late Miocene age, economic deposits weremainly formed during the Pliocene or Pleistocene in an arcsetting (Watanabe, 2002). Epithermal deposits during this pe-riod are classified into intermediate- or high-sulfidation types,but the high-sulfidation deposits are small (Watanabe, 2002).Representative deposits are the Chitose intermediate-sulfida-tion (18 t Au, 83 t Ag), Teine high- and intermediate-sulfida-tion (9 t Au, 130 t Ag), Toyoha polymetallic epithermal (1.8Mt Zn, 0.5 Mt Pb, 3,000 t Ag, 10 t Au), Takatama intermedi-ate-sulfidation (28.7 t Au, 280 t Ag), and Ashio xenothermal(0.6 Mt Cu) deposits.

An epithermal gold province occurs in northern Kyushu,where backarc rifting along the Okinawa trough has extendedinto the arc. The province contains about 20 low-sulfidationdeposits of Plio-Pleistocene age, associated with intermediateto felsic volcanism in and around the Beppu-Shimabaragraben (Sawai and Nagao, 2003). These include the Taio de-posit (36.0 t Au, 137 t Ag).

Izu-Bonin

Geologic setting: The north-trending Izu-Bonin arc extendsapproximately 1,200 km from the Izu peninsula of Honshu Is-land to the Iwo-jima Islands at 25º N and 142º E in the PacificOcean (Fig. 11; Table 1). This magmatic arc is situated along theeastern margin of the Philippine Sea plate due to northwest-ward subduction of the Pacific plate. It connects to the Japanarc in the north and the Mariana arc in the south. Rift grabensexist in the backarc of the central portion of the Izu-Bonin, andthe Ogasawara plateau on the Pacific plate is being subductedbeneath the southern margin of the arc (Tamaki, 1985).

This arc was located farther southwest relative to Japanwhen Cenozoic arc magmatism commenced in the middleEocene, and then the arc moved northeast in response toclockwise rotation and backarc spreading of the PhilippineSea plate (Seno and Maruyama, 1984; Hall et al., 1995). The

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arc probably reached its present position by the middleMiocene and has collided and accreted to the Japan arc at itsnorthern end in the Izu peninsula (Amano, 1991; Takahashiand Saito, 1997). However, some workers (e.g., Hall, 2002)suggest this collision took place as late as the Pliocene. Thisaccretion is inferred to have increased the coupling force be-tween the arc and subducting Pacific plate (Okino et al.,1999). Two stages of arc rifting are recognized, including mid-dle Miocene and latest Pliocene to Quaternary. The middleMiocene rifting occurred in the northern part of the backarcwith north-northwest–trending rift axes, which were trun-cated by northeast transform faults (Yamazaki and Yuasa,1998). The latest Pliocene to Quaternary rifting is manifestedin the central part of the arc by several grabens with north-trending axes located behind the volcanic front (Taylor, 1992).

The oldest island-arc rocks in the Izu-Bonin arc are middleEocene (49–48 Ma) island-arc tholeiite and boninite seriesbasalt to rhyolite. This volcanism continued for more than 10m.y. and was followed by tholeiitic and calc-alkaline volcanism,which occurred along the arc until 27 Ma. Arc volcanism be-came inactive during 23 to 20 Ma, when backarc spreading inthe Shikoku basin was active. Middle Miocene to HoloceneIzu-Bonin frontal arc volcanism is bimodal (basalt and rhyolite-dacite; Taylor, 1992), whereas calc-alkaline andesite and dacitecharacterized the backarc from 12.5 to 2.9 Ma (Ishizuka et al.,1998). Post-2.8 Ma backarc volcanism consists of clinopyrox-ene-olivine basalt associated with rifting (Ishizuka et al., 1998).

The tectonic regime of the Izu-Bonin arc has been exten-sional, characterized by several stages of normal faulting atleast since the Oligocene, except along its northern margin,where the arc has collided with the Japan arc. Accretion ofseveral microcontinental blocks since the middle Miocenehas rotated the central part of the Japan arc. This accretionalso formed an accretionary prism and thrusts in the Japanforearc (Mazzotti et al., 2002). The Izu block, accreted to theJapan arc at about 1 Ma (Amano, 1991), contains northwest-trending right-lateral and north-northeast–trending left-lat-eral strike-slip faults that localize epithermal gold deposits.

Mineral deposit styles: Metallic mineral deposits along theIzu-Bonin arc include Kuroko and epithermal deposits (Fig.11). Kuroko-style submarine hydrothermal mineralization ispresently recognized at Myojin Knoll, Myojinsho, and in theSumisu rift of the Izu-Bonin arc (Glasby, 2000). The gold-richCu-Zn-Pb Sunrise deposit at Myojin Knoll is estimated to have9 million tons (Mt) of mineralized material (Iizasa et al., 1999).

Epithermal Au-Ag deposits are located in the Izu peninsulaat the northern end of the Izu-Bonin arc. These includeSeigoshi (16.0 Au, 511 Ag), Toi (12.1 t Au; 94 t Ag), Mochikoshi(4.9 t Au, 104 t Ag), and others. These deposits consist ofnorthwest- or north-northeast–trending, gold-bearing adu-laria-quartz veins oriented subparallel to regional strike-slipfaults. These veins have characteristics of an intermediate- orlow-sulfidation type. Mineralization ages vary from 2.5 to 1.4Ma, which corresponds to a period of bimodal volcanism ofbasalt and rhyolite-dacite, as well as andesitic volcanism(Ministry of International Trade and Industry, 1987b).

Ryukyu

Geologic setting: The Ryukyu arc extends approximately1,200 km from southern Kyushu Island in Japan to Taiwan

(Figs. 2, 10; Table 1). The arc consists of the Ryukyu trench,forearc islands, an active volcanic belt, and the Okinawatrough in the backarc. The Ryukyu arc is related to westwardsubduction of the Philippine Sea plate beneath the Eurasianplate at a velocity of 6 to 7 cm/yr (Shinjo, 1999).

The basement rocks consist of Permian to Cretaceoussedimentary or serpentinite mélange, including blocks oflimestone and metamorphic rocks, and Cretaceous to Paleo-gene sedimentary rocks. These basement rocks are overlainby late Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. Middle to late Mioceneilmenite-series and magnetite-series granitoids intruded theforearc and backarc sides of the northern part of the arc, re-spectively. This intrusive activity was followed by Plioceneand Quaternary calc-alkaline andesite volcanism, which is as-sociated with rhyolite and dacite in the backarc (Karakida etal., 1992). Paleomagnetic data (Kodama et al., 1995) and lo-cations determined from Global Positioning System (GPS)data (Nishimura et al., 1999) for the northern part of the arcindicate that the forearc has rotated counterclockwise withrespect to the backarc part since 2 Ma, resulting in east-trending extension along the Kagoshima graben in southKyushu. In the central and southern part of the arc, middleand late Miocene high Mg andesite and basalt occur withcalc-alkaline andesite (Shinjo, 1999). Since the latestPliocene, backarc spreading began in the Okinawa trough(Sibuet et al., 1998), which is characterized by bimodal vol-canism of basalt and rhyolite (Shinjo and Kato, 2000), sea-floor hydrothermal activity and Kuroko-style mineralization(Marumo and Hattori, 1999).

Near Taiwan, the arc is characterized by Eocene pyroclas-tic rocks and andesite flows, Miocene marine siliciclasticrocks and an active submarine volcano (Hutchison, 1989).Northern Taiwan lies at the junction between the Ryukyu andLuzon arcs, where these two arcs started colliding at 10 Ma(Teng, 1996). In this region, Plio-Pleistocene centers of mag-matism (2.8–0.2 Ma; Chung et al., 1995) have migrated west-ward, in part, initiated by the westerly encroachment of theRyukyu trench and the southwestward opening of the Oki-nawa trough (Teng et al., 1992). Backarc extension in thePleistocene led to the emplacement of andesitic to dacitic hy-pabyssal plugs and flows, dated in the Chinkuashih region at1.3 to 0.9 Ma (Tan, 1991; Wang et al., 1999). The volcanicrocks overlie a Miocene marine sedimentary rock sequence,similar to that exposed in the Ryukyu arc to the northeast.

Mineral deposit styles: The southern Kyushu epithermalgold province in the northern Ryukyu arc contains Plio-Pleis-tocene low-sulfidation deposits, represented by Hishikari(260 t Au, 208 t Ag), Yamagano, (28.4 t Au, 28.3 t Ag), andOkuchi (22.2 t Au, 17.0 t Ag) with a few high-sulfidation de-posits, such as Akeshi (8.9 t Au, 4.7 t Ag), Kasuga (8.8 t Au,5.0 t Ag), and Iwato (8.1 t Au, 13.7 t Ag), and the Kushikinointermediate-sulfidation deposit (55.9 t Au, 477 t Ag; Fig. 11;Izawa and Watanabe, 2001). These deposits cluster on thewestern side of the Kagoshima graben (Izawa and Urashima,1987). Epithermal gold mineralization in the province startedwith Pliocene high- and intermediate-sulfidation deposits inthe west of the province (Kushikino, 3.7–3.4 Ma; Kasuga.5.5–5.3 Ma; Iwato, 4.7–4.2 Ma, and Akeshi, 3.7 Ma) and hasextended eastward with time to form Pleistocene low-sulfida-tion deposits (Okuchi, 1.6–1.2 Ma; Hishikari, 1.1–0.7 Ma;

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Sudo et al., 2003). This eastward expansion of the metallo-genic province followed an eastward shift of the Ryukyu vol-canic front and is probably related to the counterclockwise ro-tation of Kyushu Island (Izawa and Watanabe, 2001). TheKushikino intermediate-sulfidation deposit is associated withan andesitic polygenetic volcano (Izawa and Zeng, 2001),whereas low-sulfidation deposits are associated with rhyoliticor dacitic monogenetic volcanic activity in the backarc(Miyashita, 1975). Magmatic activity related to the high-sulfi-dation deposits has not been clarified, although these depositsare hosted by late Miocene to early Pliocene andesitic vol-canic rocks (Hedenquist et al., 1994). The low-sulfidation de-posits in the metallogenic province are composed mostly ofadularia-quartz veins with alteration halos of sericite-chloriteat depth and quartz-smectite ± kaolinite near the surface inwidespread chlorite or smectite-zeolite alteration zones(Izawa and Urashima, 1987). High-sulfidation deposits arecharacterized by replacement ores hosted by residual quartzand quartz-alunite-dickite (or kaolinite) alteration zones(Hedenquist et al., 1994).

The Chinkuashih high-sulfidation Au-Cu district in north-eastern Taiwan has produced more than 92 t Au (Fig. 2, App.2; Tan, 1991). Orebodies consist of enargite-gold vein sys-tems, hydrothermal breccia pipes, and replacement bodies,which are spatially and temporally associated with Pleistocenedacitic hypabyssal intrusions. Host rocks include the daciticintrusions and Miocene calcareous and carbonaceous sand-stones and shales. Bonanza grades have been reported frommany of these orebodies, but in more recent years minegrades averaged approximately 3 g/t Au. The majority of thepast production was from the 2-km-long Penshan-Hsumeivein system in the central portion of the district. The Chi-ufen-Wutanshan intermediate-sulfidation vein system occursabout 1 km west of the high-sulfidation deposits and pro-duced 29 t Au (Tan, 1991). The Tatun district, located 30 kmwest of Chinkuashih, is characterized by one high-sulfidationsystem, which was prospected for gold and copper in the past(Yen, 1971).

Luzon

Geologic setting: The Luzon arc, as defined in this paper,represents a composite arc system that extends 1,200 kmsouthward from the Coastal Range of southeastern Taiwanthrough the volcanic islands north of Luzon, the Luzon Cen-tral Cordillera, and the Western Luzon arc, terminating in thevicinity of southern Marinduque Island (Fig. 12; Table 1;Cardwell et al, 1980; Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences,1982; Mitchell and Leach, 1991). The arc has been activefrom the Oligocene to the present and is presently underlainby an east-dipping Benioff zone related to the Manila trench(Divis, 1980). The subduction of the Scarborough Seamountsbeneath northern Luzon during the Plio-Pleistocene proba-bly led to extinction of volcanism in the Central Cordilleraand the volcanic islands north of Luzon from ~4 to 2 Ma andeastward migration of magmatism from ~2 Ma to theHolocene (Fig. 7; Yang et al., 1996).

Cretaceous ophiolitic basement is exposed in the Zambalesregion of the western Luzon arc. The United Nations (UnitedNations Development Program, 1987b) infers a similar se-quence to form the foundation for the Central Cordillera.

The Neogene component of the arc includes andesitic flows,tuffs, and volcaniclastic rocks. The Mount Pinatubo stratovol-cano forms part of the Quaternary portion of the westernLuzon arc.

Older portions of the arc occur in the Luzon CentralCordillera and include Eocene (?) to Miocene basaltic to an-desitic volcanic breccias, volcaniclastic rocks, limestones,shales, and conglomerates (United Nations DevelopmentProgram, 1987a; Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 1979). In theCentral Cordillera, several phases of diorite to tonalite intru-sions and their hypabyssal equivalents were emplaced fromthe early Miocene through the Pliocene (Metal MiningAgency of Japan, 1979, 1983; United Nations DevelopmentProgram, 1987a; Garcia, 1991). The Kias Creek dike complexin Baguio (Mitchell and Leach, 1991) includes pyroxene-hornblende-phyric diabases, lamprophyres, and appinitesthat contain amphibolite xenoliths of inferred arc basementorigin (Paddy Waters, writ. commun., 2004). Three of thesedikes indicate Ar-Ar ages that range from 4.6 to 4.0 Ma(Paddy Waters, writ. commun., 2004). Mineralized diatremebreccias are associated with the emplacement of the Balatocplug in the Baguio district. This magmatism is dated at 1.0 Ma(Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 1983; Cooke et al., 1996).The pre- and postmineralization Plio-Pleistocene quartz dior-ite and dacite intrusions and diatreme-related pyroclasticrocks in the Mankayan district span the periods 2.2 to 1.8 and1.2 to 0.9 Ma, respectively (Arribas et al., 1995; Hedenquistet al, 1998). Plio-Pleistocene ages are reported for mineral-ized diorite intrusions at Sto. Thomas II (Sillitoe, 1989;Baluda and Galapan, 1993) and Black Mountain (Waters,2004) near Baguio, and at Tawi-Tawi (Wolfe, 1981) in thesoutheastern portion of the Central Cordillera.

Mineral deposit styles: Porphyry copper-gold deposits andrelated high- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal sys-tems are abundant in the Luzon Central Cordillera and west-ern Luzon arcs (Fig. 13, App. 3). These deposits are predom-inantly centered about Neogene to Pleistocene quartzdiorite-diorite intrusions hosted by coeval volcanic suites. TheCentral Cordillera hosts the intermediate-sulfidation goldlode systems of Acupan, Antamok, and Itogon, and the Sto.Thomas II porphyry in the Baguio district, where an esti-mated 800 t Au have been produced (Mitchell and Balce,1990). In Acupan, several major gold-bearing quartz vein sys-tems, 0.65 Ma in age (Cooke et al., 1996), occur adjacent toand within the Pleistocene Balatoc diatreme and comprisesheeted veins, stockworks, and the high-grade “GW” brecciabodies (Cooke and Bloom, 1990). The Itogon intermediate-sulfidation gold-bearing quartz vein deposit occurs along theeastern periphery of the Balatoc diatreme and is the eastwardextension of the Acupan system. The total length of the com-bined deposits approximates 4 km. In Antamok, major quartzvein systems and associated stockworks are hosted by an-desitic agglomerate and intercalated lava flows. Emplace-ment of the Antamok and Acupan-Itogon vein systems wascontrolled by tensional fractures developed along regionaleast-northeast– and northwest-trending conjugate strike-slipfaults (Fernandez and Damasco, 1979). The average globalgrades of these three deposits are inferred to range from 4 to6 g/t Au, which includes past production from high-grade(>10 g/t Au) lodes.

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The Lepanto high-sulfidation enargite-gold deposit, theVictoria and Teresa intermediate-sulfidation vein systems,and the Far South East and Guinaoang porphyry depositsoccur in the nearby Mankayan district, which contains a min-imum of 700 t Au in combined past production and currentresources. There is a clear genetic association between por-phyry and epithermal styles of mineralization in Mankayan.The Far South East porphyry formed below and coeval toLepanto at 1.4 to 1.3 Ma, both deposits associated with theemplacement of quartz diorite porphyry; the Victoria veinsystem formed at ~1.15 Ma, as the hydrothermal systemwaned (Hedenquist et al, 1998, 2001). At Lepanto, residualquartz alteration of dacitic wall rocks host east-trending enar-gite-gold branch veins and stratiform lodes localized aroundthe intersection of the steeply dipping northwest-strikingLepanto fault and the gently dipping unconformable base ofa Pliocene dacitic pyroclastic sequence. The dacitic rocksform part of the Mankayan diatreme-dome complex (Garcia,1991; Baker, 1992). The Victoria gold-base metal-quartz veinsystem is located <1 km southwest of Far South East, at asimilar level to Lepanto. The veins average 7.3 g/t Au andform an east-trending tensional array localized by right-lateralmovement on mine-scale strike-slip faults (Claveria et al.,1999). The Teresa intermediate-sulfidation gold deposit, dis-covered in 2002, lies to the southwest of Victoria and extendssouth to the Nayak vein system. It contains an estimated re-source of 7.3 Mt at ~5.3 g/t Au (Waters, 2004). Both theMankayan and Baguio districts occur in zones of structuralcomplexity near major north-northwest–trending fault splaysof the sinistral strike-slip Philippine fault (Fig. 13).

The gold-rich Dizon copper porphyry deposit in the Zam-bales region and the Tayson copper-gold porphyry deposit inthe Batangas area occur in the western Luzon arc. Both por-phyry deposits are located in Miocene to Pliocene windows inQuaternary volcanic cover.

The Chimei copper-gold porphyry system in the CoastalRange in eastern Taiwan is inferred to lie in the northern ex-tension of the Luzon arc. Early Miocene ages (22 and 19 Ma)are indicated for andesite from the Chimei porphyry deposit(Chen, 1975, in Hutchison, 1989).

Cordon

Geologic setting: Surface exposures of alkaline igneousrocks in north-central Luzon define two discrete regions, theCordon syenite complex and the Palali intrusion, which lie atthe southern end of the Cagayan rift basin. The basement tothe Cagayan basin consists of Cretaceous to Paleogene calc-alkaline plutonic, volcanic, and volcaniclastic rocks (Table 1).

K alkaline magmatism occurred in the late Oligocene andearly Miocene, as indicated by K-Ar ages of ~25 Ma for theCordon Syenite Complex (Knittel, 1983) and 25 to 17 Ma forthe Palali intrusion (Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 1977).The emplacement of these intrusive complexes may be re-lated to intraplate magmatism initiated by subduction be-neath Luzon, as expressed by Divis (1983) and Knittel andCundari (1990), but there is no agreement as to the polarity.Other possible sources of the alkaline magmatism include de-layed partial melting of a relict subduction slab, as postulatedfor southeastern Papua New Guinea by Johnson et al. (1978)and Smith and Milsom (1984) or intra-arc extension.

Mineral deposit styles: This K alkaline province includesthe Didipio district on the southeastern margin of the Palaliintrusion and the Isabella district within the Cordon syenitecomplex (Fig. 13). Significant resources occur in the Dinkidicopper-gold porphyry deposit (120 t Au, 0.5 Mt Cu) in Didi-pio and the Marian intermediate-sulfidation epithermal goldmine and nearby porphyry copper-gold system in Isabella.Dinkidi is hosted by a composite monzonite stock that hasbeen intruded by a highly mineralized syenite pegmatite dike,which forms a gold-rich (5–15 g/t Au) core (Wolfe et al.,1999). The spatial extent of quartz stockwork veins and flank-ing feldspar-destructive sericitic and argillic alteration zonesfor the deposit is more restricted than recorded in the calc-al-kaline porphyry systems elsewhere in Luzon. The Runrunointermediate-sulfidation gold deposit and the Pao high-sulfi-dation enargite-gold occurrence (Kavalieris and Gonzalez,1990) are also located in the Cordon arc.

Philippine

Geologic setting: The Philippine arc (Cardwell et al., 1980)or the Pacific Cordillera extends more than 1,000 km fromCamarines in southern Luzon to the Pujada peninsula insoutheastern Mindanao (Fig. 12; Table 1). The arc occursclose to the sinistral Philippine fault. Geologic basement tothe arc consists of Cretaceous ultramafic rocks and Paleogeneandesitic volcanic, volcaniclastic, marine siliciclastic, and car-bonate rocks (Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982).

The arc includes segments that have been active at differ-ent times between the Oligocene and Quaternary (Divis,1980; United Nations Development Program, 1987b).Oligocene-Miocene basaltic breccias and turbidites are over-lain by Neogene andesitic to dacitic volcaniclastic rocks, lavas,and calcareous siliciclastic rock units in northeastern Min-danao (United Nations Development Program, 1987b). A fo-liated to massive trondjhemite dome (Paracale granodiorite ofFrost, 1959), Miocene diorite and andesite porphyry, andPliocene dacite porphyry occur in Camarines (United NationsDevelopment Program, 1987c). The diorite and andesite por-phyry intrusions in the Leyte, Surigao, Co-O, and Masaraareas of east Mindanao are Miocene in age (Mitchell andLeach, 1991). Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks, volcaniclasticrocks, and intrusions also characterize the Leyte sector of thearc. In eastern Mindanao, late Pliocene to Quaternary an-desitic volcanoes, associated eruptive products and por-phyritic stocks occur near Surigao and Lake Leonard in theMasara region (Mitchell and Leach, 1991; Sajona et al.,1997). Pleistocene to Recent (active) volcanoes characterizearc portions in Camarines, southeastern Luzon, and Leyte(Divis, 1980).

The Philippine arc presently lies above a west-dippingBenioff zone related to the Philippine trench. However,pre-Pliocene arc magmatism is not related to subduction atthis trench, as the trench is a young feature (Hamilton,1979) and the subducting slab only reaches depths of 150 to250 km (Gudmundsson and Sambridge, 1998). The sourceof this pre-Pliocene magmatism is probably related to east-directed subduction on the west side of the Philippines.However, the subduction history in the Philippines is com-plex and most likely involved the formation of small intra-Philippines ocean basins within an overall strike-slip zone.

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The present Philippine fault is mechanically linked toPliocene to Recent subduction along the Philippine trench,but the Philippine fault predates this subduction, which im-plies a complex plate boundary during the Neogene. The ge-ology of the islands indicates a long history of strike-slipfaulting (Rutland, 1968; Karig et al., 1986).

Mineral deposit styles: The gold districts of Paracale, StaElena-Tabas, and Nalesbitan in the Camarines Norte, andSurigao, Masara, and the Diwalwal-Compestela areas in east-ern Mindanao are characteristic of the gold districts in thePhilippine arc (Fig. 13). Several historic intermediate-sulfida-tion lodes in the Paracale area (e.g., Longos mine) occuralong the contact between the Paracale trondjhemite and ser-pentinized ultramafics (Frost, 1959). Gold in the Paracale andSta Elena-Tabas areas are associated with intermediate-sulfi-dation lodes (United Nations Development Program, 1987c),which contain tellurides at Exciban (James and Fuchs, 1990),and the Larap (Mantanlang) porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposit(Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). Nalesbitan is a small high-sulfida-tion gold deposit hosted by andesitic volcanic rocks (Sillitoe etal., 1990). In central Samar, Kuroko-type massive sulfide de-posits at the Bagacay mine and Sulat deposit contain signifi-cant gold in addition to copper and silver (Bureau of Minesand Geo-Sciences, 1986).

Gold deposits and prospects in eastern Mindanao consistof intermediate-sulfidation lode and stockwork styles(Placer, Co-O, Diwalwal-Compestela, and Masara), dissem-inated sedimentary rock-hosted and replacement styles(Siana and Hijo), and porphyry Cu-Au deposits (Boyongan,Kingking, Amacan, and Mapula). Descriptions of the major-ity of these deposits are included in Mitchell and Leach(1991), with the exception of Boyongan and Bayugo, whichwere recently discovered near Surigao. The Boyungan de-posit is hosted by a K silicate altered, calc-alkaline diorite-porphyry composite stock emplaced within a sequence ofNeogene(?) andesite, pyroclastic rocks, and basaltic flows(Josef, 2002). The deposit is concealed beneath a more than50-m-thick, postmineralization cover sequence of Quater-nary andesitic flows, laharic breccia, tuff, mudstone, andconglomerate. The Boyungan and Bayugo porphyry systemsformed at ~2.6 to 2.3 Ma, approximately coeval to the de-velopment of the Siana sedimentary rock-hosted deposit(Waters, 2004). Boyongan is inferred to have been upliftedduring the late Pliocene-Pleistocene and to have formed aprominent topographic high, on the basis of an unusuallydeep supergene oxidation profile that extends 300 to 500 mbeneath the base of the Quaternary cover rock sequence(Josef, 2002; Waters, 2004). This relationship indicates thatshortly after Boyongan formed, it was uplifted by at least 1km in the Plio-Pleistocene to partly expose the K silicate-al-tered core of the system and then downdropped as much as500 m in a pull-apart basin, developed by movement alongstrands of the sinistral Philippine fault system, prior to Qua-ternary volcanism, which concealed and preserved the de-posit. In northeastern Mindanao, the westward-youngingand progressive compositional changes of intrusive centersfrom ~4.5 Ma to Recent (Sajona et al., 1997), and the for-mations of porphyry deposits at ~2.5 Ma, could be related towest-directed subduction, if initated at 6 to 5.5 Ma (PaddyWaters, writ. commun., 2004).

Masbate-Negros

Geologic setting: This arc assemblage consists of two over-lapping arcs of different ages. The combined arc system ex-tends 400 km and includes eastern Panay (Fig. 12; Table 1).The arc system is terminated against the Philippine fault inthe north and abuts the Sulu-Zamboanga arc to the south.Cretaceous basement includes marine sedimentary rocks andpillow basalts, exposed in southeast Negros (Hamilton, 1979)and serpentinized ultramafic rocks in northeastern Masbate(Mitchell and Leach, 1991).

In the older western arc, Eocene to Oligocene andesitic todacitic volcanic and clastic rocks host a Miocene dacitic dia-treme complex at Bulawan in southwest Negros and middleMiocene dioritic intrusions in northeast Masbate (Mitchelland Leach, 1991). In the younger eastern arc, middleMiocene to Pliocene andesite flow breccias, volcaniclasticrocks and conglomerates are overlain by late Pliocene an-desitic volcanic rocks and Quaternary andesite to basalt stra-tovolcanoes (Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982;United Nations Development Program, 1987d).

The two arcs are the product of subduction beneath Negrosbut the polarity of the older arc is not clear; it has been inter-preted to be situated above a west- (Sajona et al., 1997) oreast-dipping (Holloway, 1982; Hall, 2002) subduction zone.The younger arc is probably the product of east-dipping sub-duction at the Negros trench, which currently appears to beinactive or almost so (Cardwell et al., 1980) and associatedwith a slab that extends to a depth of about 100 km (Gud-mundsson and Sambridge, 1998).

Mineral deposit styles: The western Masbate-Negros arccontains the Masbate intermediate-sulfidation stockwork goldmine (62 t Au, Aroroy district) in northeastern Masbate, andthe Bulawan intermediate-sulfidation gold deposit and gold-poor Sipalay and Hinobaan porphyry Cu ± Mo deposits insouthwest Negros (Fig. 13; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). Approx-imately 40 t Au were exploited from underground lode minesin the Aroroy district prior to World War II (Mitchell andLeach, 1991). Open-pit reserves established in 1980 averaged2.3g/t Au. Gold mineralization is associated with Miocene an-desite to dacite clastic rocks at Masbate and a similar-ageddacitic diatreme complex at Bulawan (Mitchell and Leach,1991; Philex, 1995). In contrast, the gold-poor porphyry sys-tems are considered to be Eocene to Oligocene in age (Bureauof Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1986; Singer et al., 2002).

The eastern Masbate-Negros arc includes geothermal areasand several andesite-hosted silica bodies, which are inferredto represent the upper levels of high-sulfidation epithermalsystems (United Nations Development Program, 1987d).There may be potential for concealed porphyry-style miner-alization at depth. Pliocene(?) conglomerates with pyritic-quartz and acid-sulfate–altered clasts indicate a minimum agefor the high-sulfidation systems in southeast Negros (Mitchelland Balce, 1990).

Sulu-Zamboanga

Geologic setting: This arc extends approximately 400 kmwestward from the Semporna peninsula in eastern Sabahthrough the Sulu archipelago to the Zamboanga peninsula,where it is truncated by the western Cotobato and the

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Masbate-Negros arc systems (Fig. 12; Table 1). The Zam-boanga peninsula can be subdivided into two segments by theSindangan-Cotobato-Daguma lineament (Cotabato faultzone of Pubellier et al., 1991, and Rohrlach et al., 1999),which has been interpreted as the accretionary boundary be-tween the Cotabato island arc to the northeast and a conti-nental fragment to the southwest (Jimenez et al., 2002). Thejuxtaposition of these two terranes commenced in the middleMiocene, with collision still active today, according to Ranginet al. (1999). The source of the interpreted continental frag-ment is not clear nor is its existence documented conclusively.Pre-Tertiary granitoids and metasedimentary rocks form thebasement in the southwestern part, and Cretaceous serpen-tinized ultramafic rocks and metasedimentary rocks comprisethe basement in the northeastern part, of the Zamboangapeninsula (Hamilton, 1979; Jimenez et al., 2002).

The Sulu and Zamboanga sectors of the arc are composedgenerally of Neogene to Quaternary andesitic volcanics andsedimentary rocks. Plio-Pleistocene subaerially erupted an-desitic volcanic rocks and hypabyssal intrusions occur in thenortheastern part of Zamboanga, with Miocene marine silici-clastic and carbonate rocks covering much of southwesternZamboanga; the suture between the two terranes is markedby a Neogene mélange complex (Jimenez et al., 2002). In theSemporna and Dent peninsulas of Sabah there are Neogenecalc-alkaline and K-rich calc-alkaline basalts, andesites, anddacites above a Cretaceous to Paleogene basement of chert,basalts and ultramafic rocks (Kirk, 1968; Hutchison, 1989;Yan, 1990; Chiang, 2002). Arc activity terminated in the latePliocene and intraplate basalts were erupted in the Pleis-tocene at a number of small centers. Chiang (2002) suggeststhat geochemical variation in the Mio-Pliocene volcanic rocksindicates northwest-directed subduction. The change to in-traplate basic magmatism during the Pleistocene indicatessampling of a new and different mantle source.

The polarity of subduction is not clear because there is nosignificant seismicity beneath the Sulu arc. Older northwest-dipping subduction of the Celebes Sea is suggested to havereversed to southeast-dipping subduction of the Sulu Sea onthe north side of the Sulu arc, which remained active until thelate Pleistocene (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989) due tocollision of the Cagayan volcanic arc and Palawan (Rangin etal., 1990). However, in Sabah, where the Sulu arc can betraced onshore into the Dent-Semporna arc, there is no evi-dence for southeast-directed subduction on the north side ofthe arc. Hall and Wilson (2000) and Hall (2002) suggestedthat after the Cagayan arc collision, the Celebes Sea begansubducting in a northwest direction beneath the south side ofthe Sulu arc and this interpretation is favored by geochemicalevidence from Sabah (Chiang, 2002).

Mineral deposit styles: Gold systems are localized in theZamboanga and Semporna segments of the arc (Figs. 12–13),but no large deposits have been found. Gold occurrences in-clude alluvial deposits, small-scale mining centers, and sev-eral prospects. In Zamboanga, more than 12 precious andbase metal deposits and prospects of Neogene to Pleistoceneage occur proximal to the Cotabato fault zone (Jimenez et al.,2002). These mineralized systems include intermediate-sulfi-dation veins and stockworks (e.g., Sibutad), porphyry copperprospects (e.g., Labangan), and gold-rich volcanic-associated

massive sulfide deposits (e.g., Canatuan and Malusok). Hostrocks include intermediate volcanic and volcaniclastic rocksand coeval intrusions for the porphyry and epithermal stylesof deposits and siliciclastic sedimentary rocks and schists forthe massive sulfide deposits. The Sibutad epithermal vein sys-tem is the largest gold resource discovered to date (23 t Au)and contains hydrothermal breccia bodies, silica sinter de-posits, and alteration types indicative of shallow- to near-sur-face development during the Pleistocene (Jimenez et al.,2002).

In the Semporna peninsula, a high-sulfidation system atNagos and intermediate-sulfidation quartz-gold lodes at Bt.Mantri are hosted by andesite to dacite volcanic and volcani-clastic rocks and hypabyssal plugs of inferred Pliocene age(Kirk, 1968; Yan, 1990). Mineralization styles in both Nagosand Bt. Mantri are interpreted by Yan (1990) to have devel-oped in the upper levels of epithermal systems.

Cotabato-Central Mindanao

Geologic setting: This section describes two arcs, the Cota-bato arc to the southwest and the Central Mindanao arc to thenortheast (Fig. 12; Table 1). In southern Mindanao, theboundary between these two arcs is marked by the Cotabatofault zone. The Cotabato arc includes the Daguma andSarangani regions and is inferred to be the northern extensionof the Sangihe arc. The Cotabato fault zone has been inter-preted as the onshore extension of the Molucca Sea collisionzone (Pubellier et al., 1991), but there is no evidence in Min-danao for the northward continuation of the Halmahera arc,and the Molucca Sea collision zone may terminate at the Cota-bato fault, which acted as a strike-slip fault during the Neo-gene (Hall, 1996, 2002). Toward the northwest, this fault zoneis obscured by a sequence of Quaternary flood basalts, basaltto dacite stratovolcanoes, and the Cotabato sedimentary basin.The Central Mindanao arc is poorly defined, however, the arcis bound by the Cotabato fault and the Cotabato basin to thesouthwest and the Agusan-Davao trough to the east. The com-bined arc assemblage extends more than 350 km in a northerlydirection across southwest and central Mindanao.

In the Cotabato arc, Paleogene metavolcanic and metased-imentary rocks are overlain by Miocene marine clastic andcarbonate rocks and intruded by an early to middle Miocenediorite batholith and andesite to dacite hypabyssal stocks (Bu-reau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982). Plio-Pleistocene an-desitic flows, pyroclastic rocks and intrusions, and limitedQuaternary dacite-andesite volcanic rocks characterize thenorthwestern and southeastern portions of the onshore partof the arc.

The Central Mindanao arc contains a sequence of Oligoceneto middle Miocene basalts, volcaniclastic and carbonaterocks, and late Miocene andesite to basalt volcanic and ma-rine clastic rocks locally intruded by Neogene diorites (Bu-reau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982; Sajona et al., 1997).Active Quaternary basaltic and lesser andesitic volcanoes andtheir eruptive products cover much of the region. The centralportion of Central Mindanao is underlain by fault-bound sliv-ers of Cretaceous (?) ultramafic rocks (Sajona et al., 1997).

The Cotobato trench is characterized by a shallow, north-east-dipping Benioff zone, which is inferred to have developedin recent times (Cardwell et al., 1980; Hutchison, 1989) and is

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not related to pre-Quaternary arc development. The east-dip-ping Molucca slab, which extends to about 600 km beneathMindanao, is inferred to have played a major role in Neogenemagmatism in both the Cotobato and Central Mindanao arcs.The Cotobato arc may continue to the north as the Masbate-Negros arc, however, reconstruction of a continuous volcano-plutonic arc across the Sulu-Zamboanga arc is uncertain.

Mineral deposit styles: The southern portion of the Coto-bato arc includes porphyry Cu-Au, skarn and epithermal goldoccurrences and prospects associated with Neogene dioriticstocks to hypabyssal dacite porphyry bodies and diatremes lo-cally (Fig. 13; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). The Tampakan high-sulfidation epithermal and/or porphyry Cu-Au deposit (270 tAu, 6.8 Mt Cu) occurs within the eroded flanks of a Pliocene(?) andesitic stratovolcano that lies unconformably on anortherly trending ramp anticline in the hanging wall to a re-gional east-directed thrust fault (Rohrlach et al., 1999). A syn-mineralization diorite porphyry dike is dated at 3.2 Ma (U/Pbby laser ablation ICP-MS; R. Loucks, pers. commun., 2002).Enargite-bearing, high-sulfidation mineralization and ad-vanced argillic alteration overprints the porphyry system fromsurface to depths of about 500 m, with relict K silicate alter-ation zones present at 600 m below surface (Rohrlach et al.,1999). Small-scale mining centers are located at T’boli inSouth Cotobato, Tampakan in the Sarangani Range, and else-where in southern Mindanao. Gold is recovered from inter-mediate-sulfidation quartz veins hosted by Miocene volcanicand volcaniclastic sequences.

Mitchell and Leach (1991) cited widespread epithermalmineralization in the Sarangani Range, which lies in thesoutheastern part of the Cotobato arc. Small-scale miningnear Bukidnon is associated with narrow quartz veins hostedin phyllites and ultramafic rocks (Mitchell and Leach, 1991).The relationship of these veins to the Central Mindanao arc,if any, is unclear.

Other Philippine arcs

Additional Cenozoic magmatic arcs of the Philippines in-clude the Oligocene arcs of the Sierra Madre in central Luzonand the northeast Luzon-Polillo-Catanduanes in easternLuzon (Fig. 12; Mitchell and Leach, 1991). Epithermal veins,porphyry copper, skarn, and gold-bearing massive sulfideprospects and alluvial gold workings occur in the East Rizalregion of the Sierra Madre arc. Gold-bearing, Besshi-typemassive sulfide prospects exist in eastern Bicol and small ep-ithermal veins characterize prospects in Catanduanes Island.

In central Cebu, quartz-diorite porphyry intrusions, vol-canic and volcaniclastic rocks of probable Cretaceous age hostthe gold-bearing Atlas porphyry Cu-Mo deposits (Sillitoe andGappe, 1984). Cretaceous quartz diorite bodies also occur inBohol, but these intrusions lack significant mineralization(Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982). Miocene an-desitic volcanics occur on both islands and may be linked viaa paleoarc system. Alternatively, the Bohol arc may extendnorth beneath northwestern Leyte, as proposed by Mitchelland Leach (1991).

North Sulawesi-Sangihe

Geologic setting: The Miocene to Recent North Sulawesi-Sangihe magmatic arc extends approximately 1,200 km from

the northern portion of the Sangihe arc through the northernarm of Sulawesi and into the neck of Sulawesi, where it ends inthe sinistral Palu fault (Fig. 14; Table 1; Hamilton, 1979). Thewestern portion of the arc overlies Sundaland continental crustand Cretaceous to Eocene metamorphic rocks, which are in-truded by late Miocene to Pliocene granitoids (Kavalieris et al.,1992). These rocks are overlain unconformably by Eocene toOligocene marine basalt to andesite and sedimentary rocks thatform part of an oceanic arc to the east of the Marisa region(Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992). Geochemical andisotopic data from northwestern Sulawesi support the inferredtransition from continental- to oceanic-arc settings from westto east and indicate the presence of an underthrust fragment ofthe Australian continent that extends from the western edge ofNorth Sulawesi through the northern and central parts of westSulawesi (Elburg et al., 2003). The early to middle Mioceneportion of the arc consists of andesitic to dacitic volcanic andvolcaniclastic rocks and sedimentary rocks intruded by diorite,quartz diorite, granodiorite, and their subvolcanic porphyriticequivalents in the Gorontalo, Kotamobagu, and south Sangiheareas (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992). A Pliocenerhyodacitic pyroclastic sequence and flow dome complex char-acterizes the Gunung Pani area in Marisa (Kavalieris et al.,1990; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Quaternary andesitic strato-volcanoes define the arc from north of the Kotamobagu areathrough Sangihe Island.

Major northwesterly trending faults influence the distribu-tion of volcanic and sedimentary rock successions in north Su-lawesi. The movement along these faults is oblique-slip, witharc-parallel extension indicated by the progressive down-to-the north movement of the fault blocks located north of Ko-tamabagu (Carlile et al., 1990).

Mineral deposit styles: Gold and copper deposits in thenorth Sulawesi-Sangihe arc commonly lie <10 to 20 km frommajor northwesterly trending arc-transverse oblique-slipfaults (Figs. 8, 14). Many of these deposits are hosted by earlyto middle Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks intruded by hy-pabyssal intrusions. West of Marisa, the western sector of thearc has a continental affinity and is characterized by alluvialgold derived from small orogenic lodes hosted by metamor-phic basement (Kavalieris et al., 1992). The Gunung Panidisseminated and stockwork intermediate-sulfidation golddeposit (41 t Au) is controlled by north-northeast– and north-east-oriented faults in a rhyodacitic dome complex built uponcontinental basement along the margin of Sundaland (Kava-lieris et al., 1990). The deposit is 3.3 to 3.1 m.y. old (Ar-Ar;Pearson and Caira, 1999) with gold contained in siliceouslimonitic and quartz-adularia lined fractures and mosaicquartz breccias (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1990).

The Gorontalo region hosts porphyry copper-gold depositsin the Tombulilato district, the Bolangitang intermediate-sul-fidation epithermal prospect, and the Motombato high-sulfi-dation epithermal system and contains >140 t gold and sub-stantial copper resources (App. 4). These Pliocene systems(2.9–2.4 Ma; Perello, 1994) are hosted by Miocene volcanicrocks and overlying dacite to rhyolite, which are intruded byquartz diorite stocks (Lowder and Dow, 1978). TheTombulilato district lies ~10 to 20 km from a major north-westerly oriented, arc-transverse dextral-fault zone (Pearsonand Caira, 1999).

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In the Kotamobagu region, intermediate-sulfidationstockwork veins in andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocksat Lanut, Mintu, and Doup, and silicified middle Miocenelimestone at Lobongan in the Ratatotok district, support small-scale mining activities. The north- to northeast-trendingintermediate-sulfidation vein systems at Lanut and nearbyhigh-sulfidation lodes lie within a northwesterly corridor ofmineral prospects that extends more than 30 km across thehinge portion of north Sulawesi. The Toka Tindung interme-diate-sulfidation vein system (2.4 Ma; Moyle et al., 1997) innortheastern Sulawesi is overlain by a Quaternary ash cover.Host rocks consist of Neogene andesitic volcanic and volcani-clastic rocks that overlie siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. Themain Toka Tindung and satellite deposits (35 t Au) form a se-ries of en echelon, north-trending lodes that lie in a north-west-oriented structural corridor (Wake et al., 1996).

The sedimentary rock-hosted Mesel gold deposit in theRatatotok district (62 t Au) has many similarities to Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada (Turner et al., 1994; Garwin etal., 1995). In Mesel, most of the ore is controlled by steeplydipping faults and is hosted in a decalcified, dolomitized, andsilicified middle Miocene carbonate sequence adjacent to,and beneath, a premineralization, porphyritic andesite laccol-ithic intrusion. The Taware porphyry Cu-Au prospect and theBawone-Binebase high-sulfidation system on south SangiheIsland are inferred to be of Miocene age (Carlile et al., 1990).

Halmahera

Geologic setting: This Neogene to Recent arc sweeps acrossthe western arm of the Halmahera Islands and includesBacan and Obi Islands (Fig. 14; Table 1). The modern arc ex-tends 400 km from near the Philippine trench to the westernextension of the Sorong fault. The basement to the arc con-sists primarily of Cretaceous-Paleocene ophiolite in Halma-hera, Bacan, and Obi (Hall et al., 1991), although there areMesozoic and probable Precambrian gneiss and schist ex-posed on Bacan (Hamilton, 1979; Malaihollo and Hall, 1996).

The Halmahera region has a long history of arc activity. Theophiolitic basement was formed in an intra-oceanic arc (Bal-lantyne, 1992) and is overlain in Halmahera and Obi by prod-ucts of a Late Cretaceous arc and in Halmahera, Bacan, andObi by an Eocene to Oligocene arc (Hall et al., 1988a, b,1995; Ali and Hall, 1995; Malaihollo and Hall, 1996). Thesearcs formed as the result of subduction at the margin of thePhilippine Sea plate in an intra-oceanic setting, and arc activ-ity was terminated between the late Oligocene and earlyMiocene by collision with the north Australian margin (Hall,1996). During the middle Miocene, there was little or no arcactivity and platform carbonates were deposited over a largearea and arc activity resumed in the late middle Miocene. Allthese rocks form the basement to the Neogene Halmaheraarc, which was active from about 11 Ma between Obi in thesouth and Morotai at the north end of the island chain (Bakerand Malaihollo, 1996). The active arc shows geochemical ev-idence of a continental crustal contribution to magmas onBacan (Morris et al., 1983) and a similar contribution can beidentified in the Neogene lavas on Bacan (Forde, 1997),which indicates movement of Australian continental frag-ments along strands of the Sorong fault, as first suggested byHamilton (1979).

Neogene diorite to granodiorite bodies intrude the volcanicrock sequences and are associated with porphyry Cu-Au-(Mo) prospects on Bacan Island and gold prospects in thenorthern part of the western arm of Halmahera Island. Vol-canic activity has ceased at the southern end of the arc, andthe active volcanic arc moved west during the Pliocene (Hallet al., 1988b) and is now built on the western margin of theNeogene arc.

Mineral deposit styles: A porphyry Cu-Au prospect occursat Kaputusan on Bacan Island, where it is associated withanomalous molybdenum and bismuth (Fig. 14; van Leeuwen,1994). This small resource is centered in a Neogene quartzdiorite intrusion in pre-Miocene volcanic host rocks (Carlileand Mitchell, 1994; Malaihollo and Hall, 1996).

The Gosowong intermediate-sulfidation bonanza vein sys-tem in the northwestern arm of Halmahera Island containsnearly 27 t of gold at an average grade of 27 g/t (Olberg et al.,1999). The steeply east dipping vein lies adjacent to a north-west-trending fault (Research Information Unit, 1997) thatforms part of a major northwest-oriented topographic linea-ment that extends through the western arm of Halmahera.The deposit is hosted by a Neogene sequence of andesitic todacitic volcanic rocks and subordinate volcaniclastic rocks.The age of mineralization is constrained to lie between 2.9 to2.4 Ma (Olberg et al., 1999). The recently discovered Ken-cana and Toguraci intermediate-sulfidation vein systems lie 1km south and 2 km southwest of Gosowong, respectively.Kencana, the larger of the two deposits, contains 70 t of goldat an average grade of 41 g/t in a quartz vein breccia (indi-cated plus inferred categories; Mining News, 2004). Kencanais hosted by a northwest-trending, 35° to 55° northeast-dip-ping, fault within a sequence of andesitic volcanic and vol-caniclastic rocks (IAGI, 2004). Other mineralization in thearea includes intermediate-sulfidation epithermal and por-phyry styles (Olberg et al., 1999). Small intermediate-sulfida-tion veins occur on Obi Island, hosted in part by andesiticpeperites (N. White, writ. commun., 2004).

Medial New Guinea

Geologic setting: New Guinea can be divided into fourmajor structural-stratigraphic belts, from south to north: (1)the stable northern margin of the Australian craton (Fly plat-form), (2) Papuan fold belt, (3) New Guinea mobile belt, and(4) allochthonous Paleogene volcanic island arcs accreted inthe Miocene (Fig. 15; Dow, 1977; Hamilton, 1979; Pigramand Davies, 1987; Rogerson and McKee, 1990; Hall, 2002).The suture zones between the accreted island arcs and mo-bile belts are typically marked by craton-directed overthrustsof Paleogene ophiolite and mélange (Dow, 1977; Hamilton,1979). The late Miocene to Pleistocene medial Irian Jayamagmatic arc of Carlile and Mitchell (1994) lies within thePapuan fold belt, where south-directed compressional tec-tonics have led to localized deformation, crustal thickening,and block uplift during the Plio-Pleistocene to Recent(Hamilton, 1979; Weiland and Cloos, 1996; Hill and Raza,1999). The medial New Guinea magmatic belt, as defined inthis paper, extends more than 1,500 km along the centralcrest of New Guinea, includes the Quaternary stratovolca-noes near Bosavi, and continues to the southeast through theOwen Stanley thrust belt to the Papuan peninsula and nearby

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D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Dow, 1977; Rogerson and McKee,1990; McDowell et al., 1996). The basement consists of athick sequence of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks in Irian Jayaand Paleozoic metamorphic rocks and Permo-Triassic graniteoverlain by Mesozoic siliciclastic rocks in Papua New Guinea(Hamilton, 1979; Dow and Sukamto, 1984; Pigram andDavies, 1987; Hill and Raza, 1999).

The late Miocene to Pleistocene high K calc-alkaline to Kalkaline intrusions (e.g., intrusive complexes at Porgera, Gras-berg, and Ok Tedi; McDowell et al., 1996) in the CentralRanges of New Guinea do not overlie a well-defined Benioffzone and lack coeval subaerial volcanic rocks. However, thispaucity of volcanic rocks may in part reflect the extensive up-lift and erosion of the region (e.g., average exhumation ratesof ~0.7–1.7 mm/yr since the mid-Pliocene; Weiland andCloos, 1996). The distribution of these intrusions coincideswith the margins of uplifted basement blocks adjacent tonorth-northeast– to northeast-trending lineaments defined byfaults, volcanoes, and drainage patterns (e.g., Grasberg, OkTedi, Porgera, Bosavi, Murray, and Bulolo lineaments; Fig.15; Davies, 1991; Corbett, 1994; Fischer and Warburton,1996; Hill et al., 2002; Pubellier and Ego, 2002). These linea-ments parallel the structural trend of basement rocks, as in-ferred from aeromagnetic data (The Australian PetroleumCompany Proprietary, 1961) and locally define boundaries todomains of differing structural styles in the Papuan fold belt(e.g., Ok Tedi; Mason, 1994, 1996). These relationships haveled Hill et al. (2002) and others to infer the localization of in-trusions at high crustal levels along dilatent segments of reac-tivated, orogen-parallel extensional Mesozoic basement faultsnear intersections with south-directed frontal thrusts. In con-trast, there is no clear relationship between thrust faults andthe Pliocene (3.2–2.8 Ma) calc-alkaline intrusions that occursouth of the Sorong fault system in the Bird’s Head at Aisas-jur, Papua (Paddy Waters, writ. commun., 2004).

The southward migration of K-rich magmatism and relatedmineralization follows the southward progression of fold andthrust belt deformation (Davies, 1991), with intrusion-relatedmineral deposits forming in zones of major uplift at the inter-section between frontal thrusts and orogen-transverse strike-slip (transfer) fault zones (Hill et al, 2002). The source of theK-rich magmas is ambiguous. Favored possibilities include de-layed partial melting of the mantle modified by previous (?Cre-taceous) subduction beneath the continental margin, prior tothe accretion of allochthonous arc terranes in the mid-Miocene(Johnson et al., 1978) and asthenospheric upwelling due to thedocking of arc terranes transported from the east (McDowellet al., 1996). The results of mantle tomographic imaging sup-port the existence of ancient subduction slabs within the man-tle beneath New Guinea (Hall and Spakman, 2002).

Mineral deposit styles: This belt contains the Carstenz dis-trict, which includes the Grasberg porphyry Cu-Au deposit,the Ertsberg Cu-Au skarn complex, and a gold-rich skarn atWabu. Grasberg contains a resource of 4,000 Mt at 0.64 g/tAu (2,560 t) and 0.6 percent Cu (24 Mt; Figs. 14–15, App. 4;van Leeuwen, 1994). The proven and probable reserve of thecombined open-pit and underground deposits totals 1950 t ofgold (year-end 1998; Widodo et al., 1999). The deposit ishosted by Pliocene diorite to monzonite stocks (3.3–2.7 Ma)and an andesite-diorite diatreme complex (MacDonald and

Arnold, 1994). The main Grasberg intrusion cooled extremelyrapidly, as indicated by nearly identical ages determined byRe-Os (2.9 ± 0.3 Ma on sulfide), Ar-Ar (3.33 ± 0.12–3.01 ±0.06 Ma on biotite), and (U-Th)/He (3.1–2.9 ± 0.1 Ma on ap-atite), which supports the interpretation that the intrusivecomplex was emplaced within ~1 km of the paleosurface(Weiland and Cloos, 1996; McInnes et al., 2004). The Gras-berg complex occurs about the intersection of northeast-trending, sinistral strike-slip fault systems with steeply north-east dipping reverse faults (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994) inthe hanging wall to a major frontal thrust (Hill et al, 2002).The vertical ore distribution exceeds 1,500 m.

The Pleistocene (1.2 Ma) Ok Tedi porphyry Cu-Au system(441 t Au, 4.5 Mt Cu; App. 5) is centered on monzonite por-phyry stocks and breccia dikes, emplaced in Middle to LateCretaceous siltstone and sandstone (Rush and Seegers, 1990).Lenses of copper-gold-magnetite and sulfide skarn locallyoccur within this rock sequence. The vertical distribution ofore exceeds 600 m, including an oxidized gold-rich cap thatformed an annulus to the quartz stockwork core of the de-posit in the leached cap, prior to mining (Rush and Seegers,1990). Ok Tedi occurs in the core of a west-trending doublyplunging anticline in the hanging wall to a major frontal thrustthat lies along a major northeast-trending basement fault in-ferred from the distribution of regional-scale folds and Plio-Pleistocene intrusions (Mason, 1996; Mason and Ord, 1999).Ok Tedi is the largest porphyry-skarn complex of several sys-tems that formed in the Star Mountains contemporaneous toPlio-Pleistocene thrust faulting (Arnold and Griffin, 1978).

The Ertsberg skarn complex, 2 km southeast of the Gras-berg porphyry deposit, includes the Ertsberg, Ertsberg East,Intermediate, and Deep ore zones, DOM, and Big Gossancopper-gold skarn deposits. Combined past production andpresent reserves in the Ertsberg skarn deposits exceed 140 tof gold and 3.8 Mt of copper (Mertig et al., 1994; vanLeeuwen, 1994). The majority of the gold and copper re-sources are hosted in the Erstberg East (Intermediate andDeep ore zones) orebody (189 t Au, 2.4 Mt Cu) in one of thelargest Cu-bearing magnesian skarns in the world (Mertig etal., 1994; Coutts et al., 1999). The skarns are hosted within oradjacent to the Pliocene Ertsberg intrusion (3.1–2.6 Ma;Mertig et al., 1994; Meinert et al., 1997). The subsurface,Kucing Liar magnetite-copper-gold skarn, about 500 msouthwest of the Grasberg intrusive complex, contains morethan 450 t Au (Widodo et al., 1999). The protolith lithologiesfor the Ertsberg skarns consist of a basal dolomitic unit andan upper limestone sequence of early Tertiary age (NewGuinea Group Limestone; Mertig et al., 1994).

The Wabu Ridge gold skarn in the Hitalipa district, 35 kmnorth of Grasberg-Erstberg, contains a geologic resource ofmore than 250 t Au and occurs along the margin of a lateMiocene to early Pliocene K alkaline intrusive-extrusive com-plex (6.6–5.2 Ma; O’Connor et al., 1999). The deposit ishosted by an Oligocene sequence of limestone and calcareoussiltstone in a south-vergent anticline-thrust fault complex,close to the intersection of a northeast-trending sinistralstrike-slip fault (O’Connor et al., 1999).

The Porgera mine in the New Guinea Highlands containstwo major stages of gold mineralization, early intermediate-sulfidation type within the open-pit (premine reserve: 54 Mt

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5.8 g/t Au) and late high-grade ?low-sulfidation type in zoneVII, which lies along the Roamane fault at a depth of 200 to500 m beneath surface (premine reserve: 5.9 Mt at 27 g/t Au;Handley and Bradshaw, 1986; Handley and Henry, 1990;Richards and Kerrich, 1993; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).Both stages of mineralization are related to the 6.0 ± 0.3 Maemplacement of the mafic (diorite-gabbro) sodic-alkalicPorgera Intrusive Complex within Jurassic carbonaceous silt-stones and Cretaceous calcareous shales (Handley and Henry,1990; Richards, 1990; Richards and McDougall, 1990). Theearly stage consists of disseminated pyrite and quartz-carbon-ate-base metal sulfide veins and associated sericite-carbonatealteration; the later stage consists of quartz-roscoelite (V-bearing sericite)-adularia veins and breccias with native goldand minor pyrite and Au-Ag telluride minerals (Handley andBradshaw, 1986; Ronacher et al., 1999). The presence ofmagnetite-chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite and biotite-actinolite-an-hydrite in the early-stage assemblage at more than 1,000 mbelow zone VII (Ronacher et al., 1999) provides a potentiallink to porphyry-style mineralization at depth. The durationof the hydrothermal system, including both early and latestages of mineralization, is ~100,000 yrs, as constrained by the40Ar/39Ar laser dating method (Ronacher et al., 2002).

Intermediate-sulfidation gold systems occur at Hidden Val-ley, Kerimenge, Hamata, and Wau in the Wau-Bulolo graben(Carswell, 1990; Hutton et al., 1990; Nelson et al., 1990;Denwer and Mowat, 1998). This graben is an intra-arc riftbasin formed in the Pliocene as a result of movement alonginferred northeast-trending strike-slip faults in a basement ofCretaceous to Paleogene schist and phyllite (Owen StanleyMetamorphics) that was intruded by the mid-Miocene Mo-robe Granodiorite (Lowenstein, 1982; Dekker et al., 1990;Corbett, 1994). The deposits are typically associated withfaults and late-stage breccia bodies and diatremes related tomid-Pliocene dacite to andesite porphyry intrusions (e.g.,Edie Porphyry; Carswell, 1990). The common ore type con-sists of quartz-carbonate-base metal sulfide veins and relatedsericite-quartz-pyrite alteration. These systems contain morethan 190 t Au at grades that range from 1.0 to 3.7 g/t Au.

The ore mineralogy and paragenetic sequence of events atthe Pliocene Umuna lode, Misima Island (77 t Au) is similarto those described for the deposits of the Bulolo graben(Lewis and Wilson, 1990; Appleby et al., 1996). At Umuna,pyritic quartz and quartz-carbonate veins fill a steeply dippingfault zone in greenschist facies metamorphic rocks (Lewisand Wilson, 1990). The Plio-Pleistocene Gameta and Wapolaintermediate-sulfidation gold deposits (4.2 t Au) on Fergus-son Island share characteristics with the style of mineraliza-tion at Misima (Appleby et al., 1996). Gameta and Wapola arelocalized along gently to moderately dipping detachmentfaults related to metamorphic core complexes that place Cre-taceous or older ultramafic rocks of the Solomon Sea plate onpre-Cretaceous gneiss and amphibolite of the Australian cra-ton (McNeil, 1990; Chapple and Ibil, 1998). Pliocene gran-odioritic plutons form the core to the domal uplifts. The corecomplexes are inferred to have formed from late Pliocene toRecent time in response to isostatic uplift of subducted sialiccontinental crust through overlying, obducted oceanic crustand rifting due to the westerly propagation of the Woodlarkbasin spreading center (Chapple and Ibil, 1998).

The Pliocene Tolukuma intermediate-sulfidation quartz-adularia-carbonate vein system, 100 km north of PortMoresby, is high grade (1.5 Mt at 13.8 g/t Au). The deposit isassociated with phreatomagmatic breccias in the hanging wallof a normal fault that juxtaposes andesitic volcanic rocksagainst footwall Owen Stanley Metamorphics (Semple et al.,1998).

Maramuni

Geologic setting: The Maramuni arc forms a belt ofMiocene calc-alkaline, intermediate to mafic volcanic and in-trusive rocks that extends ~1,000 km across the southwesternmargin of the New Guinea mobile belt from near the IrianJaya border to 100 km southeast of Port Moresby (Fig. 15;Table 1; Page, 1976; Dow, 1977; Rogerson and McKee, 1990;McDowell et al., 1996; Hill and Raza, 1999). Arc magmatismis inferred to be related to the subduction of the Solomon Seabeneath the Papuan Peninsula and eastern New Guinea, fol-lowing the early to mid-Miocene collision of the Ontong Javaplateau with the Melanesian arc and the southwestward jumpin subduction zones, from the Melanesian to the Marumunitrench (Cullen and Pigott, 1989; Hill and Raza, 1999; Hall,2002). The basement to the arc includes pre-Triassic metavol-canic rocks and granite in the Papuan fold belt (Papuanprovince) and variably metamorphosed, latest Cretaceous toPaleogene mélange and ophiolite in the New Guinea andOwen Stanley thrust belts (Solomon province; Hamilton,1979; Pigram and Davies, 1987; Rogerson and McKee, 1990).

The arc has been exhumed at least 3 to 4 km mainly from 8to 5 Ma, due to the late Miocene collision of the Finisterre-Adelbert (Melanesian) arc, which caused regional uplift ofnorthern Papua New Guinea (Crowhurst et al., 1996). Thisexhumation exposed mid-Miocene batholiths east of theBosavi lineament, including the Bismark (17–13 Ma), Mara-muni Diorite (15–10 Ma), Akuna (17–15 Ma) and MorobeGranodiorite (14–12 Ma) intrusive complexes (Page and Mc-Dougall, 1972; Page, 1976; Lowenstein, 1982; Hall et al.,1990). The margins of these batholiths serve as the locus forthe emplacement of late Miocene porphyries and relatedcopper-gold mineralization (e.g., Yandera porphyry; Watmuff,1978).

Mineral deposit styles: Middle to late Miocene Cu-Au por-phyry and skarn mineralization styles are associated with dior-ite to granodiorite porphyritic intrusions in the Marumuni arc(Fig. 15). The subeconomic Frieda River porphyry system de-veloped between 13.6 and 11.5 Ma and has a mean K/Ar ageof 11.9 Ma (Whalen et al., 1982). The major orebodies,Horse-Ivaal and Koki, are centered on small, elongate calc-al-kaline microdiorite stocks (<1.5 km in length), cut by late-stage andesite porphyry and postmineralization trachyan-desite dikes (Hall et al, 1990). The estimated depth ofemplacement of the porphyry complex is 1.5 to 2 km beneathpaleosurface (Hall et al., 1990). The Nena high-sulfidationCu-Au deposit, 7 km northwest of Frieda, formed contempo-raneously with the Frieda porphyry deposits (Hall et al.,1990). The deposit is hosted by a middle Miocene sequenceof andesitic lapilli tuff, directly beneath an andesitic lava unit(Bainbridge et al., 1998). Hypogene covellite, stibnoluzonite,and luzonite-enargite are the primary ore minerals hosted byresidual quartz alteration. The deposit formed at a similar

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structural-stratigraphic level to the porphyry deposits withore distributed over a vertical extent of ~300 m (Bainbridgeet al., 1998). The Frieda and Nena deposits lie along thenortheast-trending zone of faults and intrusions that extendsouthwest through Ok Tedi, which Bainbridge et al. (1998)suggested represents a basement fault that has localized thesouthwestward migration of magmatism from mid-Mioceneat Frieda to Pleistocene at Ok Tedi.

The middle Miocene Wafi porphyry and coeval high-sulfi-dation system contains in excess of 107 t Au and 1.3 Mt Cu(Tau-Loi and Andrew, 1998). The Wafi deposits are hosted bysiliciclastic rocks of the Owen Stanley Metamorphics, in-truded by diorite to dacite porphyry stocks, adjacent to twomajor northeast-trending faults (Ercig et al., 1991; Tau-Loiand Andrew, 1998). The porphyry system is centered on adiorite stock, less than 300 m in diameter, concealed beneatha leached cap of residual quartz and is extensively overprintedby advanced argillic alteration that extends to ~450 m be-neath surface; the relict potassic zone is preserved at ~600-mdepth. The depth of porphyry-style mineralization exceeds900 m. Several enargite-bearing residual quartz-hosted goldzones occur near fault intersections with the margin of the 1.0by 0.6 km Wafi diatreme (Ercig et al., 1991; Tau-Loi and An-drew, 1998). Secondary K-feldspar in the potassic zone of theporphyry deposit indicates a K/Ar date of 14 Ma, whereas,alunite from the advanced argillic zone returns a K/Ar date of13 Ma (Tau-Loi and Andrew, 1998).

A subeconomic porphyry Cu-Au system is associated withmid- to late Miocene dacitic to dioritic stocks at Yandera (9–7Ma; Watmuff, 1978) and a small gold skarn occurs adjacent tothe Elandora andesite to granodiorite porphyry (lateMiocene?) at Mount Victor in Kainantu (Abiari et al., 1990).At Mount Victor, the causal Elandora porphyries are localizedalong the margins of the mid-Miocene Akuna batholith andCretaceous Mount Victor Granodiorite (Abiari et al., 1990).

Melanesian (inner and outer)

Geologic setting: The calc-alkaline Melanesian arc, as de-scribed in this paper, from west to southeast, includes the ac-creted portions of the Finisterre-Adelbert arcs in northeast-ern New Guinea and New Britain Island (inner Melanesianarc) and the Manus, New Ireland, and Bougainville Islands(outer Melanesian arc; Fig. 15; Table 1), which correspondsto the Finisterre province of Rogerson and McKee (1990).The Melanesian arc represents the northerly continuation ofthe Solomon arc, which began development in the Eocene toearly Oligocene in response to southwest-directed subduc-tion of the Pacific plate (Falvey and Pritchard, 1982; Hall,2002). The collision of the Ontong Java plateau in the earlyMiocene jammed the Melanesian trench with a general hia-tus in arc magmatism from the mid- to late Miocene untilnortheast-directed subduction was established beneath theNew Britain trench in the earliest Pliocene (~6 Ma; Hall,2002). Magmatism continues through to the present. Theconfiguration of the arc system is largely due to the modifica-tion of the mid-Oligocene arc by westerly transport of theinner Melanesian arc toward New Guinea, which led toaccretion of the Finisterre-Adelbert terranes in the lateMiocene (Pigram and Davies, 1987; Crowhurst et al., 1996;Hall, 2002).

The origin of the shoshonitic K alkaline Tabar-Feni Islandchain, which lies approximately 400 km above the New Britainsubduction slab, is less evident. However, Pliocene to Recentmagmatism in this arc could originate from subductionmodified mantle and be related to north-trending rifting ofthe outer Melanesian arc during the opening of the BismarckSea, which commenced at ~3.5 Ma (Johnson, 1979; Wallaceet al., 1983; McInnes and Cameron, 1994). A subarc mantlesource to Lihir Island magmatism is supported by the simi-larity between 187Os/188Os values from samples of gold oreand related intrusions from the Ladolam deposit and the pre-sent-day mantle (187Os/188Os value of 0.1217), as sampledfrom xenoliths collected from a nearby sea-floor volcano(McInnes et al., 1999).

The geologic basement to the Melanesian arc is not ex-posed but is inferred to be pre-Eocene oceanic crust (Hall,2002) The oldest rocks exposed include Eocene calc-alkalinepillow lavas, volcaniclastic rocks, minor limestone, and raregabbroic intrusions (Dow, 1977; Rogerson and McKee, 1990).The northwest-trending faults that extend across eastern NewBritain, New Hanover, and southern New Ireland Islands areinferred to link to offshore transform faults that separatenortheast-oriented spreading ridges in the Bismarck Sea(Falvey and Pritchard, 1982; Rogerson and McKee, 1990).North-trending horst blocks form the foundation for the Is-lands of the Tabar-Feni chain and localize Pliocene to recentvolcanism on Lihir Island (Moyle et al., 1990). OnBougainville Island, northwest-trending faults and lineamentslocalize the distribution of Pleistocene to Recent volcanoes,where more than 1,200 m of uplift has occurred since theearly Miocene (Clark, 1990).

Mineral deposit styles: The Melanesian arc hosts earlyMiocene (25–22 Ma) Cu-Au porphyry (±skarn) prospects,such as Esis, Plesyumi, and Kulu (Hine and Mason, 1978;Hine et al., 1978; Titley, 1978) and the Wild Dog high-sulfida-tion deposit (Lindley, 1990) on New Britain, and the Legusu-lum porphyry prospect on New Ireland (Fig. 15; Rogerson andMcKee, 1990; Singer et al., 2002). The Arie and Mount Krenporphyry systems on Manus Island are middle Miocene(15–13 Ma; Singer et al., 2002). The Arie deposit is the largestof all the Miocene systems (165 Mt at 0.32% Cu) and is relatedto diorite porphyry and breccia bodies hosted by basaltic to an-desitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (Singer et al., 2002).

The Pliocene (3.4 Ma) Panguna copper-gold porphyry de-posit (768 t Au, 6.4 Mt Cu) on Bougainville Island is centeredon a series of diorite, quartz diorite, and granodiorite stockslocalized along the margin of a premineralization (~5–4 Ma)quartz diorite pluton (Clark, 1990). The following descriptionis based on that of Clark (1990). Intrusive breccia pipes in thesurrounding andesitic volcanic sequence and along intrusivecontacts host high-grade ore (>1.0 g/t Au and 1.0% Cu).Mapped faults and regional lineaments defined from side-looking airborne radar indicate two populations: west-north-west trends, which correspond to the elongate dimensionsof synmineralization diorite stock and related dikes, andnortheast trends, which parallel late-stage pebble dikes andpostmineralization (1.6 Ma) andesite dikes. The deposit ex-tends from surface to a depth of ~650 m.

The Pleistocene (~0.3 Ma) Ladolam gold deposit (1,378 t Au)on Lihir Island lies in the floor of the K alkaline Quaternary

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Luise caldera, in the hanging wall of a north-northeast–trend-ing normal fault (Moyle et al., 1990; Carman, 1995, 2003).Three major styles of hydrothermal alteration are evident.Early porphyry-style potassic (biotite-orthoclase-albite-anhy-drite) and propylitic (calcite-chlorite-K-feldspar-albite-K-mica) alteration types are overprinted by transitional epither-mal adularia and late epithermal silicic, argillic, and advancedargillic alteration styles (Carman, 2003). The superposition ofthese types of alteration and a range of K/Ar dates obtainedfrom hydrothermal minerals (1.0–0.2 Ma for biotite, K-feldspar, and illite, and 0.15 Ma for alunite) led Moyle et al.(1990) and Carman (1995) to call upon catastrophic sectorcollapse of the Luise stratovolcano (present rim elevation of~700 m) and the telescoping of the hydrothermal systemfrom porphyry to epithermal conditions at ~0.3 Ma. The goldin the deposit is mostly contained in epithermal, pyrite-marc-asite-arsenopyrite breccia and quartz-calcite vein ore typesthat typically extend from near sea level to 200 m below(Moyle et al., 1990; Carman, 2003). Sillitoe and Hedenquist(2003) interpret the epithermal event at Ladolam to be lowsulfidation, on the basis of the extensional back-arc settingand alkaline host rocks.

Sunda-Banda

Geologic setting: This Eocene to Recent arc extends nearly4,000 km from northwestern Sumatra through Java and ter-minates in the Banda Island group of eastern Indonesia (Fig.14; Table 1). The basement to the arc varies from Mesozoic tolate Paleozoic platform sedimentary rocks deposited on con-tinental crust that are intruded by two mica granites in Suma-tra, through Cretaceous to Tertiary melange and ophiolite incentral and eastern Java, to oceanic crust in the Banda arc(Hamilton, 1979).

An Eocene to early Miocene calc-alkaline arc, the “Old An-desites” of van Bemmelen (1949), extends through Sumatraand Java and continues eastward toward the Banda arc. Thedextral Sumatra fault follows the arc and is inferred by Hamil-ton (1979) to have been active since the late Oligocene; morerecent work indicates the fault became active during theMiocene (McCarthy and Elders, 1997). Although the term“Old Andesites” has given the impression that the arc is an-desitic, and such rocks are the most obvious arc products,dacitic rocks are widespread, as minor intrusions, lavas, andpyroclastic and ash deposits. The dacitic rocks have beenoverlooked because they have commonly been reworked intosedimentary sequences (Smyth et al., 2003) but show that arcactivity began in the Eocene in Java. Arc activity ceased, orsignificantly declined, in the early Miocene and there waswidespread deposition of sedimentary rocks, especially car-bonates, between Java and Sumba.

Arc activity resumed in the late middle Miocene, and amiddle Miocene to Recent magmatic arc is built on older sed-imentary and volcanic rocks in most of the Sunda-Banda arc,and in Java lies to the north of the axis of the older arc. Thevolcanic arc has propagated east into the Banda region sinceabout 12 Ma; the volcanic rocks east of Sumbawa are less than9 Ma old and the volcanoes become progressively youngereastward (Abbott and Chamalaun, 1981; Honthaas et al.,1998). Volcanism continues to the present day, althoughBanda arc volcanic activity ceased in the Wetar region at

about 4 to 3 Ma as a result of collision between the arc andthe Australian margin in Timor (Carter et al., 1976). Clasticand carbonate sedimentary rocks are intercalated with thevolcanic sequences of both generations of arc. The Neogenearc is characterized by calc-alkaline andesitic to dacitic vol-canic rocks and their intrusive equivalents in Sumatra, andbasaltic to andesitic volcanic rocks and intrusions of calc-alka-line and tholeiitic affinities in the Java–Flores and east Bandasectors (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989; Soerja-Atmadja etal., 1994). Dacitic to rhyolitic suites occur locally and are par-ticularly abundant in the Alor, Wetar, and Romang sectors.Quaternary basaltic to dacitic, and locally rhyolitic, volcanicproducts cover older volcanic rocks throughout much of thearc.

Mineral deposit styles: The arc is characterized by interme-diate-sulfidation vein systems at Mangani, Salida, LebongTandai/Donok, and Lampung in Sumatra and also in WestJava (Fig. 14, App. 4). The geologic basement to Sumatra andwestern Java consists of Sundaland continental crust, whereno direct link between the intermediate-sulfidation depositsand coeval intrusions is apparent. Nearly 80 t Au was pro-duced from high-grade lodes (~15 g/t Au) in Lebong Tandaiand Lebong Donok in the Bengkulu district by the Dutchprior to 1941 (Kavalieris, 1988; van Leeuwen, 1994). LebongTandai is hosted by Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks andLebong Donok occurs in Miocene carbonaceous shale associ-ated with the brecciated margins of a competent dacite intru-sion (Kavalieris, 1988). The Tandai lode is localized along asteeply dipping east-west fault system, which is offset bynortheast- and northwest-oriented strike-slip faults (Jobson etal., 1994). Tandai, Donok, and Rawas, to the east, occurwithin 20 to 30 km of the Sumatra fault near major east- andnortheast-trending arc-transverse faults.

At Miwah in Aceh, northern Sumatra, a high-sulfidationsystem is hosted by north-trending, tensional fracture zonesin andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks, intruded by a Pliocenerhyodacite within 25 km of the Sumatra fault (Williamson andFleming, 1995). The Tangse porphyry Cu-(Mo) prospect oc-curs 40 km to the northwest of Miwah and is hosted by a mid-dle to late Miocene plutonic complex (van Leeuwen et al.,1987). At Martabe, east of Sibolga and south of Lake Toba,recently discovered disseminated high-sulfidation depositsare hosted by multistage phreatomagmatic breccias anddacitic flow dome complexes localized by extensional faultsadjacent to a strand of the Sumatra fault (Levet et al., 2003;Sutopo et al., 2003). Early, texture-destructive, residualquartz alteration zones are tabular and partly controlled bythe moderate dips of local breccia units and underlying por-phyritic andesite adjacent to steeply dipping dilational faults.This style of advanced argillic alteration serves as preparationfor subsequent gold depositional events. Gold is associatedwith late-stage fracture- and breccia-controlled enargite-lu-zonite mineralization and, to a lesser extent, earlier, interme-diate-sulfidation chalcedony veins (Levet et al., 2003). Morethan five deposits occur over a 7-km strike length, the largestof which, Purnama, has a resource of 116 t Au.

Gunung Pongkor (103 t Au at 17.1 g/t Au) in western Javais a low sulfide intermediate-sulfidation bonanza vein systemhosted by Miocene andesitic tuffs and breccias and a subvol-canic andesite intrusion (Basuki et al., 1994). The Pongkor

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vein system consists of four main northwesterly trending veinsthat define a northeast-oriented corridor. This corridor extendsthrough the Bayah dome to the southwest, where it controlsthe distribution of several vein systems in the historic Cikotokmining district. The host rocks in the Bayah dome consist ofPliocene volcanic and clastic sequences, which locally are in-truded by premineralization porphyritic dacite stocks. Individ-ual lodes are hosted by steeply dipping north-northeast- andnorth-northwest–trending faults. The northerly orientation anddilational character of these lodes are consistent with their de-velopment as a response to north-directed subduction in thissector of the arc. The age of intermediate-sulfidation vein min-eralization obtained from adularia is 8.5 Ma, which differs fromthe 2.1 to 1.5 Ma ages determined for other epithermal lodesystems in the region (Marcoux and Milesi, 1994).

The style of mineralization changes to the east. In theLombok–Sumbawa portion of the arc, which is underlain byoceanic crust, high-sulfidation epithermal and porphyry Cu-Au deposits and prospects are present. The Batu Hijau por-phyry copper-gold deposit in southwest Sumbawa containsmore than 366 t Au and 4.8 Mt Cu (Clode et al., 1999) andoccurs in an uplifted crustal block, which has been exhumedabout 2 km since the mid-Pliocene (Garwin, 2002a). Mineral-ization is genetically related to three stages of Neogenetonalite porphyry intrusions emplaced in quartz diorite andandesitic volcaniclastic wall rocks. The tonalite porphyry com-plex was emplaced over a span of ~100,000 yrs at ~3.7 Ma(Fletcher et al., 2000; Garwin, 2002a; McInnes et al., 2004).A late mineralization diatreme occurs about 2 km northwestof Batu Hijau. The deposit occurs in the central portion of adistrict characterized by several porphyry centers, peripheralintermediate-sulfidation vein systems, and distal, sedimentaryrock-hosted replacement-style mineralization (Meldrum etal., 1994; Irianto and Clark, 1995; Garwin, 2002a). Local con-trols include the intersections of northeast- and northwest-trending fault zones with the margins of premineralizationquartz diorite plutons.

Enargite-gold veins at Elang, 60 km east of Batu Hijau,occur close to a porphyry copper-gold system, which formedat ~2.7 Ma (Maula and Levet, 1996; Garwin, 2000). BatuHijau and Elang occur within 20 to 30 km of a major left-lat-eral oblique-slip fault zone that controls the distribution ofMiocene volcano-sedimentary units, Pliocene intrusions, andthe present coastline of Sumbawa.

Base metal-rich, intermediate-sulfidation epithermal bariteand quartz vein prospects are hosted in andesitic to daciticvolcanic rocks and intercalated sedimentary rocks in theWest Flores, East Lomblen-Pantar, Wetar, and Romang re-gions of the Banda arc. In Romang, vein-style mineralizationis localized in a dilational zone along a west-northwest–trend-ing dextral strike-slip fault corridor (Garwin and Herryansjah,1992). Local jasperoid replacing reefal limestone character-izes several prospects in the Flores-Romang sector of the arc(e.g., localities in Rinca Island, West Flores, and south Ro-mang). At Wetar, Au-Ag barite deposits (23 t Au) represent asubmarine exhalative system in a sea-floor caldera settingsimilar to the Kuroko deposits in Japan (Sewell and Wheatley,1994). Gold-silver mineralization occurs in stratiform baritesand units (exhalite), which are underlain by copper-rich mas-sive pyrite-marcasite zones and quartz-pyrite stockworks

hosted in argillically altered felsic volcanic breccias ofMiocene age. Most of the copper is contained in enargite,which is atypical of volcanic-associated massive sulfide sys-tems. The age of mineralization is believed to lie between 5and 4 Ma (van Leeuwen, 1994; Sewell and Wheatley, 1994).The Wetar deposits were formed in north elongate exten-sional basins developed by the interaction of steeply dipping,north-northwest and north-northeast trending conjugatestrike-slip faults inferred from the description of the geologicsetting of the deposits in Sewell and Wheatley (1994).

Central Kalimantan

Geologic setting: The Paleogene to Miocene Central Kali-mantan arc of Carlile and Mitchell (1994) extends approxi-mately 1,200 km from western Sarawak, through northwestand central Kalimantan into northeastern Kalimantan (Fig.14; Table 1). The trace of the arc disappears to the northeast,beneath the western onshore extension of the Neogene Sulu-Zamboanga arc in the Semporna peninsula of Sabah. Thebasement to the arc is continental in western Kalimantan,where the oldest rocks exposed consist of late Paleozoic micaschists intruded by Triassic to Carboniferous and Cretaceous(Schwaner Massif) granites (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison,1989). In contrast, Late Cretaceous to Paleogene ophiolite,arc volcanic and sedimentary rocks comprise the basement tothe arc in eastern Kalimantan and Sabah. In the Bau area ofwest Sarawak, Triassic andesitic arc volcanic rocks are over-lain by Jurassic and Cretaceous marine carbonate and silici-clastic rock sequences interpreted by Hutchison (1989) tohave been deposited along the marginal shelf of Sundaland.

The arc is defined by the discontinuous distribution of ero-sional remnants of calc-alkaline andesitic, trachyandesitic, andlocal dacitic volcanic-plutonic centers, inferred to be associatedwith tonalite, granodiorite, and granite intrusions in western(Sintang intrusive suite) and northeastern (Long Lai intrusivesuite) Kalimantan (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). Arc activity isstill poorly dated and may extend from the Eocene. Arc con-struction is related to south-directed subduction beneath theRajang accretionary complex of northwest Borneo in theOligocene to Miocene by Carlile and Mitchell (1994). Arc ac-tivity diminished after early Miocene collision between thecontinental crust of the South China Sea margin and the activemargin of northern Borneo (Hutchison et al., 2000; Hall andWilson, 2000). About ~1.3 km of exhumation from 25 to 23 Maand the eastward shift of the Kutai basin sedimentation markthis tectono-magmatic event (Moss et al., 1998). The distribu-tion of igneous rocks and middle to late Tertiary sedimentarybasins indicates that northwest-trending arc-transverse faultsplayed a role in arc tectonics and magmatism (Fig. 8).

The sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary Kutei basin are lo-cally intercalated with arc-related pyroclastic rocks in easternKalimantan. Hamilton (1979) inferred that the developmentof the Kutai basin is related to the rifting of the eastern mar-gin of Sundaland and the drifting of western Sulawesi awayfrom Kalimantan in the middle Tertiary. Chambers and Daley(1997) indicated initial rift-basin formation in the Eocene andsubsequent basin development by load subsidence to Recenttime. It is now clear that the separation of western Sulawesiand Kalimantan by rifting began in the Eocene, although it isstill uncertain if there was ocean crust formation in the

14

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Makassar Strait (Cloke et al., 1999). Plio-Pleistocene tholei-itic plateau flood-basalts form platforms in northwestern,north-central, and northeastern Kalimantan.

Mineral deposit styles: A well-defined northeasterly trend-ing belt of gold deposits and prospects extends approximately500 km along the southeastern margin of the Oligocene toMiocene arc (Fig. 14). This central Kalimantan gold belt co-incides with the margins of the Kutei and Barito basins alongthe eastern flanks of the Schwanner massif and the riftedmargin of Sundaland. Andesitic volcanic rock-hosted, inter-mediate-sulfidation vein and stockwork mineral depositsoccur along this belt. The styles of mineralization in these sys-tems are discussed by Simmons and Browne (1990) for Mt.Muro, by Wake (1991) for Muyup, by Thompson et al. (1994)for Masupa Ria, and van Leeuwen (1994) for Mirah and theothers. The Mt. Muro vein complex is the largest of these de-posits (51 t Au). The complex lies close to the northwest-trending Trans Borneo shear of Hutchison (1989) and con-sists of more than 15 vein systems, most of which strikenorthwesterly and dip steeply. At Masupa Ria, intermediate-sulfidation veins are superimposed on an early-stage high-sul-fidation alteration system (Thompson et al., 1994).

The Kelian intermediate-sulfidation deposit (179 t Au, vanLeeuwen et al., 1990) is localized in a maar-diatreme com-plex, which contains multiple diatreme breccia pipes and late-stage endogenous quartz-porphyry domes (Davies et al.,1999). The diatreme complex postdates subvolcanic andesiteintrusions and a north-northeast–trending Eocene to Oligocenerhyolitic volcano-sedimentary sequence. The ore is hosted bya variety of breccia styles, which have undergone extensivehydrothermal alteration. Styles of mineralization include net-work veins and breccia and fracture filling by complex car-bonate-quartz-pyrite-sphalerite-galena-gold/electrum. LimitedK/Ar radiometric dating at Kelian indicates an early Mioceneage for andesite intrusion (23 Ma) and sericite alteration (20Ma; van Leeuwen et al., 1990). The deposit lies adjacent tothe Kutei basin and along the rifted margin of Sundaland.

Disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted gold deposits occurin the Bau district of western Sarawak (~40 t Au in past pro-duction, Wilford, 1955; Wolfenden, 1965). Gold is associatedwith carbonate and siliciclastic members of the Jurassic BauLimestone in fault contact with the overlying CretaceousPedawan Shale. Pervasive silicification and extensive collapsebreccias have developed close to the shale and/or limestonecontact along the Tai Parit fault and adjacent to argillic-al-tered dacite porphyry dikes. Tai Parit marks the general in-tersection between a north-northeast–oriented belt of middleMiocene (13–10 Ma; Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 1985)dacite to granodiorite intrusions with the northeast-trendingBau anticline. Disseminated gold mineralization is associatedwith arsenopyrite in silicified shale at Jugan, approximately 10km along trend, to the northeast. These sedimentary rock-hosted deposits form part of a >300 km2 district, which alsoincludes weak porphyry copper-style mineralization and pre-viously mined Cu-Au skarns, auriferous mesothermal and ep-ithermal polymetallic sulfide-veins, and disseminated mer-cury deposits (Schuh, 1993)

Historic and recent alluvial gold mines are common inwestern and central Kalimantan. The placer gold is probablysourced from orogenic quartz lodes in crystalline basement

and intermediate-sulfidation vein systems that have under-gone supergene enrichment during weathering. A colloidalorigin for the gold recovered from the Ampalit alluvial minein Central Kalimantan has been inferred by Seeley andSenden (1994), on the basis of gold grain morphology and itsfineness of 998. The delicate nature of the grain boundariesand the high fineness preclude mechanical transport fromnearby epithermal veins, which commonly contain electrum(purity of <900 fine).

Other Indonesian, Borneo, and Papua New Guinean arcs

Several other late Cenozoic magmatic arcs are described byCarlile and Mitchell (1994), including the Miocene NorthwestBorneo (Sarawak), the Neogene West Sulawesi, and MioceneMoon-Utawa arcs (Fig. 14). Although there is igneous activityin these regions, there are reasons to doubt that these arcsformed in subduction-related settings. The Miocene igneousrocks of Sarawak are too poorly known and dated to be confi-dent of their origins. Recent work (Prouteau et al., 2001) sug-gests there are two suites: early Miocene arc volcanic rocks arethe product of south-directed subduction north of Borneo andcould be the equivalent of Paleogene rocks in Sabah (Hall andWilson, 2000; Hutchison et al., 2001), whereas middle and lateMiocene magmatic rocks are postcollisional and have someadakitic features (Prouteau et al., 2001).

Neogene volcanic activity in western Sulawesi began atabout 11 Ma and was probably not related to active subduc-tion but rather to extension (Yuwono et al., 1988; Priadi et al.,1994; Polvé et al., 1997). Elburg and Foden (1998) describedthe rocks as syncollisional and isotopically enriched and rela-tively K rich, which they attribute to a contribution of sub-ducted sediments. Neogene magmatic rocks are commonlyhigh K and include shoshonites and leucitites. The trace ele-ment patterns in the lavas suggest subduction zone recycling,but they are most similar to rocks of postsubduction exten-sional environments, such as those of the southwetern UnitedStates (Macpherson and Hall, 2002).

There was little volcanism in western New Guinea duringthe Neogene and no evidence of significant subduction. Seis-mically, there is a poorly defined slab beneath western NewGuinea, which suggests a south-dipping subducted slab of lit-tle more than 100 km at the New Guinea trench. Tomo-graphic images show no slab beneath western New Guinea(Spakman and Bijwaard, 1998; Hall and Spakman, 2002). Asnoted by Carlile and Mitchell (1994), Neogene volcanic rocksfrom Irian Jaya have been little explored and the mid-Miocene Moon-Utawa rocks have not been well studied.Other Miocene volcanic rocks in Irian Jaya have an unusualchemical character that is postcollisional and quite differentfrom Neogene magmatic rocks in eastern New Guinea(Housh and McMahon 2000).

Carlile and Mitchell (1994) postulated the existence of theNeogene Aceh arc in northernmost Sumatra, on the basis ofthe distribution of volcanic rocks of similar age and the cita-tion of an offshore trench in Stephenson et al. (1982). How-ever, this arc, if it exists at all, lacks a Benioff zone and a pro-nounced bathymetric trench, as indicated by satellite gravitydata. It is more likely that the Aceh arc represents a youngportion of the Sunda arc with magmatic activity localizedalong a west-northwest–trending arc-transverse fault zone.

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0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 15

Miocene to Pliocene calc-alkaline and alkaline volcanicrocks and granodiorite to monzonite intrusions (Dondo Suite)in the western arm and neck of Sulawesi do not host signifi-cant gold mineralization. However, significant gold depositsdo occur at Awak Mas (26 t Au) and Palu (G. Hartshorn, pers.commun., 1999). Both deposits are located close to sinistralstrike-slip faults of the Palu fault system. In Awak Mas, epi- tomesothermal quartz veins and stockworks are localized alongshear zones in Cretaceous metasedimentary basement andnear fault contacts with basalt (van Leeuwen, 1994). Gold oc-curs in pyritic quartz-albite-carbonate breccias, veins, andstockworks. The Ag/Au ratio of the deposit is less than one.The genetic relationship between mineralization and theNeogene magmatic arc, if any, is not clear.

No significant gold prospects are known in the NorthwestBorneo arc of Hutchison (1989). However, gold occurs inplacers and minor quartz veins near dacitic pyroclastic rocksand flows of the Hose Mountains and the Usun Apau plateau(Kirk, 1968; Geological Survey of Malaysia, 1976).

The Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks and dioritic intru-sions in the “Bird’s Head” portion of the Moon arc in IrianJaya are characterized by gold and base metal mineralizationassociated with quartz veins and stockworks (Carlile andMitchell, 1994). No significant gold or copper prospects aredocumented for the Oligocene to Miocene volcanic arc rockson Yapen Island, east of the Moon arc.

The Mount Kinabalu pluton, satellite intrusions, and coevalandesitic-dacitic volcanic rocks in northwestern Sabah do notlie along a well-defined magmatic arc. The ages of the causalhigh K calc-alkaline adamellite pluton and apophyses rangefrom 12.2 to 1.3 Ma (Kirk, 1968; Hutchison, 1989). However,the most probable age ranges from 7.0 to 6.4 Ma (App. 4; Bel-lon and Rangin, 1991; Imai, 2000). The pluton intrudes Pale-ogene sedimentary rocks of the Rajang accretionary prism tothe inactive Northwest Borneo trench (Hutchison, 1989). Aseries of northwest-trending faults pass through Mount Kina-balu, forming a fault zone that extends through central Sabahto the Semporna peninsula (Kinabalu fault of Tokuyama andYoshida, 1974). Basement rocks consist of greenschist- andamhibolite-facies schist and gneiss of Mesozoic (?) age.

The Mamut Cu-Au deposit is centered on an apophysis tothe Kinabalu pluton along the eastern flank of Mount Kina-balu. Porphyry-style mineralization occurs in and adjacent toan adamellite porphyry stock (7.0 Ma; Imai, 2000) cut bypostmineralization granodiorite dikes in a sequence of weaklyhornfelzed sandstone, mudstone, spillitc tuffs, and serpen-tinized peridotite. The host-rock sequence is inferred to havebeen tectonically emplaced in the early to middle Miocene(Kosaka and Wakita, 1978).

Woodlark Island in Papua New Guinea is a remnant of aMiocene island arc built upon Cretaceous (?)-Eocene tholei-itic, Solomon Sea floor basalt, which is inferred to have beenobducted onto the Australian craton (Fig. 15; Russell and Fin-layson, 1987; Russell, 1990). Intermediate-sulfidation gold de-posits, Kulumadau, Boniavat, and Busai, are related to a por-phyritic microdioritic pluton and monzonite dikes emplaced inhigh K calc-alkaline andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocksof early to middle Miocene age (Russell, 1990). The ore as-semblage at Kulumadau contains calcite ± quartz-pyrite-basemetal sulfides in phreatic explosion breccias, in contrast to the

ore assemblages at the Busi and Boniavat vein systems, whichare more quartz rich and typically contain only minor basemetal sulfides (Russell, 1990). The age of mineralization atBusai is dated as 12.3 Ma (Russell and Finlayson, 1987).

Burman

Geologic setting: The Neogene to Quaternary Burmanmagmatic arc includes an onshore portion in Myanmar, whichextends ~1,200 km from the Jade mines in the north throughMount Popa and Pegu Yoma in the south, and an offshorechain of islands and seamounts in the Narcandam and BarrenIsland region of the Andaman Sea (Fig. 2; Table 1). The arclies to the west of the dextral strike-slip Sagaing fault, whichmarks the boundary between the Burma continental block tothe west and the Shan-Thai core of the Eurasian plate to theeast (Hutchison, 1989). The onshore portion of the arc is calc-alkaline to high K calc-alkaline, while the offshore sector istholeiitic (Hutchison, 1989). A belt of alkaline to shoshoniticrocks, about 100 km to the east of the calc-alkaline arc, ex-tends along the eastern side of the Sagaing fault and contin-ues southward along the eastern shore of the Andaman Sea.The eastward increase in alkalinity is attributed to the waningstages of eastward subduction of the Indian plate beneath theBurma block during the transition to strike-slip movement as-sociated with spreading in the Andaman Sea that began by~10 Ma (Curray et al., 1979; Stephenson and Marshall, 1984).The Burman magmatic arc is associated with a poorly definedBenioff zone that extends to a depth of 200 km.

The basement to the arc in the Banmauk region consists ofMesozoic phyllite, schist, gneiss, and amphibolite. Marinebasalt, andesite, volcaniclastic rocks, and mudstone overliethe basement rocks and both sequences are intruded by theCretaceous Kanzachaung granodiorite batholith (United Na-tions Development Program, 1978a). Eocene andesite sillsand early Oligocene diorite to granodiorite stocks (e.g.,Shangalon granodiorite), trachyte flows and dikes are overlainby Oligocene to Miocene mudstones and sandstones (UnitedNations Development Program, 1978a, b; Mitchell et al.,1999). This succession covers much of the western forearcand eastern backarc basins to the Burman arc. Late Mioceneto Quaternary basalt and andesite are characteristic of theMount Popa, Taungthonlon, and Monywa areas.

Mineral deposit styles: Alluvial gold occurs at Mansi, to thewest of the northern portion of the arc, and in the Jade Minesregion to the north (Goosens, 1978; United Nations Develop-ment Program, 1978c). In the Banmauk region lode gold wasrecovered from pyritic quartz lodes hosted by Tertiary an-desitic tuffs and breccias at Kyaukpazat (Goosens, 1978) andin granodiorite at Sadwin (United Nations Development Pro-gram, 1978c). The Shangalon porphyry Cu-Au prospect ishosted by quartz diorite along the margin of the Cretaceousgranodiorite batholith, 80 km southwest of Banmauk.

The Monywa high-sulfidation deposit occurs in an upliftedportion of the arc about 50 km north of Mount Popa. Morethan 4.5 Mt of copper occurs in hypogene chalcocite-bearingbreccia bodies associated with hypabyssal dacitic intrusions,which indicate radiometric ages of 19 Ma at Letpadaung and13 Ma at Kyisintaung (App. 6; Kyaw Win and Kirwin, 1998).The gold content of the copper ore is minor. The intermedi-ate-sulfidation quartz veins that occur within 5 km of the

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chalcocite orebodies contain low levels of gold and silver(Kyaw Win and Kirwin, 1998).

In the Indawgyi region of the backarc basin, immediatelywest of the Sagaing fault, Miocene (?) sedimentary rock-hosted gold mineralization at Kyaukpahto is localized in a de-calcified and silicified calcareous arkosic sandstone sequence(Male Formation) of probable Eocene age (Ye Myint Swe,1990; Mitchell et al., 1999). Hydrothermal alteration includesdecalcification, silicification, and sericitic and argillic styles.Gold is associated with fine-grained pyrite and arsenopyrite inquartz veinlets and as disseminated framboidal grains in sili-cified and brecciated sandstone. The region hosts numerousprimary and alluvial gold occurrences that are spatially re-lated to a 100-km-long segment of the Sagaing fault.

APPENDICES 2 to 6

Grade-Tonnage and Age Characteristics for Major Goldand Copper ± Gold Deposits in the Cenozoic Magmatic

Arcs of Southeast Asia and the West PacificIn these appendices, the total size and contained gold and

copper contents (metric tonnes), grades (g/t Au and % Cu)and age of formation (Ma) are reported for all major andsome minor deposits. These contents include conservative re-source figures for the deposits and combined reserves and/orresources and past production for the mines, except where in-dicated otherwise. The grade-tonnage characteristics and agerelationships are illustrated in Figures 17 and 18 in theprinted part of the paper.

17

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 17

18

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 18

App

endi

x 2

Gra

de-T

onna

ge a

nd A

ge C

hara

cter

sitic

s of

Sig

nific

ant G

old

and

Cop

per

Dep

osits

in C

enoz

oic

Mag

mat

ic A

rcs

of J

apan

and

Tai

wan

Mag

mat

ic

Reg

ion/

dist

rict

Met

ric to

nnes

Cu

Au

Con

tain

edC

onta

ined

Ref

eren

ce fo

r A

ge (

Ma)

Dep

osit

Styl

e ar

c(m

illio

n t)

(%)

(g/t)

Cu

(000

s t)

Au

(t)

Gra

de-t

onna

ge d

ata

(met

hod)

Ref

eren

ce fo

r ag

e

Kon

omai

LS

Kur

ilN

orth

east

Hok

kaid

o11

.46.

473

Wat

anab

e (1

995)

12.9

-12.

2 (K

/Ar)

Yaha

ta e

t al.

(199

9)Sa

nru

LS

Kur

ilN

orth

east

Hok

kaid

o0.

97.

47

Wat

anab

e (1

995)

12.4

(K

/Ar)

Suga

ki a

nd I

sobe

(19

85)

Kita

no-o

LS

Kur

ilN

orth

east

Hok

kaid

o0.

55.

93

Shik

azon

o (1

986)

; 7.

7-7.

4 (K

/Ar)

Mae

da (

1996

)Sa

ito e

t al.

(196

7)H

okur

yuL

SK

uril

Nor

thea

st H

okka

ido

0.3

8.2

2Sh

ikaz

ono

(198

6);

13.7

(K

/Ar)

Yaha

ta e

t al.

(199

9)Sa

ito e

t al.

(196

7)O

hgan

eIS

NE

Jap

anSo

uthw

est H

okka

ido

0.4

52

Shik

azon

o (1

986)

; 11

.4 (

K/A

r)H

irai

et a

l. (2

000)

Saito

et a

l. (1

967)

Toyo

haE

P-X

E-P

MN

E J

apan

Sout

hwes

t Hok

kaid

o20

0.35

7K

anba

ra a

nd K

umita

(19

90)

2.9-

0.5

(K/A

r)Sa

wai

et a

l. (1

989)

Osa

riza

wa

EP-

PM

NE

Jap

anTo

hoku

28.5

1.05

0.15

300

4M

inel

and

Osa

riza

wa

(unp

ub. d

ata)

Mio

cene

Hos

okur

aE

P-PM

N

E J

apan

Toho

ku3

Shik

azon

o (1

986)

5.8

(K/A

r)Sh

ikaz

ono

and

Tsun

akaw

a (1

982)

Tein

eH

S-IS

NE

Jap

anSW

Hok

kaid

o1.

47.

511

Shik

azon

o (1

986)

; 4.

4-4.

0 (K

/Ar)

Saw

ai e

t al.

(199

2;

Saito

et a

l. (1

967)

Saw

ai a

nd I

taya

(19

96)

Sado

ISN

E J

apan

Toho

ku15

5.1

77Sa

kai a

nd O

ba (

1970

)24

.1-2

2.1

(K/A

r)M

inis

try

of I

nter

na-

14.5

-13.

4 (K

/Ar)

tiona

l Tra

de a

nd I

ndus

-tr

y (1

987a

), Sh

ikaz

ono

and

Tsun

akaw

a (1

982)

Taka

tam

aIS

NE

Jap

anTo

hoku

2.9

1029

Japa

n M

inin

g In

dust

ry

Ass

ocia

tion

(197

8)7.

7 (K

/Ar)

Seki

(19

93)

Chi

tose

ISN

E J

apan

Sout

hwes

t Hok

kaid

o1.

614

.523

Japa

n M

inin

g In

dust

ry

3.5-

3.3

(K/A

r)Sa

wai

et a

l. (1

992)

Ass

ocia

tion

(197

8)Sh

izuk

ari

ISN

E J

apan

Sout

hwes

t Hok

kaid

o1.

17

8Sa

ito e

t al.

(196

7);

2.4

(K/A

r)W

atan

abe

(199

1)Sh

ikaz

ono

(198

6)To

doro

kiIS

NE

Jap

anSo

uthw

est H

okka

ido

6Sh

ikaz

ono

(198

6)3.

1-2.

1 (K

/Ar)

Saw

ai e

t al.

(199

2)K

oryu

ISN

E J

apan

Sout

hwes

t Hok

kaid

o1.

2 (K

/Ar)

Shim

izu

et a

l. (1

998)

Nur

ukaw

aV

MS

NE

Jap

anTo

hoku

1.0

6.8

7Ya

mad

a et

al.

(198

8)M

iddl

e M

ioce

neYa

mad

a et

al.

(198

8)H

anao

kaV

MS

NE

Jap

anTo

hoku

41.8

2.3

0.1-

0.2

960

Ohm

oto

et a

l. (1

983)

Mid

dle

Mio

cene

Ohm

oto

et a

l. (1

983)

Kos

aka

VM

SN

E J

apan

Toho

ku27

.90.

4-0.

760

0O

hmot

o et

al.

(198

3)M

iddl

e M

ioce

neO

hmot

o et

al.

(198

3)Sh

akan

aiV

MS

NE

Jap

anTo

hoku

8.7

0.3-

2.0

100

Ohm

oto

et a

l. (1

983)

Mid

dle

Mio

cene

Ohm

oto

et a

l. (1

983)

Yoic

hiV

MS

NE

Jap

anSo

uthw

est H

okka

ido

9Pa

st p

rodu

ctio

n on

ly;

12.3

(K

/Ar)

Saw

ai a

nd I

taya

(19

96)

Wat

anab

e (2

002)

Ash

ioX

E-P

M

NE

Jap

anTo

hoku

24.9

2.5

0.12

615

3Sh

ikaz

ono

(198

6); F

uruk

awa

Mio

cene

Min

ing

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Ltd

. (19

81)

Baj

oIS

SW J

apan

Nor

th K

yush

u13

Izaw

a an

d W

atan

abe

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1)4.

6-3.

9 (K

/Ar)

Saw

ai e

t al.

(200

2)O

hmor

iIS

SW J

apan

Chu

goku

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ikaz

ono

(198

6)1.

1 (K

/Ar)

Sako

ta e

t al.

(200

0)Ta

ioL

SSW

Jap

anN

orth

Kyu

shu

5.7

6.3

36Ja

pan

Min

ing

Indu

stry

3.

6-2.

9 (K

/Ar)

Yuan

et a

l. (1

993)

Ass

ocia

tion

(197

8)H

oshi

noL

SSW

Jap

anN

orth

Kyu

shu

3Iz

awa

and

Wat

anab

e (2

001)

2.8-

2.5

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r)Sa

wai

et a

l. (1

998)

an

d (2

001)

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oshi

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pan

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ing

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stry

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8-0.

7 (K

/Ar)

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asak

i and

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no

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ocia

tion

(197

8)(2

002)

; Min

istr

y of

In

tern

atin

al T

rade

and

In

dust

ry (

1987

b)R

enda

ijiIS

Izu-

Bon

inIz

u0.

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0 3

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n M

inin

g In

dust

ry

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r)M

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try

of I

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al

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ocia

tion

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8)Tr

ade

and

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stry

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987b

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u-B

onin

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12Ja

pan

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ing

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stry

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io-P

leis

toce

neA

ssoc

iatio

n (1

978)

19

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Moc

hiko

shi

LS

Izu-

Bon

inIz

u0.

86.

45

Japa

n M

inin

g In

dust

ry

Pio-

Plei

stoc

ene

Min

istr

y of

Int

erna

ti0na

l A

ssoc

iatio

n (1

978)

Trad

e an

d In

dust

ry

(198

7b)

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shim

aL

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u-B

onin

Izu

0.2

12.2

2

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n M

inin

g In

dust

ry

2.5

(K/A

r)M

inis

try

of I

nter

natio

nal

Ass

ocia

tion

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8)Tr

ade

and

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stry

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987b

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hink

uash

ih H

SR

yuky

uTa

iwan

200.

64.

611

992

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(199

1);

1.0

(Ar/

Ar,

K/A

r)W

ang

et a

l. (1

999)

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wan

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ang

et a

l. (1

999)

Kas

uga

HS

Ryu

kyu

Sout

h K

yush

u3

3.1

9H

ayas

hi (

2001

)4.

5 (K

/Ar)

Min

istr

y of

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erna

-tio

nal T

rade

and

In

dust

ry (

1985

)A

kesh

iH

SR

yuky

uSo

uth

Kyu

shu

0.9

9.8

9H

ayas

hi (

2001

); 3.

7 (K

/Ar)

Izaw

a et

al.

(198

4)N

akam

ura

et a

l. (1

994)

Iwat

oH

SR

yuky

uSo

uth

Kyu

shu

8H

ayas

hi (

2001

)4.

7-4.

2 (K

/Ar)

Izaw

a et

al.

(198

4);

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shi a

nd S

hiba

ta

(198

4)K

ushi

kino

ISR

yuky

uSo

uth

Kyu

shu

8.3

6.7

56Ja

pan

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ing

Indu

stry

3.

7-3.

4 (K

/Ar)

Izaw

a an

d Ze

ng (

2001

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ssoc

iatio

n (1

978)

Fuk

eIS

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kyu

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h K

yush

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d W

atan

abe

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1)2.

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4 (K

/Ar)

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istr

y of

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erna

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nal T

rade

and

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dust

ry (

2000

)H

ishi

kari

LS

Ryu

kyu

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h K

yush

u5.

547

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0Iz

awa

et a

l. (2

001)

1.1-

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r)Se

kine

et a

l. (2

002)

Yam

agan

oL

SR

yuky

uSo

uth

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shu

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28M

urak

ami a

nd

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1.9

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r)M

urak

ami a

nd

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brey

(20

01)

Fee

brey

(20

01)

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chi

LS

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kyu

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h K

yush

u1.

613

.622

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n M

inin

g In

dust

ry

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r)M

inis

try

of I

nter

na-

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ocia

tion

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8)tio

nal T

rade

and

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dust

ry (

2000

)

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es: G

rade

-ton

nage

dat

a in

clud

es c

ombi

ned

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urce

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d pa

st p

rodu

ctio

n; m

iner

aliz

atio

n st

yles

: HS

= hi

gh-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, IS

= in

term

edia

te-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, LS

= lo

w-s

ulfid

atio

nep

ither

mal

, PM

= p

olym

etal

lic, V

MS

= K

urok

o-ty

pe m

assi

ve s

ulfid

e, X

E =

xen

othe

rmal

App

endi

x 2

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t.)

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mat

ic

Reg

ion/

dist

rict

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ric to

nnes

Cu

Au

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tain

edC

onta

ined

Ref

eren

ce fo

r A

ge (

Ma)

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osit

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e ar

c(m

illio

n t)

(%)

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Cu

(000

s t)

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(t)

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de-t

onna

ge d

ata

(met

hod)

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eren

ce fo

r ag

e

20

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 20

App

endi

x 3

Gra

de-T

onna

ge a

nd A

ge C

hara

cter

sitic

s of

Sig

nific

ant G

old

and

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per

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osits

in C

enoz

oic

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mat

ic A

rcs

of th

e Ph

ilipp

ines

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mat

ic

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ric to

nnes

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edC

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r D

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arc

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ion/

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ion

t)(%

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u (0

00s

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u (t

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ade-

tonn

age

data

Age

(M

a)R

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ence

for

age

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th E

ast

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

Man

kaya

n65

00.

651.

3342

2586

5C

lave

ria

et a

l. (1

999)

1.4-

1.3

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r)H

eden

quis

t et a

l. (2

001)

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dile

rra

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Tho

mas

II*

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

Bag

uio

449

0.38

0.7

1616

314

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er e

t al.

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2)1.

5 (K

/Ar)

Silli

toe

(198

9)C

ordi

llera

Gui

naoa

ngPO

CG

DL

uzon

Cen

tral

M

anka

yan

326

0.37

0.37

1206

121

Min

ing

Jour

nal

3.5

(K/A

r)Si

llito

e an

d C

ordi

llera

(14

Oct

. 199

4)A

ngel

es (

1985

)Sa

n F

abia

nPO

CG

DL

uzon

Cen

tral

Sa

n F

abia

n31

40.

270.

2184

866

Res

earc

h In

form

atio

n 20

.6Si

nger

et a

l. (2

002)

Cor

dille

raU

nit (

2002

)Sa

nto

Nin

o*PO

CG

DL

uzon

Cen

tral

B

agui

o28

60.

350.

210

0157

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)1.

5 (K

/Ar)

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er e

t al.

(200

2)C

ordi

llera

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o*PO

CG

DL

uzon

Cen

tral

B

agui

o21

00.

280.

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853

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toe

and

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pe(1

984)

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dille

raB

aton

g B

uhay

*PO

CG

DL

uzon

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tral

N

orth

wes

t Luz

on10

70.

60.

2564

227

TV

I Pa

cific

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. (19

95)

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nger

et a

l. (2

002)

Cor

dille

raTa

wi-T

awi

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

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ok15

90.

390.

1662

025

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al M

inin

g A

genc

y 4.

6(K

/Ar)

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er e

t al.

(200

2)C

ordi

llera

of J

apan

(19

77)

Bla

ck

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

Bag

uio

620.

380.

3323

620

Silli

toe

and

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pe

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2.9

(Ar/

Ar)

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ers

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4)M

ount

ain*

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dille

ra(1

984)

Ken

on S

outh

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

Bag

uio

620.

380.

3323

620

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)7

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)C

ordi

llera

Gam

bang

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

Man

kaya

n55

.60.

350.

3219

518

Yum

ul (

1980

)C

ordi

llera

Sulu

akan

PO

CG

DL

uzon

Cen

tral

B

agui

o12

30.

350.

1343

116

Silli

toe

and

Gap

pe (

1984

)(W

orld

wid

e)C

ordi

llera

Bot

ilao

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

Nor

thw

est L

uzon

820.

520.

1942

616

Silli

toe

and

Gap

pe (

1984

)C

ordi

llera

Ullm

an*

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

Bag

uio

380.

340.

3312

913

Silli

toe

and

Gap

pe (

1984

)C

ordi

llera

Dilo

ng/H

ale

PO C

GD

Luz

on C

entr

al

Nor

thw

est L

uzon

350.

50.

3517

512

Silli

toe

and

Gap

pe (

1984

)C

ordi

llera

Tha

nksg

ivin

g*SK

Luz

on C

entr

al

Bag

uio

1.1

11.6

13M

itche

ll an

d 5.

5 (K

/Ar)

Silli

toe

(198

9)C

ordi

llera

Lea

ch (

1991

)L

epan

to*

HS

Luz

on C

entr

al

Man

kaya

n40

.72.

783.

2911

3113

4C

lave

ria

et a

l. (1

999)

1.4-

1.3

(K/A

r)H

eden

quis

t et a

l. (2

001)

Cor

dille

raA

ntam

ok*

ISL

uzon

Cen

tral

B

agui

o31

5B

. And

am (

pers

. C

ordi

llera

com

mun

., 19

96);

Ben

quet

C

orp.

, (19

94)

(est

imat

e)It

ogon

*IS

Luz

on C

entr

al

Bag

uio

31.1

3.92

122

Itog

on-S

uyoc

Min

ing

Plei

stoc

ene(

?)In

ferr

ed fr

om

Cor

dille

raIn

corp

orat

ed (

1993

, C

ooke

et a

l. (1

996)

1994

) (e

stim

ate)

Acu

pan*

ISL

uzon

Cen

tral

B

agui

o97

Bur

eau

of M

ines

and

0.

65 (

K/A

r)C

ooke

et a

l. (1

996)

Cor

dille

raG

eo-S

cien

ces

(198

6);

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quet

Cor

p. (

1995

) (e

stim

ate)

Vic

tori

a*IS

Luz

on C

entr

al

Man

kaya

n11

7.3

80C

lave

ria

et a

l. (1

999)

1.15

(K

/Ar)

Hed

enqu

ist e

t al.

(200

1)C

ordi

llera

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sa2

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tral

M

anka

yan

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ater

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004)

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rred

: Hed

enqu

ist

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dille

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al.

(200

1)B

aton

g B

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Luz

on C

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al

Nor

thw

est L

uzon

113

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TV

I Pa

cific

Inc

.(199

5)C

ordi

llera

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on*

PO C

GD

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tern

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onZa

mba

les

187

0.36

0.93

706

182

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er e

t al.

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2)2.

7 (K

/Ar)

Silli

toe

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9)Ta

yson

PO C

GD

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tern

Luz

onB

atan

gas

336

0.31

0.35

1042

118

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er e

t al.

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2)20

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nger

et a

l. (2

002)

San

Ant

onio

PO C

GD

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tern

Luz

onM

arin

duqu

e19

50.

570.

111

1220

Silli

toe

and

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pe (

1984

)

21

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 21

Pisu

mpa

nPO

CG

DW

este

rn L

uzon

Zam

bale

s20

0.41

0.6

8212

Silli

toe

and

Gap

pe (

1984

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1 (K

/Ar)

Sing

er e

t al.

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2)Ta

pian

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CG

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erra

Mad

reM

arin

duqu

e17

70.

520.

1292

021

Silli

toe

and

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pe (

1984

)15

(K

/Ar)

Wal

ther

et a

l. (1

981)

Din

kidi

PO C

GD

Cor

don

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ela-

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ipio

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484

120

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t al.

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2)23

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K/A

r)W

olfe

et a

l. (1

999)

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ian

PO C

GD

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don

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ela-

Did

ipio

550.

430.

2423

713

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)25

(K

/Ar)

Mitc

hell

and

Lea

ch (

1991

)R

unru

noIS

Cor

don

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ela-

Did

ipio

271.

0428

Res

earc

h In

form

atio

n U

nit (

2002

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ingk

ing

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GD

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ppin

esC

amar

ines

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te40

00.

350.

614

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nger

et a

l. (2

002)

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9)B

oyon

gun

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00.

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ey (

2003

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3 (A

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ater

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ilipp

ines

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Ar)

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4)

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acan

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ara

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91)

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ula

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312

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e an

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appe

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e M

ioce

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91)

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ap

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anla

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ppin

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ines

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228

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llito

e an

d G

appe

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84)

20.5

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er e

t al.

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2)N

ales

bita

n *

HS

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ppin

esC

amar

ines

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te7.

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239

Uni

ted

Nat

ions

Dev

el-

Plio

cene

Silli

toe

et a

l. (1

990)

opm

ent P

rogr

am (

1992

)Pl

acer

*IS

Phili

ppin

esSu

riga

o39

.91.

6365

Man

ila M

inin

g C

orp-

Plio

cene

Silli

toe

(198

9)or

atio

n (1

993,

199

4);

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hell

and

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ch

(199

1) (

estim

ate)

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gos

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t*IS

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ppin

esC

amar

ines

Nor

te3.

212

.038

Uni

ted

Nat

ions

Dev

el-

opm

ent P

rogr

am (

1992

)M

asar

a*IS

Phili

ppin

esM

asar

a3.

98.

6534

Mitc

hell

and

Lea

ch

4.3

(K/A

r)Si

llito

e (1

989)

(199

1); W

hite

et a

l. (1

995)

Co-

o *

ISPh

ilipp

ines

Cen

tral

Eas

t U

nite

d N

atio

ns D

evel

-M

inda

nao

0.9

7.3

7op

men

t Pro

gram

(19

92)

Sian

a*D

S/IS

Phili

ppin

esSu

riga

o4.

85.

4226

Bur

eau

of M

ines

and

2.

6-2.

3 (A

r/A

r)W

ater

s (2

004)

G

eo-S

cien

ces

(198

6);

Mitc

hell

and

Lea

ch

(199

1) (

estim

ate)

Sula

tV

MS

Phili

ppin

esC

entr

al S

amar

32.5

0.61

0.62

198

20B

urea

u of

Min

es a

nd

Mio

cene

Mitc

hell

and

Lea

ch (

1991

)G

eo-S

cien

ces

(198

6)R

apu-

Rap

uV

MS

Phili

ppin

esR

apu-

Rap

u7.

11.

232.

5487

18T

VI-

Paci

fic (

2003

b)B

asay

*PO

CG

DM

asba

te-N

egro

sN

egro

s26

20.

440.

2911

5376

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)?3

0 (K

/Ar)

Div

is (

1983

)H

inob

aan

POC

GD

Mas

bate

-Neg

ros

Neg

ros

440

0.41

0.14

1804

62Si

nger

et a

l. (2

002)

17.5

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)Si

pala

y*PO

CG

DM

asba

te-N

egro

sN

egro

s80

70.

470.

0537

9340

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)?3

0 (K

/Ar)

Div

is (

1983

)M

asba

te*

ISM

asba

te-N

egro

sM

asba

te14

.54.

2562

Mitc

hell

and

Lea

ch

Lat

e M

ioce

neM

itche

ll an

d L

each

(19

91)

(199

1) (

estim

ate)

Bul

awan

*IS

Mas

bate

-Neg

ros

Neg

ros

142.

941

Met

als

Eco

nom

ics

14.4

(K

/Ar)

Silli

toe

(198

9)G

roup

(19

94)

Sibu

tad

ISSu

lu-Z

ambo

anga

Zam

boan

ga21

1.12

24Ji

men

ez e

t al.

(200

2)Pl

eist

ocen

eJi

men

ez e

t al.

(200

2)C

anat

uan

VM

SSu

lu-Z

ambo

anga

Zam

boan

ga2.

31.

852.

2343

5T

VI-

Paci

fic (

2003

a)Ta

mpa

kan

PO C

GD

Cot

abat

oC

otab

ato

900

0.75

0.3

6750

270

Roh

rlac

h et

al.

(199

9)3.

2 (U

/Pb)

R. L

ouck

s, p

ers.

com

mun

. (2

002)

T'B

oli

ISC

otab

ato

Cot

abat

o2.

45.

513

Res

earc

h In

stitu

te

Uni

t (20

02)

Lut

opan

*PO

CG

MC

ebu

Ceb

u53

30.

50.

3126

6516

5Si

llito

e an

d G

appe

(19

84)

108

(K/A

r)W

alth

er e

t al.

(198

1)B

iga

*PO

CG

MC

ebu

Ceb

u39

50.

430.

2516

9999

Silli

toe

and

Gap

pe (

1984

)C

arm

en*

PO C

GM

Ceb

uC

ebu

390

0.43

0.24

1677

94Si

llito

e an

d G

appe

(19

84)

Not

es: G

rade

-ton

nage

dat

a in

clud

es c

ombi

ned

reso

urce

s an

d pa

st p

rodu

ctio

n1

Pres

ent o

r hi

stor

ic m

ines

are

indi

cate

d by

*

2 T

he T

eres

a go

ld r

eser

ve fi

gure

is n

ot in

clud

ed in

the

endo

wm

ent e

stim

ates

quo

ted

in th

e te

xt o

r fig

ures

.3

Min

eral

izat

ion

styl

es: D

S =

diss

emin

ated

sed

imen

tary

roc

k-ho

sted

, HS

= hi

gh-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, IS

= in

term

edia

te-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, LS

= lo

w-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, PO

CG

D =

por

-ph

yry

copp

er-g

old,

PO

CG

M =

por

phyr

y co

pper

-gol

d-m

olyb

denu

m, S

K =

ska

rn, V

MS

= vo

lcan

ic-a

ssoc

iate

d m

assi

ve s

ulfid

e

App

endi

x 3

(C

ont.)

Mag

mat

ic

Met

ric to

nnes

Cu

Au

Con

tain

edC

onta

ined

Ref

eren

ce fo

r D

epos

it1St

yle3

arc

Reg

ion/

dist

rict

(mill

ion

t)(%

)(g

/t)C

u (0

00s

t)A

u (t

)gr

ade-

tonn

age

data

Age

(M

a)R

efer

ence

for

age

22

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 22

App

endi

x 4

Gra

de-T

onna

ge a

nd A

ge C

hara

cter

sitic

s of

Sig

nific

ant G

old

and

Cop

per

Dep

osits

in C

enoz

oic

Mag

mat

ic A

rcs

of I

ndon

esia

and

Bor

neo

Mag

mat

icM

etric

tonn

esC

uA

u C

onta

ined

Con

tain

edR

efer

ence

for

Dep

osit1

Styl

e3ar

cR

egio

n/di

stri

ct(m

illio

n t)

(%)

(g/t)

Cu

(000

s t)

Au

(t)

grad

e-to

nnag

e da

taA

ge (

Ma)

Ref

eren

ce fo

r ag

e

Baw

one

HS

Sang

ihe

Sang

ihe

4.5

1.37

6va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

)M

ioce

neC

arlil

e et

al.

(199

0)(B

ineb

ase)

Cab

ang

Kir

i Eas

tPO

CG

DN

orth

Sul

awes

iG

oron

talo

136

0.43

0.58

585

79va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

)2.

9 (K

/Ar)

Pere

llo (

1994

)Su

ngai

Mak

PO C

GD

Nor

th S

ulaw

esi

Gor

onta

lo84

0.76

0.39

638

33va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

)L

ate

Plio

cene

Pere

llo (

1994

)K

ayub

ulan

Rid

gePO

CG

DN

orth

Sul

awes

iG

oron

talo

750.

760.

3357

025

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

2.4

(K/A

r)Pe

rello

(19

94)

Bul

agid

unPO

CG

DN

orth

Sul

awes

iM

aris

sa14

.40.

610.

6888

10va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

)8.

8 (K

/Ar)

Lub

is e

t al.

(199

4)Ta

pada

aPO

CG

DN

orth

Sul

awes

iG

oron

talo

430.

540.

0823

23

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

3.75

(K

/Ar)

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)M

otom

boto

HS

Nor

th S

ulaw

esi

Gor

onta

lo2

2.0

1.5

403

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

1.9

(K/A

r)Pe

rello

(19

94)

(app

roxi

mat

e)G

n. P

ani

ISN

orth

Sul

awes

iM

aris

sa30

1.35

41va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

); 3.

3-3.

1 (A

r/A

r)Pe

arso

n an

d C

aira

(19

99)

Car

lile

and

Mitc

hell

(199

4)To

ka T

indu

ngIS

Nor

th S

ulaw

esi

Kot

amob

agu

12.3

2.85

35G

old

Gaz

ette

Asi

an

2.4

(K/A

r)M

oyle

et a

l (19

97)

Edi

tion

(Apr

il 19

99)

Dou

pIS

Nor

th S

ulaw

esi

Kot

amob

agu

121.

619

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

Neo

gene

Whi

te e

t al.

(199

5)L

anut

*IS

Nor

th S

ulaw

esi

Kot

amob

agu

5.5

2.80

15R

esea

rch

Info

rmat

ion

Neo

gene

Car

lile

et a

l. (1

990)

Uni

t (20

02)

Bol

angi

tang

ISN

orth

Sul

awes

iG

oron

talo

--11

Car

lile

and

Mitc

hell

(199

4) (

estim

ate

only

)M

esel

Dep

osits

*D

SN

orth

Sul

awes

iK

otam

obag

u9.

76.

4563

New

mon

t Min

ing

(199

4)L

ate

Mio

cene

-G

arw

in e

t al.

(199

5)Pl

ioce

neK

aput

usan

PO C

GD

Hal

mah

era

Bac

an70

0.3

0.21

210

15va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

)N

eoge

neC

arlil

e an

d M

itche

ll (1

994)

Gos

owon

g*IS

Hal

mah

era

Gos

owon

g0.

9927

27O

lber

g et

al.

(199

9)2.

9-2.

4 (A

r/A

r)O

lber

g et

al.

(199

9)K

enca

na2 *

ISH

alm

aher

aG

osow

ong

1.7

4170

Min

ing

New

s, 2

004

Plio

cene

Olb

erg

et a

l. (1

999)

Togu

raci

*IS

Hal

mah

era

Gos

owon

g0.

4127

11In

tierr

a (2

003)

Plio

cene

Olb

erg

et a

l. (1

999)

Gra

sber

g*

PO C

GD

Med

ial

Car

sten

z40

000.

60.

6424

000

2560

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

3.3-

2.7

(K/A

r)M

acD

onal

d an

d A

rnol

d (r

esou

rce)

New

Gui

nea

(199

4); M

cDow

ell e

t al.

(199

6)G

rasb

erg*

PO

CG

DM

edia

l C

arst

enz

1877

1.04

1.04

1952

119

52W

idod

o et

al.

(199

9)

3.3-

2.7

(K/A

r)M

acD

onal

d an

d A

rnol

d (r

eser

ve)

New

Gui

nea

(ope

n pi

t and

(1

994)

; McD

owel

l et a

l. un

derg

roun

d)(1

996)

Kuc

ing

Lia

rSK

Med

ial

Car

sten

z32

01.

411.

4145

1245

1W

idod

o et

al.

(199

9)~3

Wid

odo

et a

l. (1

999)

New

Gui

nea

Wab

uSK

Med

ial

Car

sten

z11

72.

1625

3O

'Con

nor

et a

l. (1

999)

6.6-

5.2

(K/A

r)O

'Con

ner

et a

l. (1

999)

New

Gui

nea

Ert

sber

g E

ast

SKM

edia

l C

arst

enz

210

1.14

0.9

2394

189

Cou

tts

et a

l. (1

999)

3.1-

2.6

(K/A

r)M

ertig

et a

l. (1

994)

; (I

OZ/

DO

Z)*

New

Gui

nea

McD

owel

l et a

l. (1

996)

Big

Gos

san

SKM

edia

l C

arst

enz

372.

691.

0299

538

Wid

odo

et a

l. (1

999)

~3M

ertig

et a

l. (1

994)

; N

ew G

uine

aM

cDow

ell e

t al.

(199

6)E

rtsb

erg*

SKM

edia

l C

arst

enz

32.6

2.3

0.8

750

26M

ertig

et a

l. (1

994)

3.1-

2.6

(K/A

r)M

ertig

et a

l. (1

994)

; N

ew G

uine

aM

cDow

ell e

t al.

(199

6)D

OM

SKM

edia

l C

arst

enz

311.

670.

4251

813

Wid

odo

et a

l. (1

999)

3.1-

2.6

(K/A

r)M

ertig

et a

l. (1

994)

; N

ew G

uine

aM

cDow

ell e

t al.

(199

6)Ta

ngse

PO C

MD

Sund

aTa

ngse

600

0.15

900

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

13-9

va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

)M

arta

beH

SSu

nda

Sibo

lga

66.7

1.74

116

Lev

et e

t al.

(200

3);

Plio

cene

(?)

B. K

. Lev

et, p

ers.

Su

topo

et a

l. (2

003)

com

mun

. (20

03)

Gn.

Pon

gkor

*IS

Sund

aW

est J

ava

6.0

17.1

103

Bas

uki e

t al.

(199

4);

8.5

(K/A

r)M

arco

ux a

nd M

ilesi

(19

94)

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

Leb

ong

Tand

ai*

ISSu

nda

Ben

gkul

u2.

815

.543

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

Mio

cene

Jobs

on e

t al.

(199

4)L

ebon

g D

onok

*IS

Sund

aB

engk

ulu

2.9

14.3

41va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

)

23

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 23

Raw

as*

ISSu

nda

Ben

gkul

u7.

83.

124

Res

earc

h In

form

atio

n U

nit (

1997

)C

ibal

iung

ISSu

nda

Wes

t Jav

a1.

310

.414

Res

earc

h In

form

atio

n U

nit (

2002

)C

ikon

dang

ISSu

nda

Wes

t Jav

a0.

710

.98

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

Plio

-M

arco

ux a

nd M

ilesi

(19

94)

Plei

stoc

ene(

?)M

anga

ni*

ISSu

nda

Man

gani

0.9

6.5

6va

n L

eeuw

en (

1994

)W

ay L

ingg

oIS

Sund

aL

ampu

ng0.

419.

14

Res

earc

h In

form

atio

n U

nit (

2002

)B

atu

Hija

u*PO

CG

DE

ast S

unda

Wes

t Sum

baw

a16

400.

440.

3572

1657

4C

lode

et a

l. (1

999)

3.7

(U/P

b)4

Fle

tche

r et

al.

(200

0);

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win

(20

00, 2

002a

) E

lang

PO C

GD

Eas

t Sun

daW

est S

umba

wa

600

0.35

0.4

2100

240

Mau

la a

nd L

evet

(19

96)

2.7

(U

/Pb)

4G

arw

in (

2000

)So

ripe

saIS

Ban

daE

ast S

umba

wa

1C

arlil

e an

d M

itche

ll (1

994)

Wet

ar D

epos

its*

VM

S-H

SB

anda

Wet

ar5.

44.

223

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

5-4;

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Se

wel

l and

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atle

y (1

994)

; van

Lee

uwen

(1

994)

Kel

ian*

ISC

entr

al

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tral

97

1.85

179

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

20 (

K/A

r)va

n L

eeuw

en e

t al.

(199

0)K

alim

anta

nK

alim

anta

nM

ount

Mur

o*IS

Cen

tral

C

entr

al

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3.1

51R

esea

rch

Info

rmat

ion

Ear

ly

Sim

mon

s an

d B

row

ne

Kal

iman

tan

Kal

iman

tan

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t (19

97)

Mio

cene

(?)

(199

0); T

hom

pson

et a

l. (1

994)

Mir

ahIS

Cen

tral

C

entr

al

6.0

1.96

12R

esea

rch

Info

rmat

ion

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iman

tan

Kal

iman

tan

Uni

t (20

02)

Mas

upa

Ria

ISC

entr

al

Cen

tral

0.

312

.84

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

25 (

K/A

r)T

hom

pson

et a

l. (1

994)

Kal

iman

tan

Kal

iman

tan

Bau

Dep

osits

D

SC

entr

al

Bau

7.3

4.3

31C

ox (

1992

) (e

stim

ate

13-1

0 (K

/Ar)

Met

al M

inin

g A

genc

y of

(S

araw

ak)*

Kal

iman

tan

incl

udes

Tai

Par

it an

d Ja

pan

(198

5) (

on fe

lsic

Ju

gan)

intr

usio

ns)

Mam

ut (

Saba

h)*

PO C

GD

Kin

abal

u Pl

uton

Mam

ut-N

ungo

k19

60.

480.

594

198

Sing

er e

t al.

(200

2)7.

0 (K

/Ar)

; Im

ai (

2000

); B

ello

n an

d 6.

8-6.

4 (K

/Ar)

Ran

gin

(199

1)A

wak

Mas

ISA

rc u

nrel

ated

?C

entr

al S

ulaw

esi

221.

942

Res

earc

h In

form

atio

n U

nit (

2002

)Su

ngai

Ker

uhIS

Mer

atus

-M

erat

us4.

31.

88

van

Lee

uwen

(19

94)

Sum

atra

Not

es: G

rade

-ton

nage

dat

a in

clud

es c

ombi

ned

reso

urce

s an

d pa

st p

rodu

ctio

n, e

xcep

t for

Gra

sber

g, I

OZ/

DO

Z, D

OM

, Big

Gos

san,

Kuc

ing

Lia

r de

posi

ts, w

hich

incl

ude

rese

rves

as

of D

ecem

ber

1998

1 Pr

esen

t or

hist

oric

min

es a

re in

dica

ted

by *

2 T

he K

enca

na r

esou

rce

figur

e is

not

incl

uded

in th

e en

dow

men

t est

imat

es q

uote

d in

the

text

or

figur

es3

Min

eral

izat

ion

styl

es: D

S =

diss

emin

ated

sed

imen

tary

roc

k-ho

sted

, HS

= hi

gh-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, IS

= in

term

edia

te-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, LS

= lo

w-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, PO

CG

D =

por

-ph

yry

copp

er-g

old

= PO

CM

D =

por

phyr

y co

pper

-mol

ybde

num

, SK

= s

karn

, VM

S =

volc

anic

-ass

ocia

ted

mas

sive

sul

fide

or e

xhal

ativ

e4

206 P

b/23

8 U a

ges

of z

irco

ns u

sing

a s

ensi

tive

high

-mas

s re

solu

tion

ion

mic

ropr

obe

(SH

RIM

P II

)

App

endi

x 4

(C

ont.)

Mag

mat

icM

etric

tonn

esC

uA

u C

onta

ined

Con

tain

edR

efer

ence

for

Dep

osit1

Styl

e3ar

cR

egio

n/di

stri

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rn

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25

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 25

App

endi

x 6

Gra

de-T

onna

ge a

nd A

ge C

hara

cter

sitic

s of

Sig

nific

ant G

old

and

Cop

per

Dep

osits

Ass

ocia

ted

with

the

Bur

man

Arc

of M

yana

mar

Mag

mat

ic

Met

ric to

nnes

Cu

Au

Con

tain

edC

onta

ined

Ref

eren

ce fo

r D

epos

it1St

yle2

arc

Reg

ion/

dist

rict

(mill

ion

t)(%

)(g

/t)C

u (0

00s

t)A

u (t

)gr

ade-

tonn

age

data

Age

(M

a)R

efer

ence

for

age

Mon

ywa*

H

SB

urm

an a

rcM

onyw

a90

50.

4036

20Iv

anho

e M

ines

(20

03)

19 (

K/A

r)K

yaw

Win

and

(L

etpa

daun

g)K

irw

in (

1998

)M

onyw

a*

HS

Bur

man

arc

Mon

ywa

226

0.40

905

Ivan

hoe

Min

es (

2003

)13

(K

/Ar)

Kya

w W

in a

nd

(Kyi

sint

aung

)K

irw

in (

1998

)K

yauk

paht

o *

DS/

IS

Bur

man

bac

karc

Kya

ukpa

hto-

43.

8115

Min

proc

(19

85)

Mio

cene

(?)

Mitc

hell

et a

l. (1

999)

Inda

wgy

i

Not

es: G

rade

-ton

nage

dat

a in

clud

es c

ombi

ned

reso

urce

s an

d pa

st p

rodu

ctio

n1

Pres

ent o

r hi

stor

ic m

ines

are

indi

cate

d by

*2

Min

eral

izat

ion

styl

es: D

S =

diss

emin

ated

sed

imen

tary

roc

k-ho

sted

, HS

= hi

gh-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

, IS

= in

term

edia

te-s

ulfid

atio

n ep

ither

mal

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