tennessee naturalist program...temperate, and boreal. while angiosperms and temperate forests are...

TennesseeNaturalistProgram

GeologyandEcologyFounda7onandContext

EnhancedStudyGuide

10/2018

TennesseeNaturalistProgramwww.tnnaturalist.org

InspiringthedesiretolearnandshareTennessee’snature

These study guides are designed to reflect and reinforce the Tennessee Naturalist Program’scoursecurriculumoutline,developedandapprovedbytheTNPBoardofDirectors, forusebyTNP instructors to plan andorganize classroomdiscussion andfieldwork components andbystudentsasameaningfulresourcetoreviewandenhanceclassinstruc7on.

ThisguidewascompiledspecificallyfortheTennesseeNaturalistProgramandreviewedbyexpertsinthesedisciplines.Itcontainscopyrightedworkfromotherauthorsandpublishers,usedherebypermission.

NopartofthisdocumentmaybereproducedorsharedwithoutconsentoftheTennesseeNaturalistProgramandappropriatecopyrightholders.

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GeologyandEcologyFounda/on&Context

Objec/vesSetthefounda7onandcontextforfutureclassesthroughanexamina7onofTennessee’sgeology,geography,andclimateandanexplora7onofgeneralecologicalconceptsgoverningbiologicalcommuni7esandecosystemsinthestate.

Time4hours--2inclass,2infield

SuggestedMaterials(*recommendedbutnotrequired,**TNPflashdrive)• TheGeologicHistoryofTennessee,RobertA.Miller,Bulle7n74(TennesseeDivisionof

Geology)**• TennesseeClimateandSoils(pdffromSoilsofTennessee,SpringerandElder)**• TennesseeSoilMap1980**• TerrestrialEcologicalSystemsofTennessee,July2013,NatureServe**• TennesseeEcoregionsMapandEcoregionsCharacteris7cs**• GeologyandEcologyEnhancedStudyGuide,TNP**• Samplesofcommonrocks/minerals(classroom)

ExpectedOutcomesStudentswillgainabasicunderstandingof1. geologichistoryofTennessee2. physiographicprovincesinTennessee3. rocks,fossils,andsoilsinTennessee4. climateandweatherpa^ernsinTennessee5. generalecologicalconceptsincludingbiologicalsystemshierarchy,pa^ernsandprocesses;

biogeochemicalcycles(water,elements,nutrient);energyflow(foodweb)6.communitystructureanddynamics,speciesinterac7ons,succession,biodiversity7. environmentalchallenges

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GeologyandEcologyCurriculumOutline

I. Geology,Geography,Soils A. GeologichistoryofTennessee 1. events7meline 2. primaryeventsandcurrentgeographicresultspergranddivision 3. animalsandplants B. Physiographicprovinceswithingranddivisions 1. provincedescrip7ons C. Shapingprocesses 1. geologicforces:deposi7on,sedimenta7on,weathering,erosion,volcanism,plate

tectonics,metamorphism,faul7ng,folding 2. water 3. eleva7on 4. topography D. Karsttopography--caves,undergroundstreams,andsinkholes E. Rocks 1. threeprimaryclassifica7ons--igneous,sedimentary,metamorphic 2. commonrockandmineraltypes–dolomite,limestone,chert,shale,sandstone, siltstone,quartzite,greywacke,phyllite,granite,etc. F. Fossils G. Soils 1. forma7onandcomponents 2. physical/chemicalproper7esandstructure 3. profile 4. roleofsoilasanecosystem--livinghabitat 5. distribu7onofsoiltypes

II. ClimateandWeather A. Defineanddis7nguish B. Weatherpa^ernsandyearlyprocesses 1. basicmeasurements 2. clouds C. Climatesta7s7csinTennessee 1. datato1980,data1981-2010 2. microclimates–pa^ernsanddeterminants D. Phenology

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III. Ecology A. Define 1. roleofevolu7on B. Ecologicalsystems 1. hierarchy--individual,popula7on,community,ecosystem,landscape,biome,

biosphere 2. pa^ernsandprocessesineach C. Biogeochemicalcycles 1. water 2. elements--carbon,nitrogen,oxygen,sulfur,phosphorus 3. nutrients D. Community 1. speciesdynamics--speciesrichness,abundance,dominants,keystonespecies 2. communitystructure--boundariesandsize 3. energyflow--foodweb,trophiclevels,producers/consumers/decomposers 4. speciesinterac7on--compe77on,niche,resourcepar77oning,preda7on,and symbiosis(parasi7sm,mutualism,commensalism) E. Successionanddisturbance F. Ecosystems 1. aqua7cenvironments 2. terrestrialenvironments a.generalizedforesttypesinTennessee b.specializedcommuni7esinTennessee G. Biodiversity 1. define 2. diversityinTennessee H. Environmentalchallenges(landmanagementandstewardship) 1. pollu7on 2. development--habitatloss,fragmenta7on 3. nonna7veinvasivespecies 4. rareandendangeredspecies 5. resourceextrac7on--mining,logging,poaching,waterservices 6. climatechange

IV. Resources A. Publica7ons B.Organiza7ons C. Internet

V. ReviewQues7ons

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GeologyandEcologyEnhancedStudyGuide

I. Geology,Geography,Soils

GeologicHistoryofTennessee

EventsTimeline

PaleozoicEra• Seas--PrecambrianandearlyCambrian(570millionyearsago)• NashvilleDomeUplik--lateOrdovicianPeriod(450millionyearsago)• WestTennesseeUplik--midPennsylvanianPeriod(300millionyearsago)• AlleghenyOrogeny--earlytomidPermianPeriod(280millionyearsago)

MesozoicEra• MississippiEmbayment--lateCretaceousPeriod(65millionyearsago)

CenozoicEra• GlacialLoessDeposi7on--lateQuaternaryPeriod(12,000yearsago)

ReliefMapRela/ngGeologytoPhysiographicProvinces

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TheGeologicHistoryofTennessee,RobertA.Miller,Bulle7n74,page10,Fig.7TennesseeDepartmentofEnvironmentandConserva7on,DivisionofGeology

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PrimaryEventsandCurrentGeographicResultsperGrandDivision DuringthePrecambrianandmuchoftheearlyPaleozoicEra,Tennesseelayontheoceanfloor,coveredbyadvancingandrecedingseawaters.Layersofsedimentthatwouldformlimestone,dolomite,chert,shale,siltstone,sandstone,andclaystoneweredepositedonabaseofigneousandmetamorphicrock.At7mes,theseaswerequiteshallow,containinganevolvingandincreasinglyvibrantfauna.Aslandbegantoemerge,floradeveloped. TheAppalachianFoldbeltcharacterizesEastTennesseeandreflectsamountainbuildingepisode,calledtheAlleghenyOrogeny,resul7ngfromthecon7nentalcollisionbetweenNorthAmericaandAfricathatcreatedthesupercon7nentPangaeaduringthePermianPeriod.ThemostobviousproductistheSouthernAppalachians,alsocalledtheBlueRidgeMountains,par7cularlyinthestatesofVirginia,NorthCarolina,SouthCarolina,andGeorgia.InTennessee,theBlueRidgeMountainsaresome7mesreferredtoastheUnakaMountains.TheBlueRidgeProvincehasundergoneperiodsofuplikaserosionalforceshaveworndownthemountains.CambrianandPrecambrianrocklayersareexposedintheBlueRidge,andtheextremepressurethatbuiltthemountains,shikedsomeoftheseolderlayersofrockontopofyoungerlayers.Theyoungerlimestoneserodeoutfromundertheolderrocklayersproducing“windows,”likeCadesCoveintheSmokies,andotherkarstforma7onssuchascavesandundergroundstreams. InTennessee’sValleyandRidgeProvince,therocklayersexperiencedextensivefolding(likeabunchedrug)andfaul7ngfromtheAlleghenyOrogeny.Thesefoldsandfracturesledtodifferingratesofweatheringasmoreresistantrocklayerserodedslowerthansokerrocks,producingaseriesofridgesandvalleys.Rocksda7ngfromCambriantoMississippian,a250-million-yearagespan,canbefoundinthisprovince. TheCumberlandPlateauischaracterizedbyacapoftough,resistantPennsylvaniansandstone,forminganessen7allyleveltablelanddespiteerodedgorges.TheabrupteasternescarpmentisalikelyresultfromtheAlleghenyOrogenyandthehighlydissectedwesternescarpmentisaproductoferosion.SequatchieValleydevelopedalongafar-westernfaultlineassociatedwithmountainbuilding.However,majorgeologiceventstotheeastandwesthavehadrela7velyli^leaffecthere.Theshikingmosaicofshallowseasandemergingvegeta7onduringthePennsylvanianPeriod,lekdeadplantmaterialthatwouldcompressintocoaldepositsontheplateau. MiddleTennessee’sgeographyisaresultoftheNashvilleDome,adeforma7onorwarpingofsedimentaryrocklayersduetoperiodicuplikpressurefrombelowa^ributedtoaseriesoforogeniceventsbeginningintheOrdovicianPeriodwiththeTaconianOrogeny.Thispressure,centerednearpresent-dayMurfreesboro,raisedthelandandcrackedthebedrocksurface.Thesecracksallowederosiontoworkmoreefficientlyonthesokerlimestonesbeneath,ul7matelyproducingarela7velyflatandlowdepressioncalledtheCentralBasinorNashvilleBasin. Thebasin’serosionspreadsintotheHighlandRimwhichencirclesthebasin.AchertlayerofsilicainlimestoneoftheMississippianPeriod’sFortPayneForma7onhasslowedtheerosion’sprogression.TheWesternHighlandRimislarger,hillier,andmoredissected,whereastheEasternHighlandRim’ssurfaceisfla^er,formingmoreofaplain.Fingersoferosionclimbthe

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CumberlandPlateau’ssteepwesternslope,producingahighlydissectedescarpmentwherecavesarequiteprominent. Adepressionwithinafailedrikzone,centeredalongwhatisnowtheMississippiRiver,droppedmuchofWestTennesseeinthelateCretaceousandearlyTer7aryPeriods,allowingtheseatoreturnduringtheMississippiEmbayment.FreshsandandgraveldepositscoverederodedstonefromearlierPaleozoicsediments.LateglacialadvancesinNorthAmerica(Wisconsinglacialmaximumes7matedat25,000-20,000yearsago)groundrocksintoafinedust.Post-glacialfloodsandwesterlywindpa^ernsspreadthisglacialdust,calledloess,acrossmuchofWestTennessee,influencingthesoilsandsuccessfulhistoryofagricultureinthisregion.

AnimalsandPlants Thedevelopmentoflifefollowsanevolu7onarypa^ernthroughthegeologicalerasandperiods.Unicellularandmul7cellularorganismsfromPrecambrianenterthePaleozoicerawithabang,termedthe“CambrianExplosion”fortherapiddevelopmentanddiversifica7onofinvertebrates.Fishes,thefirstvertebrates,appearandprogressthroughthemid-Paleozoic.Frommidtolate-Paleozoic,earlyspore-producingplantsdependentonmoistenvironmentsmigrateontolandandevolveseedsasthelandscapedries. Gymnospermsandrep7les,par7cularlydinosaurs,risetodominanceintheMesozoicEra.Mammalsandbirdsappear.IntheCretaceousPeriod,angiospermsbegintheirdevelopmentandrise.Followingamassex7nc7onevent,likelytriggeredbythemeteoriteresponsiblefortheChicxulubImpactCrater65mya,floweringplantsandmammalsflourishanddiversifythroughtheearlyandmidCenozoic(theTer7aryPeriod,nowbrokenintoPaleogeneandNeogeneperiods).Humanevolu7ontakesplaceinthelateNeogene(PlioceneEpoch),andalterna7ngglacialandinterglacialperiodscharacterizethePleistoceneEpoch(2.5myato12,000ya.) Twoimportantaspectsofearlygeologicalhistoryplaypar7cularlysignificantrolesinthedevelopmentofTennessee’scurrentfloraandfauna.WhenPangaeabreaksup,thelandmassLaurasia,whichwouldbecomeNorthAmerica,Europe,andAsia,splitsfromGondwanaland(SouthAmerican,Africa,Australia,Antarc7ca,India).AsLaurasiamigratesnorthward,shiksposi7on,andbeginstobreakup,itexperiencesanarrayofclimatecondi7ons--tropical,arid,temperate,andboreal.WhileangiospermsandtemperateforestsaredevelopingintheCenozoic,EuropeandAsiaares7llconnectedtoNorthAmericabylandbridgesthatfacilitatemigra7on,allowingthesethreecon7nentstosharemanyfamiliesandgeneraofplantsandanimals.Pleistoceneglaciers,however,leaveimpressionsonthebiotaofeach. Glacialadvanceisuneven,havingagreatereffectinNorthAmericaandEuropethaninAsia,whereglaciersarerestrictedtoafewhighmountains.ThedeeperadvanceoficesheetsinEuropeandNorthAmericaforceorganismstomigratesouth.InEurope,theeast-westmountainchainsinterfere,causingtheex7nc7onofmanyspecies.TheaffectonNorthAmericaisfairlymild.Asiasufferstheleastandhasanespeciallyrichanddiversefloraandfauna. InNorthAmerica,theAppalachianMountainsfollowanortheast,southwestorienta7on.Thisfortuitousposi7oningallowsplantsandanimalstomigratesouthaheadofglacialadvances,preservingagreaterdiversityofthecon7nent’sfloraandfauna.Attheheightofglacia7on,

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mostofTennessee’slandscapeiscoveredwithborealforestsofspruce,fir,andjackpinewhilethemountainsaresnowytundra.Researchershypothesizebroadleafdeciduoustreesmigrateddownrivercorridorsinthedeepsouthwheretheycouldfindrefugeun7lawarmingclimateallowedtheirreturn.Astheglaciersretreat,theborealconifersfollow.However,smallpopula7onsofspruceandfirsimplymoveupslopeintheSouthernAppalachianstocoolerclimatesatthehighesteleva7ons(over4,500feet).Afewhardwoodspeciestypicallyfoundfurthernorthjointhem,contribu7ngtotheestablishmentoftwouncommonforestcommuni7es--NorthernHardwoodsandSpruce-Fir--alongwithassociatedhigh-eleva7onshrubs,herbs,andwildlife.

Primarygeologysources:(fullbibliographicinforma7oninsec7onIV.Resources)OurRestlessEarth:TheGeologicRegionsofTennessee,EdwardT.LutherTheGeologicHistoryofTennessee,RobertA.Miller,Bulle7n74,TennesseeDivisionofGeologyForestsinPeril:TrackingDeciduousTreesfromIce-AgeRefugesintotheGreenhouseWorld,HazelR.Delcourt

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PhysiographicProvincesWithinGrandDivisions

� TennesseeDepartmentofEnvironmentandConserva7on

MostTennesseeresources,par7cularlyolderones,usethefollowingprovincedesigna7ons.AfewsourcesmayseparatetheWesternValleyoftheTennesseeRiverasadis7nctprovincebetweenMiddleandWestTennessee.

EastTennessee(AppalachianHighlands) BlueRidgeProvinceorUnakaProvince RidgeandValleyorValleyandRidgeProvince CumberlandPlateauProvince CumberlandMountains MiddleTennessee(InteriorLowPlateau) HighlandRimProvince CentralBasinProvince WestTennessee(CoastalPlain) CoastalPlainProvince WestTennesseeUplands WestTennesseePlain MississippiAlluvialPlainProvince

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USGSDesigna/ons ThefollowinglistofphysiographicregionsisfromtheUSGeologicalSurveywithdifferent,morecurrentnames.Someresourcesmayusethesedesigna7ons.

AppalachianHighlandsDivision--EastTennessee BlueRidgeProvince SouthernSec7on ValleyandRidgeProvince TennesseeSec7on AppalachianPlateausProvince CumberlandPlateauSec7on CumberlandMountainSec7onInteriorPlainsDivision--MiddleTennessee InteriorLowPlateaus(Province) HighlandRimSec7on NashvilleBasin(Sec7on)Atlan7cPlainDivision--WestTennessee CoastalPlain(Province) EastGulfCoastalPlain(Sec7on) MississippiAlluvialPlain(Sec7on)

[TermsinparentheseswerenotusedbyUSGSandwereaddedhereforuniformity.]

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ViewfromMt.LeConte,GreatSmokyMountainsNa7onalPark(MargieHunter)

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ProvinceDescrip/ons

EastTennessee--AppalachianHighlands

BlueRidge(UnakaMountains)• SouthernAppalachianpeaksto6,643’elev.• rugged,steepslopesandswikstreams,waterfalls,cascades• valleyfloors1000to1500’elev.• rocklayersintenselyfoldedandfaulted• igneous,metamorphicPrecambriangranite,schist,gneiss• Cambrianmetamorphosedsedimentaryquartzite,sandstone,slate,shale,conglomerate• karsttopographyinlimestone--caves,sinkholes,undergroundstreams• forestedslopes--spruce-fir(highesteleva7on),northernhardwoods(higheleva7on),

hemlock,oak-pine,andcove(mesophy7c);shrub(heath)andgrassbaldsonsomemountaintops

• limestonewindows(valleys),richsoil,farmedanddeveloped

ValleyandRidge • northeast/southwestridgesofcherty,sandyrock(1500to3000’elev.),forested• alterna7ngvalleysofmoresolublerock(750’lowestelev.),developedandfarmed• sedimentaryandmetamorphosedCambrianandOrdovicianlimestone,dolomite,

marble,shale,andsandstone;foldedandfaulted• karsttopography--caves,sinkholes,undergroundstreams• patchprairiesandcalcareous(limestone)glades• some7mescalledtheGreatValley

AppalachianPlateaus• CumberlandPlateau

• tableland,flattorollingterrain(1800’eleva7on),mostlyforest• SequatchieValley(south)andElkValley(north)erosionalstreamcoursesfromfaults• waterfalls• sedimentaryPennsylvaniansandstone(hardandresistant,forms“flat”top),

conglomerateswithsiltstone,shale,andcoalseams• escarpmentslopes--Pennsylvaniansandstone,Mississippianshale,limestone,and

dolomite• karsttopography--caves,sinkholes,undergroundstreams,par7cularlywesternedge• rockhouses--shallowcavelikeopeningsonclifforbluff,weatheredlimestoneunder

sandstone• CumberlandMountains

• ridgesto3000’elev.• species-richmesophy7cforests

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MiddleTennessee--InteriorLowPlateau

HighlandRim• flattohillyterrainsurroundingCentralBasin,easternandwesterncomponents• 900-1000’elev.• waterfalls• sedimentaryMississippianlimestoneandFortPaynechert• streamsexposeDevonian,Silurian,Ordovicianlimestones,shales;ironmininghistory• karsttopography--caves,sinkholes,undergroundstreams,par7cularlyeasternsec7on• forestedhillsand“barrens,”prairie-likeopeningsdominatedbygrassesandforbs

(herbaceous,non-grassfloweringplants)

Central(Nashville)Basin• flattogentlyrollingterrain,mesic(moist)toxeric(dry)forests• 600-750’elev.• sedimentaryOrdovicianlimestone(innerbasin)• Silurian,Devonianlimestone,shale(outerbasinoroutliers)• karsttopography--caves,sinkholes,andundergroundstreams• limestonecedargladecomplex--gravelglades,gladebarrens,andgladewoods

� S7llhouseHollowFalls,WesternHighlandRim(MargieHunter)

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WestTennessee--CoastalPlain

WestTennesseeUplands• hillytorollingterrain,acidicforests,pasture• 500’eleva7on• sedimentaryLateMesozoic,Cenozoic--sand,clay,silt,gravel• smallnumberofcavesrestrictedtoSilurianlimestoneonTennesseeRiver• drainagedivideforTennessee/MississippiRivers

WestTennesseePlain• flattorollingterrain,moreextensive,widelyfarmed• soilfragipans(hardclaylayer1-3feetdown)common• gentleslopeleadingto100’bluffsaboveMississippiRiver• sedimentaryCenozoicsand,gravel,silt,clay,glacialloessdeposits• bo^omlandforests,swampy

MississippiAlluvialPlain• riverfloodplain,widthupto14miles• loamy,siltysoils• sedimentaryQuaternarymud,sand,gravel,silt,glacialloessdeposits• ReelfootLakeformedduringearthquakesalongNewMadridfaultinlate1811andearly

1812,Feb.1812waslastandlargestquakewithlandsubsidenceof1.5to6meters

� WestTennessee(MargieHunter)

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KarstTopography

Karsttopographydevelopsinsolublebedrocks,usuallycarbonaterockssuchaslimestoneordolomite,wheremildlyacidicwateractsonweaklysolublerocktodissolvethesurfacealongfracturesorbeddingplanes.Over7metheseareasenlarge,andanundergroundsystemofstreamsandcavesdevelops.Ifachamberbecomeslargeenoughandthelayerofearthontopthinenough,itcancollapseresul7nginasinkhole,par7cularlywhengroundwaterlevelsdrop. Sinkingstreams,thosethatdisappearunderground,areauniquekarstfeature.InTennessee,thewaterofVirginFallsontheCumberlandPlateau,emergesfromacavetospillovera110-footcliffanddisappearintoanothercaveatthebase.Dryvalleysdevelopwhenpermeablebedrockdrainsallwaterfromthesurface.AcommunityinTownsend,TN,(BlountCounty)derivesitnamefromthisphenomenonassociatedwithTuckaleecheeCaverns.Highrainfallmaycausesomelocalspringstoexperienceasurgeinwaterflow.Groundwaterisatgreaterriskfrompollu7oninareasofkarsttopographyduetothesemoredirectconnec7onswithsurfacewater. Tennesseehasover9,600documentedcaves,morethananyotherstate.AccordingtoTheNatureConservancy,thesecavesharborhundredsofrareanduniquespecies,mostlycrustaceans,insects,andarachnids.Bats,includingendangeredGrayBatsandIndianaBats,usecavesforhiberna7on,okenformingextensivecolonies.ThehighestdensityofcavesinthestateoccursalongthewesternescarpmentoftheCumberlandPlateau.BullCaveintheGreatSmokyMountainsNa7onalPark(BlountCounty)isrecognizedasthedeepestcaveinTennesseeandrankedthirddeepestintheeasternUnitedStateswithatotaldepthof924feetandlengthof2.27milesfeaturingsomeofthesteepestclimbsandver7caldrops.Thereare33sinkholesinthestatewithdepthsover100feet.

CaveDensityMap

�TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgency

TennesseeLandforms--h^p://web.eecs.utk.edu/~dunigan/landforms/sinks.php h^p://www.nature.org/ourini7a7ves/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/tennessee/

placesweprotect/tennessee-caves.xml CavesofTennessee,ThomasC.Barr,Jr.,TennesseeDivisionofGeology,Bulle7n64,1961.

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GeneralGeologicShapingProcesses

• Geologicforcescanaddmaterialtothelandscapethroughdeposi7on,sedimenta7on,orvolcanism;removematerialthroughweatheringanderosion;oralterexis7ngmaterialthroughfaul7ng,folding,platetectonics,andmetamorphism.

• Waterisatremendousshapingforce,bothsurface(carvingstreamvalleys,removalanddeposi7onofmaterial)andunderground(dissolu7onofsolublerockincaves,undergroundstreams).

• Eleva7onaffectstheflowofwater,removalanddeposi7onofmaterial,andclimatecondi7ons.

• Asthetopographychangesover7me,itbeginstoexertitsowninfluencereinforcingandfurtheringthosechanges.

CommonRockandMineralTypes

Rocksarecomposedofoneormoremineralsandfallintothreemainclassifica7ons--igneous,sedimentary,andmetamorphic--eachcreatedthroughadifferentprocess.Eachcanbebrokendownintosediment.Eachcanbemetamorphosed.Eachcanbemeltedintomagma.Thisistherockcycle. Igneousrocksareformedwhenmoltenliquidmagmabelowtheearth’scrusteithercoolsbelowground(intrusive,largercrystals)orcomestothesurface(extrusive,smallerornocrystals).TheymaybefoundalongtheHiwasseeandOcoeeRivers,BlueRidge,andValleyandRidge. Sedimentaryrocksareformedbylithifica7on(cemen7ng,compac7ng,andhardening)ofexis7ngrockpar7clesorbones,shells,etc.,fromlivingorganisms.Deposi7onsofweatheredanderodedpar7clesofrocksandotherdetritusarecementedtogether,compactedandhardenedover7mebytheweightandpressureofperhapsthousandsoffeetofaddi7onalsedimentsabovethem.Typically,thesedimentssortoutbysizeindeposi7onresul7nginuniformpar7clesizes.Thesesorteddeposi7onalrocksareclas7csediments.Chemicalsedimentsformfrommineralsinsolu7onthatharden,assomelimestonesdo. Metamorphic(“changeform”)rocksresultfromextremepressureandhightemperatureappliedtoexis7ngrocks,conver7ngthemtonewtypesofrock.Thispressuremaycomefromthousandsoffeetofbedrockaboveorthecollisionoftectonicplates.Metamorphicrocksareharderthanothersandmoreresistanttoweathering.Anysingletypeofrockwillalwaysbecomeapar7culartypeofmetamorphicrock,i.e.,shalealwaysbecomesslate.

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RockTypesGranite--acoarse-grained,intrusiveigneousrockcontainingsilica-richquartzandfeldspar,

botharefelsicmineralsproducingacidicsoils(tantoreddish).Granitemaybegrayorpink.Basalt--(bah-salt’)afine-grained,extrusiveigneousrocklowinsilica,highinmagnesiumand

iron(mafic)producinghighersoilpH(brownish).ItisdarkcoloredandmoreprevalentinNorthCarolina.

Gneiss--(nice’)acoarse-grainedmetamorphicrockfromigneousorsedimentaryrocks.Ithasalterna7nglightanddarkcoloredbands.

Schist--amediumgrade,foliatedmetamorphicrockwithmediumtolargemicaflakesroughlyparallelinaplaty,sheetlikearrangement.Schistformsatahighertemperaturewithlargermicagrains.

Conglomerate--aclas7csedimentaryrockwithlarge,roundedfragmentsofotherrocksGraywacke(greywacke)--aroughsandstonewithvariouslysizedfragmentsofquartz,

feldspar,androckinaclaymatrix.Cons7tuentfragmentsareusuallyangular.Duetoitspar7clevariety,graywackeisconsidered“immature.”Itistypicallydarkincolorandhard.

Quartzite--ametamorphosedquartzsandstone,wherethequartzgrainsrecrystallizeandinterlockerasingtheoriginaltextureandsedimentarystructure.Itisusuallywhitetogray.

Sandstone--aclas7csedimentaryrockdefinedbygrainsize:sand-sizedmineralsorrockgrains,commonlyquartzorfeldspar.Itmaybetan,brown,yellow,red,gray,pink,whiteorblack.

Siltstone--aclas7csedimentaryrockwithsilt-sizedpar7cles,smallerpores,andmoreclaycontentthansandstone.Itcanbeconfusedwithshalebutdoesnotsplitintothinsheets.

Shale--afine-grainedclas7csedimentaryrockofmudwithflakesofclaymineralsand7nypar7clesofotherminerals.Shalesbreaksintothinparallellayers,acharacteris7ccalledfissility.Typicalcolorisgray.

Slate--metamorphosedshale,slateisfinegrainedandlayered(folia7on),okenbreakinginsmoothplanesparalleltothemetamorphiccompression.

Phyllite--ametamorphosedslatewithfine-grainedmicaflakesimpar7ngasheen.Marble--ametamorphosedlimestoneordolomitethathasrecrystallizedintoaninterlocking

mosaicofcarbonatecrystals,modifyingorerasingsedimentarytextureandstructure.Characteris7cswirlsandveinsareduetomineralimpuri7essuchasclay,silt,sand,chert,ironoxides.Colorsarewhite,gray,pink,andblue/black.

Chert--afine-grainedchemicalsedimentaryrockcomposedofsilica,typicallygray,brownish,orreddish.Itisfoundinlimestonedeposits,wheretherockhasundergonesomechemicalorphysicalchangeakerforma7onthataltersthemineralogyandtexturetoformchert.Chertformsconchoidalfractures(curvedplanesofsepara7on)whenbroken.

Limestone--asedimentaryrockcomposedprimarilyofcalciumcarbonate.Mostgrainsinlimestonearefragmentsofmarineorganisms.Othermaterialsmayincludesilica,clay,silt,andsand.Chemicalprecipita7onofcalciteisanotherformoflimestone,suchasstalagmitesandstalac7tesincaves.LimestoneistheTennesseeStateRock.

Dolomite(dolostone)--asedimentaryrockofcalciummagnesiumcarbonate,wheremagnesiumhasreplacedatleast50percentofthecalcium.

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Fossils Fossilsareremains,impressions,ortracesofanimalsorplantsofformergeologicages.They

aregenerallythehardpartsorimprintsoforganismsfromprehistoric7mes,suchasshells,bones,teeth,petrifiedwood,impressionsofplants,ortracksandtrails.Fossiliza7onusuallybeginswhenthehardpartsofanorganismbecomesburiedinmudorsanddepositedinariver,lake,orocean.Thesehardpartsmayremainunalteredformillionsofyears,evenakerthesurroundingsedimentshavebeenheatedandcompressedtoformshale,limestone,orsandstone.Morecommonly,however,theybecomealteredthroughcontactwithgroundwater,whichcancausefossilstolosetheiroriginalcolorandluster,becomestainedwithmineralsorevendissolveandbecomereplacedwithmineralssuchascalcite,pyrite,orquartz.Fossilshellsaregenerallymoresuscep7blethanbonesandteethtodestruc7onbygroundwater. Anyfossilrestrictedtoanarrowgeologic7merangeiscalledaguidefossil.Theyarehelpfulinda7ngrockunits.Rockscontainingfossilsarecalledfossiliferous.Manyofourfossilswerefilterfeedersdependentoncurrentstobringtheirfood,inges7ngalgaeandphytoplanktonwhichrequiresunlighttophotosynthesize.Theirdependenceoncurrentandsunlightforfoodsourcesindicatesshallowseas.

(FossilCollecLnginNorthCarolina,Bulle7n89,Dept.ofEnvironment,Health,andNaturalResources,Divisionof

LandResources,1988,1998.TheGeologicHistoryofTennessee,Bulle7n74,TennesseeDivisionofGeology,1979)

TennesseeFossilsbyPeriod(TheGeologicHistoryofTennessee,Bulle7n74,TennesseeDivisionofGeology,1979)

Cambrian• Allanimalsinvertebrates,allfossilsmarineinorigin• Boringsandtrailsofproblema7calworms(Scolithus)inNicholsShale• Ostracods,verysmallbivalvecrustaceansinMurrayShale,thefirstdefiniteanimals

foundinthefossilrecord• “AgeofTrilobites,”widespreadinCambrianrocksChilhowee(HesseForma7on)• Brachiopods(molluskwithbivalveshell),gastropods(molluskwithsinglecoiledshell)in

LowerCambrian

Ordovician• Periodcharacterizedbydiversityandprofusionofmarineinvertebrates• Shellsandsecre7onsfromanimalsandalgaecomprisethemajorityofcarbonatebeds• Coralsfirstappear,abundantlyinCentralBasin(invertebratessecreteexternalskeleton)• Bryozoans(aqua7cinvertebratesinbranched,mosslikecolonies)&graptolites

(invertebratesformingbranchedcolonies)• Brachiopods,gastropods,andcephalopods(molluskwithlargeheadandtentacles)• Ostracodes• Trilobites

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� Brachiopods

� Gastropod

� Bryozoan

� CrinoidStems (allimages:MargieHunter)

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Silurian• VerysimilartoOrdovicianlife,almostallclassesofmarineinvertebratesrepresented• Corals,brachiopods,cephalopods,gastropods,trilobites,sponges,crinoids• WaldronShaleinMiddleTennessee,wellpreservedexamples• BrownsportForma7onalongWesternValleyofTennesseeRiverwithsoil-freerocky

gladescontainssponges,crinoids,andcorals.• Firstlandplantsandair-breathinganimalsappearatthis7me,butleavenofossils

Devonian• Marineinvertebratelifesimilartotwopreviousperiods,brachiopodsdevelopmany

dis7nctspecies• “AgeofFishes,”avarietyoffishfossilsappear• Fossilizedplantremains,spores,algae• Conodonts,toothlikeorplatelikepiecesofanunknownanimal

Mississippian• Limestonesareoftwotextures--coarsegrained(madeoflargershellfragments)and

finegrained(secretedorchemicallyprecipitatedlimeooze)• “AgeofCrinoids,”marineanimala^achedtoseabedwithastalk,head,andfeeding

arms,stemsegmentscommonfossils(Indianmoney)• Foraminifera,appearingreatnumbers(billions),verysmall,one-celledanimalswith

calciumcarbonateshells• Vertebrateremains,fishbonesandteeth

Pennsylvanian• “AgeofForests,”deadvegeta7onformedcoalinswampyenvironments• Plantfossilsofscaletrees(Lepidodendron),cane-likeplants(Sigillaria),rushesandreeds

(Calamites),andfernsfoundincoalandinshalesabovethecoal• Fishscales

Cretaceous(breakof135millionyearsinrockrecord)• Deposi7onduringMississippiEmbayment(WestTennessee)• Evolu7onarydevelopmentofmarinelifeevidentinspecies• Diverse,well-preservedspecimensincludinggastropods,cephalopods,pelecypods

(bivalves)• Vertebrateremainsofmarinefishandrep7les

EarlyTer7ary• LagoonsandlakesinWestTennessee• Leaves,flowers,stemsofplantremainsascarbonizedimprintsinEoceneclaybed• Whales• Turtles

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Soil

Soilservesasmorethansimplyamediumforplantgrowth.Itcontrolsthemovementofwaterinterrestrialenvironments.Asnature’srecyclingcenter,ithostsavarietyofprocessesthatbreakdownplantandanimalwasteproducts,releasingthebasicnutri7veelementsforfutureusebyplantsandwildlife.Habitatfordiverseorganismsfromsmallmammalstomicrobes,soilisanecologicalsystemofbiologicalandphysical/chemicalcomponents.ReadclassmaterialspdfSoilsofTennessee,Bulle7n596. Forma/onandComponents Soilbeginswiththemechanicalorchemicalweatheringofrock,theparentmaterial,orwithdeposi7onfromwater(alluvium)orslopes(colluvium).Thetypeofparentmaterial,climate,topography,andbiologicalcommunitycomposi7onanddensityinfluencetheforma7onofsoil.Soilformsmorequicklyintemperate,moistclimates.Thelastcomponentis7me.Eveninidealcondi7ons,soilformsveryslowly,closertogeologic7me.

Physical/ChemicalProper/es Soilhasvariousproper7esandcharacteris7csthatallowclassifica7on.

• Typeofparentmaterial--thecomposi7onofthebedrock.• Color--indica7onofthesoil’schemicalcomposi7onandorganiccontent.• Depth--variesdependingonslope,weathering,parentmaterial,vegeta7on.• Par7clesize--largerpar7cles(rockandsand)promoteswikwaterdrainageandusually

havelowfer7lity.Smallerpar7cles(siltandclay)holdwatermoleculesandnutrients,slowingdrainageandincreasingfer7lity.

• Texture--propor7onofdifferent-sizedsoilpar7cles(gravel,sand,silt,clay)byweightpercentage.Combina7onofpar7clesizesdictatestheporespaceinsoilaffec7ngmovementofairandwaterthroughsoilandthepenetra7onofplantroots.Idealsoilhas50percentpar7cles,50percentporespace.

• Structure--thewayinwhichtheindividualpar7cles(sand,silt,andclay)arearrangedintolargerdis7nctaggregates.Theseaggregatesarecalledpedsandcanusuallybeseparatedeasily,par7cularlyindrysoil.Structureisthemajorfactordetermininghowfastairandwaterenterandmovethroughthesoil.Themaintypesofsoilstructurearegranular,platy,blocky,prisma7c,andcolumnar.

• Moistureholdingcapacity--claycontrolstheimportantproper7esofwaterholdingcapacityandionexchangebetweensoilpar7clesandsoilsolu7on.

• Ca7onexchangecapacity--reflectsasoil’sabilitytohold(ratherthanleachout)nutrientsandthereforeitsfer7lity.Thisfactorisrelatedtopar7clesize.

• pH--scale0to14measuringtheconcentra7onofhydrogenionstodeterminesoilacidity(lessthan7)oralkalinity(morethan7)with7beingneutral.Mostmineralsandnutrientsaremoresolubleinacidicsoilsforplantuptake.Veryacidicsoilsmaycontain

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toxiclevelsofcertainminerals.Acidicsoilsalsodeterbiologicalac7vity,slowingdecomposi7onandmineraliza7onoforganicmaterial.

• Biologicalac7vity--fer7lesoils,par7cularlythosenearneutralinpH,supportanastoundingnumberoforganismsfrommicroscopicbacteriatosmallmammals.Soillifeisakeyindica7onofitshealthandproperfunc7oning.

Profile Soilprofileexhibitsasequenceofhorizontallayersorhorizonsdifferen7atedbyphysical,chemical,andbiologicalcharacteris7cs. Ohorizon--organiclayer,materialinallstagesofdecomposi7onintohumus AHorizon--topsoil,combina7onofmineralsoilandhumus BHorizon--subsoil,denserstructure,lessorganicmaterial,accumula7onsfromleaching CHorizon--unconsolidatedmaterial,bearingcharacteris7csofparentmaterial Bedrock--parentmaterial

� Image:NaturalResourcesConserva7onService

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RoleofSoilasanEcosystem Soilisavitalhabitat,containingadiversityoflifefromsmallmammalsandinsectstocountlessformsofmicrobialorganisms.Itisafunc7oningsystemofinterac7onsbetweenbio7c(living)andabio7c(nonliving)components.Thebiologicalcomponentsincludeplantroots,smallmammals,bacteria,fungi,invertebrates,andmicroorganisms.Deadorganicma^er,water,androcks(physical)plusnutrientsandminerals(chemical)arenonlivingcomponents.

Generalsoilsource:ElementsofEcology,SmithandSmith

� Image:NaturalResourcesConserva7onService

Distribu/onofSoilTypes ClassmaterialsonTennessee’sclimateandsoils(fromSoilsofTennessee,Bulle7n596)includeafulldiscussionofsoilsbyphysiographicprovinceandajpegofthe1980soilmapofTennessee.Someofthesoilclassifica7ons(names)listedinthesedocumentshavechanged.Formorecurrentinforma7on,pleasevisitthisWebsite:

h^p://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/surveylist/soils/survey/state/?stateId=TN

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II.ClimateandWeather

DefineandDis/nguish Weatherisacombina7onoftemperature,humidity,precipita7on,wind,clouds,andotheratmosphericcondi7onsataspecificplaceand7me. Climateisthelongtermaverageofweatherpa^ernsandmaybelocal,regional,orglobal.

Geographicvaria7onsinclimate,primarilytemperatureandprecipita7on,governthelarge-scaledistribu7onofplantsandthenatureofterrestrialecosystemsglobally.(ElementsofEcology,Smith/Smith)

WeatherPaTernsandYearlyProcessesinTennessee BasicMeasurements Dailyhighandlowtemperaturesandprecipita7onamountsarethemostbasicweathermeasurements.Fromthese,recordtemperatures,meantemperatures,firstandlastaveragefreezedates,andgrowingseasonlengtharedetermined.Meantemperatureisanaverageoftemperaturereadingsover7me,usuallythemaximumandminimumtemperatures. Clouds Certaincloudsokenpresageoroccurwithspecificweather.BookssuchasCloudsandWeather,PetersonFirstGuides,byJohnA.DayandVincentJ.SchaeferandWeather,aGoldenGuide,St.Mar7n’sPress,areexcellentgeneralguidestolocalmeteorologicalobserva7ons.

ClimateSta/s/csinTennessee

AfulldiscussionofTennessee’sclimateandweatherpa^ernsisfoundinclassmaterialsdocumentSoilsofTennessee,Bulle7n596.Thefollowingchartwascompiledfromitsinforma7onandisbasedonclimatedatabefore1980.Foraddi7onalstateclimateinforma7onandobservedclimatenormalsinTennesseefrom1981to2010,visit h^ps://ag.tennessee.edu/climate/Pages/climatedataTN.aspx

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� GardeningwiththeNaLvePlantsofTennessee:TheSpiritofPlaceMargieHunter,UTPress,2002.Usedbypermission.

Microclimates--PaTernsandDeterminants

Light,heat,moisture,andairmovementmayeachvaryfromonepartofalandscapetoanother,dependingontopography,eleva7on,aspect,hydrology,and/orexposure.Thiscreatesawiderangeoflocalcondi7onsormicroclimates.Mostorganismsliveinmicroclimates.Pa^ernsoflocalcondi7onsinfluencethedistribu7onandac7vi7esoforganismsinaregion.

Microclimatesareaffectedby• solarradia7ononthesurface• vegeta7onmodera7onontemperaturesandhumidity• topography–aspect(slopedirec7on)• depressions–protec7onfromwind,frostpockets

(ElementsofEcology,Smith/Smith)

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Phenology

Thescien7ficstudyofperiodicbiologicalphenomenarela7vetoclima7ccondi7onsisphenology.Thenoteddatesofcyclicalevents--plantbudding,flowering,frui7ng,autumncolor,animalnes7ng,denning,breeding,migra7on,andtheappearanceofinsectslikefireflies,bees,mosquitoes--canshowshiksinpa^ernsover7me,andwhenpairedwithweatherdata(temperatureandrainfall),thisinforma7oncanbeusedtohelpdeterminetheimpactofclimatechangelocally.SeveralWebsiteslistedbelowwelcomeci7zensciencedatafromamateurnaturalists.Thehabitofregular,thoroughjournalnota7onsprovidesinvaluableinforma7onformonitoringthepopula7onsandhealthofspeciesaswellasthe7mingoftheirannuallifeevents.

Na7onalPhenologyNetwork--h^ps://www.usanpn.orgProjectBudburst--h^p://www.budburst.orgMonarchWatch--h^p://www.monarchwatch.orgeBird--h^p://www.ebird.orgJourneyNorth--h^p://www.journeynorth.orgiNaturalist--h^p://www.inaturalist.orgProjectNoah--h^p://www.projectnoah.org/

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EasternPhoebes(MargieHunter)

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III. Ecology(Informa7onforthissec7onthroughpage33derivedfromElementsofEcology,Smith/Smithexceptwherenoted.)

Defini/on “Ecologyisthescien7ficstudyoftherela7onshipsbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironment.Environmentincludesthephysicalandchemicalcondi7onsaswellasthebiologicalorlivingcomponentsofanorganism’ssurroundings.Rela7onshipincludesinterac7onswiththephysicalworldaswellaswithmembersofthesameandotherspecies.” (ElementsofEcology,Smith/Smith,page14)

“Ecosystemsbehaveinwayswecan’tpredictmerelyfromknowingabouttheirparts.Thepartstakeontheirspecializedrolesonlywithinthecontextofthewhole.Itismisleadingtospeakofpartsasiftheywereindependent.Innaturalsystems,partsandwholesinteractwithandinfluenceeachothercon7nually.Whatwecallpartsarepa^ernsincomplexwebsofrela7onships;theycanneverreallybeseparated.” (Ecology:APocketGuide,ErnestCallenbach,pages40)

EcologycomesfromtheGreekoikos(familyhousehold)andlogy(studyof).

RoleofEvolu/on “Darwin’stheoryofnaturalselec7onisacornerstoneofthescienceofecology.Itisthemechanismallowingthestudyofecologytogobeyonddescrip7onsofnaturalhistoryandexaminetheprocessesthatcontrolthedistribu7onandabundanceoforganisms.”(Smith/Smith,pages2-3)Inresponsetochangesintheirenvironment,organismsevolveadap7vetraitsover7methatposi7velyaffecttheirsurvival.Ecology’sexamina7onoforganismsrela7onshipswiththeirenvironmentisthestudyofadapta7onbynaturalselec7on. Adapta7onsarecharacteris7csthatenableanorganismtoexploitapar7cularresourceorthriveinagivenenvironmentandincludeinheritablebehavioral,morphological,orphysiologicaltraitsthatmaintainorincreasefitness(long-termreproduc7vesuccess).Noorganismdeliberatelychoosestoadapt;itisaslowgene7cprocessofchangethatcanalsoincluderandommuta7ons--good,bad,orneutral.Adapta7onsgoverntheinterac7onsbetweenorganismsofthesameordifferentspecies.“Howadapta7onsenableanorganismtofunc7onintheprevailingenvironment(andconversely,howthosesameadapta7onslimititsabilitytosuccessfullyfunc7oninotherenvironments)isthekeytounderstandingthedistribu7onandabundanceofspecies,theul7mateobjec7veofthescienceofecology.”(Smith/Smith,page76)

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EcologicalSystems

Hierarchy• Individual–oneorganismofapar7cularspecies;theindividualorganismformsthebasic

unitinecology,tostudythemechanismofdiversitythroughnaturalselec7on• Popula7on–agroupofindividualsofthesamespeciesthatinhabitagivenphysical

environmentandtheirinterac7onsamongthatspeciesandwithothers• Community–bio7ccollec7onofallpopula7onsofdifferentspecieslivingand

interac7nginagivenenvironment• Ecosystem–thecommunity(bio7c--plants,animals,microbes)andphysical

environment(abio7c--atmosphere,soil,water)func7oningasaunit.Organismsbothrespondtoandmodifytheabio7cenvironment.

• Landscape–anareaofland(orwater)composedofapatchworkofcommuni7esandecosystems

• Biome–Broad-scalegeographicregionhavingsimilargeologicandclimatecondi7ons(paêrnsoftemperature,precipita7on,andseasonality)suppor7ngsimilartypesofcommuni7esandecosystems(tropicalrainforests,grasslands,deserts,etc.)

• Biosphere–thethinlayerabouttheEarththatsupportsalloflife

PaTernsandProcesses

• Individual–howfeaturesofmorphology(formandstructure),physiology(func7onoforganismsandtheirparts),andbehaviorhelpanorganismsurvive,grow,andreproduceinitsenvironment,andhowthesamecharacteris7csimpedesuccessfulfunc7oninadifferentenvironment

• Popula7on–numberofindividualsanditschangeover7me;spa7aldistribu7on,theeffectofloca7ononpopula7onnumbersorratesofbirthanddeath

• Community–factorsthatinfluencetherela7veabundancesofcoexis7ngspecies,theirinterac7ons,andeffectsontheirpopula7ons

• Ecosystem–proper7escharacterizingenergyandnutrientflowthroughliving7ssue(biomass)andbacktoinorganicformsinthephysicalandbiologicalcomponents;environmentalfactorslimi7ngthisflow

• Landscape–whatinfluencestheaerialcoverageandarrangementofvariousecosystemsandtheeffectsofthesepaêrnsonorganismdispersal,energyandnutrientflow,anddisturbanceslikefireordisease

• Biome–theglobaldistribu7onofdifferentecosystemtypes,paêrnsofbiodiversity,howandwhytheyvary,environmentalfactorsdetermininggeographicdistribu7on

• Biosphere–globalsystemslinkingecosystemsandothercomponentsonEarth,suchastheatmosphereandoceans,examiningeffectsonclimatepaêrns,etc.

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BiogeochemicalCycles

Biogeochemicalprocessesinvolvethecyclicalflowofnutrientsfrominorganic,nonlivingcomponentsinanecosystemtolivingorganismsandbacktoinorganic.Thesecyclesmayoccurasgasesorsediments.Gaseouselementsarefoundintheoceansandatmosphereandareglobalinscope.Sediment-basedelementsarelocalizedininorganicsourceslikesoils,rocks,andmineralsandbecomeavailablewhendissolvedinsoilmoistureorbodiesofwater.

WaterCycle TheprocessbywhichwatermovesbackandforthbetweentheatmosphereandEarthisthewatercycle.Solarradia7onistheenergysourcegenera7ngthecyclethroughevapora7onandcondensa7onpromp7ngprecipita7on.Por7onsofthefallingprecipita7onareinterceptedbyvegeta7onorinfiltrateintothesoil,collec7ngasgroundwaterinaquifers.Surfaceflowgathersintostreamsandrivers,drainingtothesea.Inbasinsandfloodplains,lakesandwetlandsform.Evapora7onfromthesurfaceandtranspira7onfromplantsreturnswatertotheatmosphere.Onaverage,allwaterintheatmosphereisreplacedeveryninedays.

ElementCycles Keyelements--carbon,nitrogen,oxygen,sulfur,andphosphorus--alsocycleinnature. Carbon(atmospheric,global)--Plantandanimalrespira7on,decomposi7onofdeadorganicma^er,fossilfuelcombus7on,anddiffusionfrombodiesofwatercontributetoatmosphericcarbondioxide.CO2isabsorbedbyplantsduringphotosynthesis,diffusesintobodiesofwater,accumulatesasbiomassinlivingorganisms,andisstoredundergroundthroughdecomposi7onofdeadorganicma^eraswithpeatorcoal. Nitrogen(atmospheric,global)--Earth’satmosphereisnearly80percentnitrogen,butthisgaseousformisnotusablebyplantswhichneedchemicalforms--ammoniumornitrate.Theseformsaremadeavailabletwoways.Smallamountsenterecosystemsthroughatmosphericdeposi7onfromammoniumandnitratesinrainfallfromlightningorcosmicradia7onorasdrypar7culate.Thesecondwayisnitrogenfixa7on.Mostnitrogenfixingisbiologicalthroughsymbio7cbacteriainplantroots,free-livingaerobicbacteria,andcyanobacteria.Denitrifica7on,reversiontonitrogengas,cantakeplaceinanaerobicenvironmentssuchaswetlands.Onlysmallamountsofnitrogenenterorleaveasystem,mostisrecycledwithintheecosystem. Oxygen(atmospheric,global)--Atmosphericoxygenisderivedfromthebreakupofwatervaporbysunlight,allowinghydrogentoescapeintospaceandleavingoxygenbehind,andasabyproductofphotosynthesisbygreenplants,algae,andphotosynthe7cbacteria.Oxygenisprimarilystoredaswaterandcarbondioxide.Oxygenisveryreac7ve,anditscyclinginecosystemsiscomplex.Highenergyultravioletradia7onreducesittoozone--goodinthestratospherewhereitprotectsearthfromthesun’shighenergyultravioletlight,notgoodnearthegroundwhereitisharmfultoplant7ssuesandhumanhealth.

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Sulfur(atmosphericandsediment,globalandlocalized)--Sulfurenterstheatmospherethroughfossilfuelcombus7on,volcanicerup7ons,decomposi7on,andoceansurfaceexchange.Sedimentarysulfurisfoundinrocksandsomeminedminerals.Disturbedrocksreleasesulfuricacid,ferroussulfate,andothersulfurcompoundspollu7ngwatersystemsandseriouslyharmingaqua7clife. Phosphorus(sediment,localized)--Phosphorusisfoundmainlyinrockandnaturalphosphatedeposits.Mostphosphorusinterrestrialsystemsderivesfromtheweatheringofcalciumphosphatemineralsandisokennotavailableforusebyplants.Mycorrhizalfungihelpplantsacquirephosphoruswhereitisprimarilycycledinternallywithinterrestrialecosystemsfromorganic(plantandanimal7ssue)toinorganicformsforreuse.Theprocessdiffersforaqua7csystems.

NutrientCycle Mostnutrients(thoselistedabovepluscalcium,potassium,magnesium,sodium,manganese,iron,copper,molybdenum,chlorine,fluorine,selenium,iodine,cobalt,chromium,zinc,etc.)enterthesystemthroughtheweatheringofrocksandmineralsintheforma7onofsoil,theatmosphereasweyall(carriedbyprecipita7on)ordryfall(airbornepar7cles),movementofanimals,andforaqua7csystemsdrainagefromsurroundingland.Onceinthesystem,nutrientsarerecycledcon7nuously.Asplantstakeupnutrientsfromthesoilorwater,theybecomeincorporatedasorganicma^erintoliving7ssuesthroughthefoodweb.Upondeathofthe7ssue,organicma^erreturnstothesoilorsedimentsurface.Variousdecomposers(invertebratesandmicroflora--bacteria,algae,andfungi)transformtheorganicnutrientsintomineral(inorganic)form(mineraliza7on).Inorganicnutrientsnotusedbythedecomposersarereleasedintosoilorwaterandbecomeavailableforuptakebyplants.Thisprocessiscalledinternalcycling.Throughretransloca7on,plantscanreabsorbandstoresomenutrientsfromaging7ssue,suchasautumnleavesbeforedropping,touseinnewgrowththefollowingseason.Somenutrientsleavethesystemthrougherosionandleaching,harves7ng,fire,gaseousphases,andthemovementofanimals.

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Community

SpeciesDynamics Communitydescribesacollec7veofspeciesthatinteracteitherdirectlyorindirectlyandoccupyadefinedarea.Communitystructurecanbemeasuredinseveralways.

• Speciesrichness--thetotalnumberofdifferentspeciesinthecommunity• Rela7veabundance--thepercentageeachspeciescontributestothattotalnumber• Dominants--oneorfewspeciespredomina7nginapar7cularcommunity

Dominantspeciesaretypicallythosewithahighrela7veabundance.Theymayexertinfluenceoverthetypesandabundanceofotherspeciesinthecommunity.Incertaininstances,thepresenceofoneormorespecies,regardlessofnumbers,maycharacterizeaspecificcommunity,i.e.YellowBuckeyeandWhiteBasswoodinmesophy7c(ormixed-mesophy7c)forests.Inforestedenvironments,thecommunitydominantsareusuallytypesofcanopytreesthatbecomepartofthedesignatedcommunityname,e.g.,oak-hickory,oak-pine,beech-maple. Keystonespeciesperformuniquefunc7onsandtheirac7vi7eshaveasignificantaffectonthecommunity,anaffectdispropor7onatetotheirnumbers.Withoutthesespecieschangesoccurincommunitystructurewhichcanhaveanega7veaffectondiversity.Thecommunityrolesofkeystonespeciesmaybetocreate(beavers)ormodify(hemlocks)habitatsorinfluencetheinterac7onsamongotherspecies(toppredators). Studiesinthelast20yearshavefocusedon“ecosystemengineers,”speciesthatphysicallymodifytheirenvironmentthusinfluencingthenumberordistribu7onofotherspecies.Keystonespecies,suchasbeavers,definitelyfitthisprofile,butsodomanyotherspecieswhoseeffectsaremuchsmallerinscale,suchasgoldenrodbunchgallmidges.Thealteredgrowthpa^ernofgoldenrodsduetotheplants’reac7ontothemidgescreatesanenvironmentforotherarthropodsanda^ractscertainbirdswhopreyuponthem.[Crawford,et.al.,Ecology2007,Jones,et.al.,Oikos1994.] CommunityStructure Ecosystemsarecharacterizedbyphysicalstructurereflec7ngabio7c(nonlivingfeaturessuchasgeology,topography,soils,climate,andwater)andbio7c(livingorganisms)factors.Interrestrialecosystems,thestructureislargelydefinedbythevegeta7on,suchasforest,shrub,orgrassland.Ver7calstructure,orstra7fica7on,onlandreflectsthelifeformsofplantsinthecommunity,suchastheuppertreecanopy,understory(smalltrees),shrub(mul7-stemmedwoody),herb(nonwoody),andli^er(detrital)layersofaforest.Ver7callayeringprovidesthephysicalstructurewithinwhichmanytypesofwildlifelive.Aqua7csystemshavehorizontalstratadeterminedbylightpenetra7onandprofilesoftemperatureanddissolvedoxygen. Anassocia7onisatypeofcommunitywithinanecosystemdisplaying(1)rela7velyconsistentspeciescomposi7on,(2)uniform,generalappearance,and(3)distribu7oncharacteris7cofapar7cularhabitat.Recurrenceofapar7cularhabitatorenvironmentalcondi7onsintheregionusuallyresultsintherecurrenceofthosespecies.[Associa7onexampleslistedin“TerrestrialEcologicalSystemsofTennessee,”July2013,NatureServe.]

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�

GardeningwiththeNaLvePlantsofTennessee:TheSpiritofPlace MargieHunter,Univ.ofTennesseePress,2002.Usedbypermission

SystemBoundaries:Ecologicalcommuni7eshaveboundaries.Varia7onsinthebiologicalorphysicalstructurebetweenonecommunityandthenextformamosaicofdifferingpatchesinthelargerlandscape.Severalenvironmentalfactorsinteracttocreatelandscapepa^erns,includinggeology,topography,soils,climate,biologicprocesses,anddisturbance.Theplacewheretheedgesoftwodifferentpatchesmeetisaborder.Abordermaybeinherent–producedbyasharpenvironmentalchange,suchasatopographicalfeature(cliff,agriculturalfield)orashikinsoiltype–orthebordermaybeinduced,meaningitiscreatedbysomeformofdisturbancethatislimitedinextentandchangesthrough7me. Somebordersarenarrowandabrupt;othersarewideandformatransi7onzone,orecotone,betweenadjoiningpatches.Typically,transi7onzonesbetweenpatcheshavehighspeciesrichnessbecausetheysupportselectedspeciesfromtheadjoiningcommuni7esaswellasagroupofopportunis7cspeciesadaptedtoedges,aphenomenoncallededgeeffect.Organismsthatpreferthesetransi7onalenvironmentsarecallededgespecies.Edgesbetweenhighlycontras7ngpatches,likeameadowandforest,generallyproduceagreaterdiversityofspecies.

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EcosystemSize:Aposi7verela7onshipexistsbetweenareasizeandspeciesdiversity.Generally,largeareassupportmorespecies(speciesrichness)andagreaternumberofindividuals(popula7onsize)thansmallareasdo.Theincreaseinspeciesdiversitywithincreasingpatchsizeisrelatedtoseveralfactors.Manyspeciesareareasensi7ve–theyrequirelarge,unbroken,blocksofhabitat.Largerareastypicallyencompassmoretopographicvaria7onsandagreaternumberofmicrohabitatsandthuswillsupportagreaterarrayofplantandanimalspecies.Anotherfeatureofpatchsizerelatestodifferencesbetweenthehabitatsprovidedbyborderandinteriorenvironments.Incontrasttoedgespecies,interiorspeciesrequireenvironmentalcondi7onsfoundintheinterioroflargehabitatpatches,awayfromtheabruptchangescharacteris7cofedgeenvironments. Linkingonepatchtoanotherarecorridors,thestripsofhabitatsimilartoapatchbutunlikethesurroundinglandscape.Corridorsactasconduits,providingdispersalroutesamongpatches.Corridorscanbeassimpleashedgerowsorvegeta7onalongastreamcourse.Connec7vityexamineshoweffec7velyaspeciesorapopula7onisabletomoveamongpatches.

EnergyFlow Abasicfunc7onoftheecosystemistheflowofenergyfromthesunascapturedbyplantsmovedthroughvariousconsumersinaseriesoftransfersknownasthefoodchain.Forexample,miceeattheseedsofplants,snakeseatmice,andhawkseatsnakes.Inacommunity,therearemanyfoodchainsthatmeshintoamorecomplexfoodweblinkingprimaryproducers(plants)throughvariousconsumers(insectsandanimals).Membersoffoodwebscanbegroupedintocategoriescalledtrophicorfeedinglevels. Allcommuni7eshaveautotrophicandheterotrophiclevels.Autotrophsoccupythefirstfeedinglevel.Autotrophs(“selfnourishing”),alsocalledprimaryproducers,areorganismsthatderivetheirenergyfromsunlighttomanufacturetheirownfood(plantsthroughphotosynthesis).Heterotrophs(“othernourishing”),alsocalledsecondaryproducersorconsumers,aredividedintoherbivores,carnivores,andomnivoresdependingontheirconsump7onofplant7ssues,animal7ssues,orboth.Herbivoresthatfeedonautotrophsmakeupthesecondtrophiclevelandusecarbonstoredbytheautotrophsasafoodsource.Carnivoresthatfeedonherbivoresmakeupthethirdandhighertrophiclevels.Species,suchasplants,thatarefeduponbutdonotfeedonotherspeciesaretermedbasalspecies.Speciesthatarebothpredatorsandpreyaretermedintermediatespecies.Speciesthatfeedonothersbutarenotpreyforotherspeciesaretermedtoppredators. Energyflowinecosystemstakestworoutes:onethroughthegrazingfoodchain,theotherthroughthedetritalfoodchain.Thetwofoodchainsarelinkedwhenwastesfromtheconsumersanddeadorganicmaêrsupplythedetritalfoodchain.Organismsthatfeedondeadorganicmaêraredecomposersordetri7vores.Asmicrobialandfungaldecomposersbreakdowndeadorganicmaêr,theytransformnutrients7edupinorganiccompoundsintoaninorganicform,aprocesscallednutrientmineraliza7on.Nutrientsnotusedbydecomposersarereleasedinthesoilforusebyplants,comple7ngthecycle.

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SpeciesInterac/on Compe77onoccurswhenresourcesareinshortsupplyandcantaketwoforms--scrambleandcontest.Inscramblecompe77on,allindividualsbearthebruntofreducedresourcesequally.Incontestcompe77on,dominantindividualsareabletoacquirenecessaryresourcestogrowandreproduc7on,whileothersproducenooffspringorperish.Compe77oncaninvolvedirectinterferenceamongindividuals,aswithterritorialclaims,orindirectinterac7onsthroughsimpleuseofresources.Compe77onmaybeintraspecific(individualsofthesamespecies)orinterspecific(individualsoftwoormoredifferentspecies). Compe77onbetweenindividualsofthesamespeciesisokenobservedinsocialbehavior.Theirdegreeoftolerancetooneanothersetslimitsonthenumberofindividualsinanareaandtheiraccesstoresources.Socialhierarchiesallowdominantindividualstosecureresources,leavingshortagestobebornebysubdominantindividualsandperhapsservingasameanstoregulatepopula7ons. Socialinterac7onsplayaroleinspeciesdistribu7onandmovement.Theareanormallycoveredinanindividual’slifecycleisitshomerange.Thesizeofahomerangeisinfluencedbybodysize,largeranimalsneedingmoreterritory,butisalsodeterminedbyfeedinghabitsandavailableresourcesamongotherfactors.Defenseofthatrangeasexclusivetoanindividualorgroupisterritoriality,aformofcontestcompe77onthatexcludescertainindividualsfromreproduc7onandservestoregulatepopula7ons.Thesefreeroamingindividualsbecomeareserveofpoten7albreederstostepinatthelossofterritoryholders. Plantsexhibitterritorialitybyholdingontospace,capturinglight,andabsorbingmoistureandnutrients.Theirpresenceeffec7velyexcludessmallerorsimilarly-sizedindividuals. Niche:Anorganism’sfunc7onalroleinthecommunityisitsniche.Withoutcompe77onfromotherspecies,organismscanexploittheirfundamentalniche,thefullextentoftheirenvironmentallimits.Withcompe77on,thefundamentalnicheiscurtailed,andtheorganism’sactualcondi7onsforexistencearereducedtoitsrealizedniche.Nicheoverlapoccurswhenpartofthesameresource,suchasfoodorhabitat,isusedbydifferentspecies.Suchoverlapdoesnotautoma7callymeancompe77on. Environmentalcondi7onsareusuallyquitevariedwithinagivencommunity,andspa7aldistribu7onofthesevaria7onssupportawiderarrayofspecies.Evenvegeta7onstructureinfluencesthecommunity’sdiversityofanimallife.Increasedver7calspaceinaforestcanopymeansmoreresourcesandlivingspaceandagreaterdiversityofhabitats.Manyspeciesthatsharethesamehabitatcoexistthroughresourcepar77oning.Speciescanexploitapor7onoftheresourcesnotavailabletoothersthusreducingcompe77on.Examplesofresourcepar77oninginbirdsincludethepreferenceofcertainspeciestonestindifferentlayersoftheforest(floortocanopy)orvarietyinbillsizesandshapesdesignedfordifferentfoodsources. Preda7onandSymbiosis:Preda7onoccurswhenoneorganismconsumesallorpartofanotherlivingorganism.Carnivory(animalsofotherspecies),cannibalism(membersofownspecies),herbivory(plants),andparasitoidism(parasi7crela7onshipthatkillshostspecies)areformsof

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preda7on.Preda7onplaysaroleinmaintainingspecieshealth(cullingweakandsickindividuals)andcontrollingpopula7onnumbers. Symbiosisinvolvesanin7mateandlongtermassocia7onbetweentwoormoreorganismsofdifferentspecies,andittakesthreeforms--parasi7sm,commensalism,andmutualism.Withparasi7smtheassocia7onbetweenindividualsoftwospeciesresultsinbenefitstooneandharmtotheother,thoughitisnotkilled.Ticks,fungalsmutsandrusts,andmistletoeareparasitesbenefi7ngfromahostthatisharmed.Cowbirdslayanegginanothersongbird’snest.Thecowbirdusuallyhatchesfirstandasthelargernestlinginterceptsmorefoodtothedetrimentofthesongbird’syoung. Therela7onshipistermedcommensalismwhenoneindividualbenefitsandtheotherisunharmed,e.g.,bluebirdsnes7nginabandonedwoodpeckerholesorlichensgrowingontreebark.Somehost/parasiterela7onshipsmayevolveover7metoreduceoreliminateharmtothehostspecies.Mutualismisaposi7verela7onshipconferringbenefitstobothspecies. Symbio7cmutualismsfacilitatenutrientuptakeinbothplantsandanimals.Bacteriainanimalgutsaiddiges7on,nitrogen-fixingbacteriainplantrootshelpacquireacri7calnutrient,mycorrhizal(fungal)associa7onswithplantrootshelpgreatlyimproveaccesstowaterandnutrients,andantsprotectaphidsfrompreda7on.Inreturnthese,organismsreceivenutri7onand/oraprotectedhabitat.Pollenandnectartoa^ractpollinatorsandnutri7ousfruitstoinduceseeddispersalarealsoformsofmutualismsbetweenanimalsandplants.Thefullimpactofmutualis7crela7onshipsandtheirinfluenceonpopula7onsareimportantaspectsofecologicalstudy.

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Rela7velyeven-agedsuccessionalforestofTulipPoplarinWhiteOakSink, GreatSmokyMountainsNa7onalPark (MargieHunter)

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SuccessionandDisturbance

Succession Changeisaconstantandintegralcomponentofecosystems.Over7me,speciesinacommunitygeneratechangestotheirenvironmentalcondi7ons.Eventually,suchchangesproveunfavorabletothereproduc7vesuccessofmanyspeciesinthecurrentcommunity,andthesespeciesaresubsequentlyreplacedbyotherstoformadifferentcommunitybeêrsuitedtothenewcondi7ons.Thisprocessiscalledbiologicalsuccession.Earlysuccessionalspeciesgivewaytolatersuccessionalspecies. Therearetwotypesofsuccession:(1)primary,wheretheenvironmenthasnopreviouslivingorganismsandnoorganicmaêr,and(2)secondary,wheretheenvironmenthasbeenoccupiedandmodifiedbylivingorganisms.Secondarysuccessionfollowsecosystemdisturbance.Abandonedfarmfieldsandforestsfollowing7mberharvest,fire,orstormswillfollowpaêrnsofsuccessionalchange. Speciescomposi7onchangesduringsuccession.Opportunis7cearlysuccessionalorpioneerspecies--grasses,forbs,scrubbyshrubs,andfast-growingtrees--aremoretolerantoffullsun,highertemperatures,lowerhumidity,driersoils,andlowernutrientlevelsthatcharacterizedisturbed,opensites.Theseplantshelpmodifytheharsher,moreexposedcondi7onsandpavethewayforlaterspeciesbeêradaptedtoshade,moistersoils,higherhumidity,andhighernutrientavailability.Pioneersdisplayhigherratesofreproduc7on,growquicklyyetmaintainanoverallsmallerstature,andareshort-lived.Theydeclineaslatersuccessionalspeciesbecomeestablishedandcon7nuemodifica7onoftheenvironment.Laterspecieshavelowerreproduc7onrates,growmoreslowlyyetgetlarger,arelonger-lived,andtolerateshade.Speciesdiversityisokenhighestduringtransi7onperiods,oncelatersuccessionalspecieshavearrivedbutbeforetheirpresenceprecipitatesthedeclineofearlyspecies. Severalmodelshavebeenproposedtodescribetheprocessesbehindsuccessioninthelast100years.Inearlystudies,researcherstheorizedthatsuccessionwasalinearprocessmovingthroughasetpaêrnofcommunitystagestoafinal,self-perpetua7ngcommunitytermedthe“climax”community.Thisideapresentedsuccessionalcommuni7es“asahighlyintegratedsuper-organism.”Underthistheory,aforestclimaxcommunitywouldbecapableofreplacingagingshadetolerantindividualswithseedlingsofthesamespeciesformanygenera7ons,perhapspermanently,barringdisturbance.Ecologiststodayrealizesuccessionalcommuni7esaremuchmoredynamicandlesspredictablewitharangeofindividualspeciesreac7ons.Thetermclimaxmays7llbeusedtodenoteasuccessionalcommunitythatisself-replacingandrela7velystable,persis7nglongerthantheothersuccessionalcommuni7es.

Characteris/csofDisturbance Disturbance,definedasanyseparateanddis7ncteventthatdisruptsacommunity’sstructure,func7on,orpopula7ons,ini7atesthesuccessionalprocess,andcreatestheopportunityforincreaseddiversity.Small-scaledisturbancescreategapsinthecommunity,openingsthatpromotelocalizedregenera7onandcreatesmallpatcheswherespecies

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composi7onorsuccessionalstagesmaydiffer.Larger-scaleddisturbanceshavethepoten7altoreplacetheen7recommunity,favoringopportunis7cspeciesincludingnon-na7veinvasivespecies.Theintensity,frequency,andreturnintervalofdisturbanceareimportantfactorsinanecosystem’sresponse.Certainspeciesmaydisappearifdisturbancefrequencyishigh.

Prescribedfire,CedarsofLebanonStatePark(MargieHunter)

Fireisanaturallarge-scaledisturbancewithwhichmanycommuni7eshaveevolved.Theirhealthandrenewaldependsonperiodicfire.Prescribedfireisdeliberatelysetandcarefullymonitoredtoproducealow-heatsurfacefire.Asamanagementtool,prescribedfirescanreducefuelloadsinforests,cleardenseundergrowth,removeexo7cspecies,deterunwantedwoodygrowth,orrejuvenateana7vecommunity.Dependingonthecommunity,itsprocesses,andthefire’snature,firecanbeeitherbeneficialordetrimental. Somecommuni7esandspeciesdependonperiodicflooding,benefi7ngfromthedeposi7onofrichalluvialmaterialorscouringac7onoffloodwaters.Othernaturaldisturbancesincludewind,storms,drought,extremetemperatures,landslides,pathogens,insectinfesta7ons,andanimalac7vitysuchasgrazingorbeaverdams.Large-scalenaturaldisturbancesareusuallyrare,occurringevery50to200years. Timberharves7ngthatfollowsbestmanagementprac7cestypicallypromotessuccessionalregenera7onofaforest,whereasotherhuman-induceddisturbances,suchascertainminingprac7cesanddevelopment,canproduceprofound,okenpermanentchanges.

Theinforma7ononecologywaslargelyderivedfromElementsofEcology,7thEdi7on,ThomasM.SmithandRobertLeoSmith(BenjaminCummings/PearsonEduca7on,2009)

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Ecosystems

Therearetwobasicenvironments--landandwater.

Aqua/cEnvironments Approximately75percentoftheEarth’ssurfaceiswaterdividedintotwomajorcategories:saltwater(marine)andfreshwater.Coastalandwetlandenvironmentsformthetransi7onzonebetweenlandandwater. Freshwatersystemsareclassifiedintwotypesbasedonwaterdepthandflow.Lo7csystemsfeaturetheflowingwaterofstreamsandrivers.Len7csystemsinvolvestandingwater,suchasponds,lakes,swamps,ormarshes. Lakesandpondsareinlandbodiesofstandingwater.Pondsaresmallandshallow,andmaycontainplantsrootedacrossmuchoftheboôm.Lakesarelarger,becomingdeepertowardthemiddleoralongtheriverchannelinimpoundments.Indeeperwater,horizontalzonesarecreatedbasedonwatertemperatureandlightpenetra7on. Lifeinlakesandpondsdependsonlightpenetra7onofthewater,whichisaffectedbywaterdepth,clarity,andplantgrowth.Temperaturesvarywithseasonanddepth.Oxygenmaybelimited.Thesethreefactors(light,temperature,oxygen)influencethepresenceanddistribu7onofspeciesins7ll-watersystems.Lifealongtheshallowedgewatersoflakesandpondsispar7cularlydiverseandabundant.Mostpondsandlakeshaveoutletstreams,andbothmaybemoreorlesstemporarylandscapefeaturesonageologic7mescale. Flowingstreamsfollowtopographicallandscapefeaturesthatdelineateawatershed’sdrainagearea.Streamsjustbelowthesource(springs,seeps,etc.)aretypicallysmallandshallow.Steepmountaingradesproduceswik,straightrunsandmayfeaturewaterfallsorrapids.Fastcurrentsremoveallbutthesmallestpar7clesresul7nginastonyboômandoxygenatethewater.Inthesestreams,highwaterfromstormsproducesenoughenergytomoverocks,scourthebed,cutintobanks,andcreatenewchannels.Lowergradientsslowthewaterincreasingthestreamswidthanddepth.Lowlandriversbegintomeander,carrymoreorganicmaêr,anddepositsedimentontheboôm.Duringfloods,depositsarespreadoverthefloodplain. Organismsinflowingwaterhaveevolvedspecialadapta7onstohandlethecurrent.Infastmovingwater,astreamlinedformwithflaênedbody,theabilitytos7cksecurelytosurfaces,ordevelopmentofslipperycoa7ngshelpsorganismssurvivetheconstantpressurewithlessresistance. Animalslivinginswikstreamsderivetheiroxygenfromthewater,whichmusthaveanear-satura7onconcentra7onofthegas.Theswikflowoverrocksandstonesoxygenatesthewaterandwashesitovertheorganismsallowingthemtoabsorboxygendirectlyfromthewater.Thepresenceorabsenceoftheseorganismsindicatesstreamquality.Threegroupsofinsects,Ephemeroptera(mayflies),Plecoptera(stoneflies),andTrichoptera(caddisflies),areveryintolerantofstreampollutants,turbidity,andlowoxygenandareconsideredbioindicators,

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organismsusedtomonitorthehealthof,orchangesin,theirsurroundingsorecosystems.The“EPTCount”isonemeasureofstreamquality. Therearemajorinvertebrateclassifica7onsbasedonfeedinghabits.

• Shredders(likecaddisflies,stoneflies)feedoncoarseorganicmaêr,suchasfallenleaves.

• Filteringcollectors(blackflylarvae,net-spinningcaddisflies,mussels)filterthewaterforfood.

• Gatheringcollectors(midges,mobilecaddisflies)retrievepar7clesfromtheboôm.• Grazers(snails,waterpenny)feedonthealgae.• Gougers(craneflies,beetles)burrowintowaterloggedwoodydebris.• Predators(dragonflies,fishes)eatdetritalfeedersandgrazers.

Headwaterstreamsderivemuchoftheirfoodenergyfromtheaccumula7on,processing,andtransportofpar7culateorganicmaêrfromthesurroundinglandscape.Largerstreamsbeginashiktowardtheirownprimaryproduc7onwithphotosynthesizingalgaeandrootedaqua7cplants.Riversdependonfinepar7culatemaêranddissolvedorganicmaêrassourcesofenergyandnutrientsforfilterfeedersandboôm-feedingfishbasedonfeedinginefficiencyupstream.Changesinenergyproduc7onandphysicalenvironmentfromspringtoriverarereflectedindifferenttypesandspeciesoforganismsfound.Inslowmovingrivers,thebodyshapeoffishfacilitatestheirmovementthroughaqua7cvegeta7on. Aqua7candterrestrialenvironmentsmergealongstreamsandriverstoformriparianhabitats,cri7callyfunc7oningecologicalsystems.Adiversebufferofplantsisneededtoprotectthestream.Treecover,inpar7cular,shadesandcoolsthewater.Rootsholdthebankinplaceandslowerosionalforcesthatsiltwatersdownstream.Ripariancorridorssupportdiversemicrohabitatsandprovideopportuni7esforanimalforaging,breeding,anddispersal. Wetlandhabitatsareassociatedwithbothlen7candlo7csystems.WestTennesseehasextensiveriparianwetlandhabitatsinboômlandhardwoodfloodplainforestsalongsmallstreamsandbroadriverboôms.Morethan90percentofTennessee’shistoricwetlandsaregone,mostlydrainedforagricultureordevelopment.Thesesystemsprovideprimaryhabitatfornearly100GreatestConserva7onNeedwildlifespeciesasiden7fiedinthestate’swildlifeac7onplan.* Anareaoflandboundedbyridgeswithinwhichallwaterrunoffandstreamsflowintoacommonbodyofwater(lakeorriver)isawatershed.Thequalityofthewaterwithinthewatershedandthehealthofaqua7cspeciesaredependentonsurroundingcondi7ons.Pollu7on(agricultural,industrial,ormunicipalsourcesandrunoff),erosion,orexposurefromlandscapealtera7onsthatremoveassociatedplantsareseriousthreats.

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Li^leRiver,GreatSmokyMountainsNa7onalPark (photos:MargieHunter)

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Springwildflowers,PortersCreekTrail,GreatSmokyMountainsNa7onalPark

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TerrestrialEnvironments Terrestrialenvironmentsasagroupareclassifiedbythedominantvegeta7on--trees,shrubs,orgrasses.Featuresofthephysicalenvironment(geology,topography,hydrology,climate,andsoils)determinethevegeta7ontype(s)andglobaldistribu7on. Temperaturevaria7onsaregreateronland.The7mingandquan7tyofprecipita7onareimportanttomaintainwaterbalance.Thesetwoclimatefactorsinfluencephysicalcondi7onsandaretheprimaryconstraintsonbothplantandanimallife. Plantsabsorbandreflectsolarradia7oninfluencingtheamountoflightinterrestrialenvironments.Lightqualityvariesasitfiltersthroughtheplantcanopy.Sunflecks,flickeringbitsofsunlightpenetra7ngforestcanopies,maycontributeasmuchas70to80percentofthesolarenergyreachingplantsintheherbaceouslayer. Inforestandwoodlandecosystems,treesaredominant(orco-dominant),andleafformdis7nguishesthesesystems.Therearetwobroadcategoriesofleavesbasedonlongevity:deciduousleaveslivingasingleyearandevergreenleaveslivingbeyondoneyear.Therearewinter-deciduousleaveswithdormancycorrespondingtotemperaturesbelowfreezing(temperateforestsofNorthAmerica)anddrought-deciduousleaveswithdormancyoccurringduringthedryperiodinareasofseasonalrainfall(e.g.sub-saharanAfrica).Evergreenleavesmaybebroadleafevergreens,mostcommoninareaswherephotosynthesisandgrowthoccurallyearsuchasthedeepsouthandtropicalclimes,andneedle-leavedevergreens,inenvironmentswithashortgrowingseason(boreal)orlownutrientavailabilityaffec7ngphotosynthesisandgrowth. Broadleafdeciduousforestsarecharacterizedbyautumnfoliagecolorsjustbeforethetrees’winterdormancy.Risingtemperaturesandincreaseddaylengthtriggerresump7onofgrowthinspring.Springwildflowersemergetoflowerandsetfruitbeforethecanopyfullydevelopsandreduceslightintheunderstory. IneasternNorthAmerica,thebroadleafdeciduousforestisclassifiedintoseveralforesttypes(e.g.,bo^omlandhardwoodforest,northernhardwoodforest)whosecommuni7esareokennamedakerassociateddominanttreespecies,suchasoak-pineorbeech-maple.Themesophy7cforest(moistwithhighspeciesrichness)occursprimarilyintheunglaciatedAppalachianPlateaurepresentedbythecoveforestsoftheSouthernAppalachiansandCumberlandMountains.InAsia,thebroadleafdeciduousforestsofeasternChina,Japan,Taiwan,andKoreaareremarkablysimilar,sharingseveralplantspeciesofthesamegeneraasthosefoundhere.[Seeh^p://hikinginthesmokies.wordpress.com/2012/12/10/the-asian-connec7on-japan-and-the-southern-appalachians/] Broadleafdeciduousforestsusuallyhavefivever7callayersorstrata.Thecanopyconsistsoftalltreesover50feetinheight,containingboththedominantspeciesandothers.Beneaththecanopyistheunderstory,alayerofsmallertreespecies.Theshrublayercontainswoody,mul7-stemmedspeciesupto15or20feetinheight,followedbytheherbaceouslayerofforbs,grasses,ferns,andmosses,and,finally,theli^erlayerontheground.Asmen7onedinthecommunitydiscussion,thesevariedplantformsandtheirver7callayersallowgreaterdiversityofanimallife.

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Certainspeciesareassociatedwitheachstratum.Someanimals,par7cularlyforestarthropods,spendmostoftheirlivesinasinglestratum;othersrangeovertwoormorestrata.Lifeismostabundantandvariedinandbelowtheliêrlayer.Someorganismsremainunderground.Others,suchasshrewsandsalamanders,burrowintothesoilitselfortheliêrforshelterandfood.Browsersandotherlargemammalsfeedonherbs,shrubs,andtrees.Birdsmovefreelybuttypicallyfavoronelayer.AccordingtoTWRA*,“uplandforesthabitatssupportmorespeciesofwildlifethananyotherterrestrialhabitatinTennessee.Forestlandecologicalsystemsprovideprimaryhabitatforapproximately170GreatestConserva7onNeedspeciesiden7fiedinthestatewildlifeac7onplan.” Soilsreflectclimate,bedrock,andwaterdrainage.Nutrientavailabilitydependsontherateofdecomposi7onandmineraliza7on.Acidicsoilsunderconifershavelessbiologicalac7vity,anddecomposi7on/mineraliza7onoccursslowly,lockingupnutrientsinfallenliêr.Thesoilhumuslayerinthisenvironmentiscalled“morhumus.”Indeciduousforestsandgrasslandswheresoilsarelessacidic,greaterbiologicalac7vityinthesoilbreaksdownleavesandotherorganicmaterialfaster,returningnutrientstothesoil.Thesoilhumuslayerinthesecommuni7esiscalled“mullhumus.” Accordingtohistoricalaccounts,Tennessee’slandscapefeaturedseverallargeareasofopengrasslandsorprairie-typecommuni7es.Dominatedbygrassesandforbs(non-grassfloweringplants),thesecommuni7eswouldhavebeenmaintainedbyafrequentpaêrnoffiredisturbancetodetergrowthofwoodyspecies.

ElementsofEcology,SmithandSmith*TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencyStrategicPlan2014-2020

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GeneralizedforesttypesbasedonsoilmoistureinTennessee• Xeric--Dryforestcommuni7esdominatedbyoaks,hickories,and/orpinesaretypically

foundalongridgesandsunny,exposedslopeswhereexcessivedrainageminimizeswaterreten7onandresultsinamoreacidicsoil.

• Hydric--Wetforestcommuni7es,characterizedbythepresenceofBox-elder,Sycamore,GreenAsh,BaldCypress,orBlackWillowamongothers,occurinlow-lyingterrainalongrivercorridors,floodplains,bo^omlands,orareasofpoorsoildrainageandotherwetlands.

• Mesic--Moistforestsoccupyareasbetweenxericandhydric,featuringSugarMaple,AmericanBeech,andTulipPoplarinorganicallyrich,well-drainedsoilsonlowerslopesornorth-facingslopes.

• Mesophy7c,some7messeenasmixed-mesophy7c,forestsoverlapwithmesicforests,buttheaddedelementofprotec7onfromwindandhighsolarradia7onfoundwithincoves,gulfs,ravines,ornarrowvalleysencouragesahighlevelofspeciesrichness.ThemerepresenceofEasternHemlock,YellowBuckeye,WhiteBasswood,orCarolinaSilverbellisindica7veofthisforesttype.

Somespecializedplantcommuni/esinTennessee*• Spruce-Firforestsrepresentremnantborealforestsfromthelastglacialperiod.

CharacterizedbydensestandsofRedSpruceandFraserFir,theyarefoundonsevenofthehighestpeaksintheSouthernAppalachiansabove5,500feet(RoanandGreatSmokyMountainsinTN).Thisforesttypesupportsseveralrareandendemicspeciesandisanendangeredcommunityfacingthreatsfrompollu7on,introducednon-na7veinsects(balsamwoollyadelgid),andclimatechange.FraserFirbecomesdominantatthehighesteleva7ons.DeciduousspeciesincludeMountainAsh,asmalltree,andWitchHobble,ashrub.

• NorthernHardwoodforesttypeisahighereleva7on,deciduousbroadleafcommunityabove4,500feetintheSouthernAppalachiansdominatedbyYellowBirch,AmericanBeech,RedOak,SugarMaple,andYellowBuckeyeinthecanopy.SimilarforestsarefoundfromMinnesotatoPennsylvaniaintoNewEngland.

• Balds —Heathbaldsaresmall-tolarge-scalepatchesofdenseshrubvegeta7onusuallyintheHeathFamily(Ericaceae)suchasCatawbaRhododendron,MountainLaurel,SandMyrtle,HighbushBlueberry,FlameAzalea,etc.Theytypicallyoccurabove5,000feetbutmayoccurto4,000feetintheSouthernAppalachians. —Grassbaldsaresmall-tolarge-scalepatchesofdensegrassandsedgevegeta7on,suchasMountainOat-GrassandPennsylvaniaSedgeusuallyoccurringaround4,000to5,000+feeteleva7on.Thiscommunityoriginisunknownanddebated,perhapstheresultofnaturalfireandherbivoryoranthropogenicfactors.Grassbaldsexhibitatendencytoreverttoforestwithoutmaintenance.

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• Rockhousesresultfromseasonalwaterfalls,formingshallow,cave-likeopeningsinsandstonecliffsandbluffsontheCumberlandPlateauandsuppor7ngsomerarevascularandnonvascularplants.

• SprayCliffcommuni7esoccuronrockoutcropskeptwetfromwaterfallsprayorgroundwaterseepageandprovidehabitatfornonvascularplantsandothersparsevegeta7onincracksandonledges.

• Sinkholesoccurinkarsttopographyassociatedwithlimestone.Thesidesandver7calshaksofsinkholessupportlimestone-lovingfloweringplantsandfernslikeWalkingFern,BulbletBladderFern,andtherareHart'sTongueFernaswellasnon-vascularmossesandliverworts.

• Barrensareprairie-like,herbaceousopen-canopycommuni7esdominatedbygrassesandforbs(non-grassfloweringherbaceousplants)mosttypicallywithouttreesbutalsoincludingsomesavannaoropenwoodlandcommuni7es.Fragipansoillayers(hardclay),hydrologicalextremes,fire(naturalandanthropogenic),andgrazingareconsideredkeyfactorsinbarrensforma7onandmaintenance.AccordingtoTWRA,**grasslandcommuni7esareamongthemostimperiled,providingprimaryhabitatformorethan70wildlifespeciesiden7fiedasGreatestConserva7onNeedinthestatewildlifeac7onplan.

• CedarGladeComplexencompassesarangeofcommuni7esassociatedwiththinsoilonlimestonefeaturingendemicspeciessuchasTennesseeConeflowerandLimestoneGladeMilkVetch(Pyne’sGroundPlum) —GravelGladesfeaturebrokensurfacelimestoneexposures,slaboutcrops,andveryshallowsoilssuppor7ngprimarilyannualforbs. —GladeBarrensorXericLimestonePrairiesexhibitgreatersoildepthandaredominatedbygrassessuchasLi^leBluestemandSideOatsGrama. —GladeWoodlandscontainopentodensepatchesofshrubsandtreestypicallydominatedbyEasternRedCedarbutalsoincludingBlueAsh,PostOak,andWingedElm.

• SeepageFensaresmallscale,mineralrich,groundwaterseepagessuppor7ngherbaceousspeciessuchasGrassofParnassusandYellow-eyedGrass.

*Informa7onderivedfrom“TerrestrialEcologicalSystemsofTennessee”compiledbyNatureServe(July2013)whichpresentsadetailedlis7ngwithdescrip7onsoftheland-basedecologicalsystemsandassociatedplantcommuni7esinthestate.

**TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencyStrategicPlan2014-2020

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Spruce-FirCommunity,RoanMountain(MargieHunter)

BarrensCommunity,MayPrairieStateNaturalArea(MargieHunter)

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AnimalsandBodyTemperatureinTerrestrialandAqua/cEcosystems

Endothermsproducetheirownheat,generatedinternally.Ectothermsgainheatfromtheirenvironment,externalsources.

Homeothermsmaintainaconstantbodytemperature.Poikilotherms’bodytemperatureschangeaccordingtotheirenvironments’temperatures.

Therearefourpoten7alcombina7onsinanimals.Themostcommoncombina7onsrepresenttwoextremes:endothermichomeothermsandectothermicpoikilotherms.Mostmammalsandbirdsareendothermichomeotherms.Mostfish,invertebrates,rep7les,andamphibiansareectothermicpoikilotherms. Afewanimalsfitendothermicpoikilothermorectothermichomeothermprofiles.Mammalsthathibernateorexperienceperiodsoflongtorporareconsideredendothermicpoikilotherms.Theyproducetheirownheatbutallowtheirtemperaturetovaryduringperiodsoflowac7vityinresponsetotheirenvironment.Thedesertpupfishisgivenasexampleofanectothermichomeothermtocontrasthiberna7ngmammals.Thepupfish’sbodytemperaturecomesfromitsenvironment,however,itmaintainsaconsistentbodytemperaturebyswimmingtowarmerorcoolerwatersasneeded. Animalsthatareendothermicdemonstratedifferentadapta7onsandbehaviorsfromectothermicanimals.Endothermscanstayac7veincoldweatherwhichmightimprovetheirsurvival,butthisdemandsmoreenergytogeneratebodyheat,requiringmorefood.Ectothermsspendtheirenergyonreproduc7on,amorevaluabletraitinsomeenvironments.

Source:h^p://minerva.union.edu/linthicw/endo.htm

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Biodiversity

Defini/ons• Thevaria7onoflifeatalllevelsofbiologicalorganiza7on.• Thedegreeofvaria7onsoflifeformswithinagivenspecies,ecosystem,biome,orplanet.• Theexistenceofawiderangeofdifferenttypesoforganismsinagivenplaceatagiven

7me.• Thetotalityofgenes,species,andecosystemsofaregion.Thisincorporatesthree

primarylevelsofvariety--gene7cdiversity,speciesdiversity,andecosystemdiversity.Ahighlevelofdiversityatallthreelevelsisdesirable.

Biodiversityisnotevenlydistributed,varyinggreatlyrela7vetoclimate,soil,andgeography.Thestudyofspa7aldistribu7onoforganismpopula7ons,species,andecosystemsisthescienceofbiogeography.Somespeciesmaybefoundoutsidetheirtypicalrange.Thesedisjunctpopula7onscanprovidecluestopastchangesinclimateand/orgeologicalevents.

DiversityofLifeinTennessee Tennesseeexperiencesfourdis7nctseasons,nearlyequalinlength.Wearelocatedcentrallywithinthetemperatezoneaccommoda7ngmanynorthernaswellassouthernspecies.Acrossoureast/westaxistheeleva7onchangeiswellover6,000feet.Ourgeologicalagespancoversthelastonebillionyears.Wehavethreemajorriversystems--Tennessee,Cumberland,Mississippi.Therearetwobiologicallydiversephysiographicprovinces--SouthernAppalachians(BlueRidge)andCumberlandMountains.Aspartoftheeasterndeciduousforest,weenjoyabrilliantdisplayofspringwildflowers.Globallyrarecommuni7es--cedargladesandspruce-firforests--supportequallyrarespecies.Forthesereasonsandothers,Tennesseeboastsaremarkablebiodiversity.

58 terrestrialecologicalsystems* 545 plantassocia7ons* 2,874+ documentedplantspecies 850+ animals(fish,mammals,rep7les,amphibians,birds) 600+ non-insectinvertebrates(snails,crayfish,mussels,worms,etc.) 1,000’s insectsandarachnids

*“TerrestrialEcologicalSystemsofTennessee”compiledbyNatureServe(July2013)

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EnvironmentalChallenges(LandManagementandStewardship) Discussionsofecologythusfarhavefocusedontheproperfunc7oningofhealthy,intactecosystems.Thisidealizedviewisraredueinlargeparttotheinterferenceofhumanac7vity.Itisimportanttounderstandtheimplica7onsofthatinterferenceandwhatcanbedonetomi7gatethenega7veeffectsofourdispropor7onatelylargefootprint.Everyonecancontributetotheadop7onandimplementa7onofappropriatemethodsoflandstewardship,aprogramandphilosophyincorpora7nghumaninterven7oninthemanagementofnaturalresourcesforthebenefitofhabitatandspeciesdiversity.

Pollu/on Airandwaterpollutants(dischargeandrunoff)degradehabitatsandharmspecies.Whatyoucando:Reduceuseofharmfulchemicals(fer7lizers,pes7cides,herbicides,cleaningsolu7ons,etc.)anduseleasttoxicorbiodegradablealterna7ves.Minimizeuseofgasoline-poweredtools.Followbestprac7cesandrecommenda7onsforproperdisposalofallhouseholdwastesandchemicals.Driveless.Compostratherthanburnortrashyardwaste.Supportstrongairandwaterqualityregula7ons.Installaraingardenforroofordrivewayrunoff.Goorganic.

Development Habitatlossisaccelera7ngasdevelopmentspreadsintoformeragriculturallandsorareasoncedeemedlessfavorableoraccessible.Increasedgrowthcarvesfurtherintolargeundevelopedtractsofland,resul7nginthefragmenta7onofnaturalareas.Smallerwildtractscannotsupportthesamenumberofspeciesfoundinlarger,unbrokenexpanses,andwithoutwildcorridors,speciescannoteasilymovebetweenisolatedtracts.Developmentcontributestothespreadofnon-na7vepestspecies,andsmallertractsaremoresuscep7bletoinvasion.Damimpoundmentshavedestroyedmilesofriverinehabitattothedetrimentofassociatedfauna. Whatyoucando:Supportandpromotesmartgrowthini7a7vessuchasinfilldevelopmentandmasstransit.Supportthepreserva7onofwildernessareas.Promotetheuseofna7veplantsincommercialandresiden7allandscapes.Advocatefordamremovalwherefeasible.

Non-na/veinvasivespecies Speciesnotna7vetoTennesseecanbecomeinvasivepestsiftheyareabletonaturalize,grow,andreproduceinthewild.Certaincharacteris7cs,suchaslackofcompe77on,predatorsorpathogens,reproduc7vesuccess,andadaptability,enhancethistendency.Non-na7vepestscandirectlya^ackna7vespecies(hemlockwoollyadelgid,amphibianchytridfungus)ordisplacethem(kudzu,starlings)tosignificantlyalterthecommunityanditsfunc7on. Whatyoucando:Removeinvasive,non-na7veplantspeciesfromyourpropertyandusena7veplants.Helpdocumentthespreadofinvasivespecies.Volunteerforinvasiveplantpullsonpublicland.Encouragelocalbusinessestostopsellinginvasivenon-na7vespecies.Supportstrongquaran7neregula7onsontheimporta7onofnon-na7vespecies.

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Rareandendangeredspecies Duetoitsloca7onanddiversetopography,Tennesseehasalargenumberofrareandendangeredspecies.Iden7fyingthem,learningtheirlifecycles,protec7ngtheirhabitat,andmonitoringtheirstatusareimportanttasksforconserva7on.Increaseddevelopment,non-na7vespecies,andclimatechangeposethestrongestthreats. Whatyoucando:Supporthabitatprotec7onforrarespecies.Discouragecommercialexploita7onofrarespecies.Helpmonitorthestatusofrarespecies.

Resourceuse Extrac7veindustries,suchasminingandlogging,okenresultincommunitydisrup7onordestruc7on,includingphysicalhabitatdamageandlossofnaturalresourcesforwildlife.Propermanagementtoensurenotonlysustainabilityofproduc7onbuttheecologicalhealthofforestsandwaterwaysisessen7al.Poachingofspeciesdisruptsbiologicalcommuni7esonasmallerscaleandlowersgene7cdiversity.Theavailabilityandqualityofwaterforhumanconsump7onmaybecomeaseriousissueinthenearfuture. Whatyoucando:Encourageuseofbestindustryprac7cesforanycommercialopera7on,withsustainabilityandecosystemintegrityasgoals.Encouragestrongenvironmentalprotec7onsandregula7ons.Reduceconsump7onofgoodsandenergy.Recycle.Conservewater.Supportlocalfarmersand“green”businesses.

Climatechange Extremeweatherevents,shikingphenologicalpa^erns,ecosystemdisrup7onsfromtemperatureandmoisturevaria7ons,speciesex7rpa7onsorex7nc7ons,andincreasedopportunityfornon-na7vepestspeciesinvasionsareafewofthepoten7alnega7veeffectsassociatedwithrapidchangesinclimate. Whatyoucando:Reduceconsump7onoffossilfuelsincarsandhomehea7ng/cooling.Supportrenewableenergyalterna7ves.Weatherizeyourhome.PurchaseEnergyStarappliances.Supportstrongfuelefficiencystandards.Promoteregenera7onofhealthy,na7veforests.

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IV. Resources

GeologyandGeographyOurRestlessEarth:TheGeologicRegionsofTennessee,EdwardT.Luther(UTPress,1977)

AGeologicTripAcrossTennesseebyInterstate40,HarryL.Moore(UTPress,1994)TennesseeTopography,DavidD.Starnes,TennesseeDivisionofGeologyBulle7n86(2009)DiscoveringOctoberRoads:FallColorsandGeologyinRuralEastTennessee,HarryMooreand

FredBrown(UTPress,2001)ARoadsideGuidetotheGeologyoftheGreatSmokyMountainsNaLonalPark,HarryL.Moore

(UTPress,1988)ForestsinPeril:TrackingDeciduousTreesfromIce-AgeRefugesintotheGreenhouseWorld, HazelR.Delcourt,McDonald&WoodwardPublishing,2002TennesseeDivisionofGeologyMapsandPublica7ons,linkCatalogofPublica7ons h^p://tn.gov/environment/geology/maps-publica7ons.shtml Titlesofinterest–VertebrateFossilsofTN(#77),GeologicHistoryofTennessee(#74),Place

NamesofTN(#73),DescripLonsofTNCaves(#69),TNRockandMineralResources(#66)TennesseeLandforms--h^p://tnlandforms.us/landforms/index.phpU.S.GeologicalSurvey--h^p://www.usgs.govThisDynamicEarth:TheStoryofPlateTectonics h^p://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html

Soil

LifeintheSoil:AGuideforNaturalistsandGardeners,JamesB.Nardi(Univof ChicagoPress,2007)TheSoulofSoil:ASoilBuildingGuideforMasterGardenersandFarmers(4thEd.),JoeSmillie

andGraceGershuny(ChelseaGreenPublishing,1999)WebsiteforcurrentTennesseesoildatabycounty h^p://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/surveylist/soils/survey/state/?stateId=TN

Ecology

EcologyforGardeners,StevenB.CarrollandStevenD.Salt(TimberPress,2004)ElementsofEcology,7thEdi7on,ThomasM.SmithandRobertLeoSmith(BenjaminCummings/

PearsonEduca7on,2009)EcologyofEasternForests,JohnC.KricherandGordonMorrison,PetersonFieldGuides

(HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,1998)Weather(GoldenGuide,St.Mar7n’sPress,2001)Clouds&Weather,JohnA.Day,VincentJ.Schaefer,JayPasachoff,PetersonFirstGuide,

(HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,1998)ReadingtheLandscapeofAmerica,MayTheilgaardWa^s(NatureStudyGuild,1999)

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V. ReviewQues/ons

1.WhatgeologiceventisresponsiblefordevelopmentoftheBlueRidgeandValleyandRidgephysiographicprovinces?

a.AlleghenyOrogenyb.Cincinna7Archc.AcadianOrogenyd.PangaeaPredicament

2.TheCumberlandPlateauiscappedwitharesistantrocklayerofa.FortPaynechertb.Pennsylvaniansandstonec.Cha^anoogashaled.Ordovicianlimestone

3.AttheendoftheMesozoicEra,theseacoveredWestTennesseeinwhatgeologicevent?a.EastGulfCoastDelugeb.WestTennesseeDepressionc.MississippiEmbaymentd.NashvilleDomeUplik

4.WhatprimaryeffectdidtheadvanceandretreatofglaciersinNorthAmericahaveonWestTennesseesoils?

a.Createdhardclaylayercalledfragipanb.Leachedsandy,acidicsoilc.ErodedDevonianlimestoned.Depositedfinelygroundrockdustcalledloess

5.WhatgeologiceventsetthestagefordevelopmentoftheCentralorNashvilleBasin?a.AlleghenyOrogenyb.MississippiEmbaymentc.NashvilleDomeUplikd.PermianProcurement

6.Whaterosion-resistantrocklayercharacterizestheHighlandRim?

a.FortPaynechertb.Pennsylvaniansandstonec.Cha^anoogashaled.Lebanonlimestone

7.Topographycontainingfeaturessuchascavesandsinkholesiscalled a.outlier b.karst c.plateau d.foldbelt

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8.Rockscontainingfossils a.arealwayslimestone b.arecalledfossiliferous c.canbedatedbythetypesoffossilsfound d.bothbandc

9.Thebiologicalcomponentsofahealthysoilecosystemincludea.plantrootsb.smallmammalsc.invertebratesd.alloftheabove

10.Ifclimateequalslong-termweatherpa^erns,then___________equalsdailyatmosphericcondi7ons.

11.Thestudyofperiodicbiologicalphenomenarela7vetoclimateis a.phenology b.dendrology c.hydrology d.ecology

12.Thescienceofecologystudiesa.Darwin’stheoryofnaturalselec7onb.terrestrialecosystemsc.humaninfluenceintheenvironmentd.therela7onshipbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironment

13.Thebasicunitinecologyis a.acommunityofdifferentspecies b.anindividualorganismofonepar7cularspecies c.thebio7ccommunityandabio7cenvironment

d.abiome 14.Whatisnotanexampleofmutualism? a.mycorrhizalfungiandplantroots b.beesandflowerpollen c.batsandmosquitos d.raccoonsandpawpawfruit

15.Matchthefollowingcommunitystructuretermswiththeirdefini7ons:_____speciesrichness a.effectoncommunityisdispropor7onatetoabundance_____keystonespecies b.percentageeachspeciescontributestototal_____dominants c.numberofdifferentspecies_____rela7veabundance d.specieswithgreatestnumber

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16.Anorganism’snicheisits a.breedinghabitat b.func7onalroleinthecommunity c.preferredfood d.placeinthefoodweb

17.Successionisa.gradualchangeinthespeciescomposi7onofanecologicalcommunityb.aforestedareaclearedforagriculturec.aregularpa^ernofdisturbanced.theintroduc7onofnon-na7veplantspeciese.habitatrestora7on

18.Fragmenta7onofthelandscapethroughdevelopmenta.resultsinhabitatlossb.producessmallpatchesseparatedfromeachotherc.reducesthenumberanddiversityofspeciesapatchcansupportd.increasesthethreatofnon-na7vespeciesinvasione.alloftheabove

19.Thedecomposi7onofautumnleavesfrees________________forplantuse. a.oxygen b.energy c.inorganicnutrients d.soilpar7cles 20.Organismsthatderivetheirenergyfromsunlighttomanufacturetheirownfoodare a.primaryproducers b.plants c.autotrophs d.alloftheabove

21.Asmall-scaledisturbanceinanecosystemcreatesa a.patch b.gap c.boundary d.ecotone

22.Broadleafdeciduousforestsarecharacterizedby a.autumnfoliagecolors b.springwildflowers c.year-roundphotosynthesis d.alloftheabove e.bothaandb

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23.Specializedplantcommuni7esinTennesseeprimarilyfoundabove4,500feeteleva7onare a.Spruce-Fir,NorthernHardwoods,andHeathBalds b.Spruce-Fir,GrassyBalds,andCedarGlades c.NorthernHardwoods,CedarGlades,SprayCliffs d.Barrens,Sinkholes,andSpruce-Fir

24.Organismsadaptedtofastmovingstreamsrequire a.siltystreambeds b.rootedaqua7cplants c.highconcentra7onsofoxygeninthewater d.big,roundbodies

25.Endothermicorganisms a.adjusttheirbodytemperaturetotheenvironment b.primarilyproducetheirownheat c.includemostfishandinvertebrates d.neverhibernate

26.Thecircularpathsofwaterandelements,suchasnitrogen,movingthroughanecosystemarecalled a.evapora7oncycles b.radia7oncycles c.biogeochemicalcycles d.biomecycles

27.Thescien7fictermforacollec7veofspecies(plants,animals,fungi,bacteria,etc.)livingandinterac7nginadefinedareais a.homerange b.community c.heterotrophs d.mutualism

28.Withinacommunity,foodchainsmeshintoa___________,linkingprimaryproducersthroughanarrayofinsectandanimalconsumers. a.foodweb b.foodcoopera7ve c.foodpyramid d.foodmantle

29.Aneffec7velyfunc7oningriparianhabitata.servesasaforagingdispersalcorridorb.providesdiversebreedingmicrohabitatsforavarietyofspeciesc.hasadequatetreecovertoshadeandcoolwaterd.alloftheabove

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30.Thehighestvegeta7onlayerinaforestcommunityisthe a.li^erlayer b.understorylayer c.shrublayer d.canopylayer

31.Aprogramandphilosophywhichincorporateshumaninterven7oninthemanagementofnaturalresourcesforthebenefitofhabitatandspeciesdiversityisreferredtoas a.ecology b.recrea7on c.naturalselec7on d.landstewardship

AnswerKey1.a 2.b. 3.c 4.d 5.c. 6.a. 7.b 8.d 9.d 10.weather11.a 12.d 13.b 14.c 15.c,a,d,b 16.b 17.a 18.e 19.c 20.d21.b 22.e 23.a 24.c 25.b 26.c 27.b 28.a 29.d. 30.d 31.d

EssayQues/ons

Theseques7onssynthesizethetenTennesseeNaturalistclasses.Revisitthemakereachclassandrecordanyaddi7onalresponses.

1.Describetheecologicalharmassociatedwithnon-na7veinvasivespecies,andexplainwhytheyaresosuccessful.UseaspecificexamplefromyourgranddivisionofTennessee.

2.Discussaspecificecosystem’sfoodwebandfollowthesun’senergyflowthroughfivetrophiclevelstoatoppredator.Citeanappropriateorganismateachlevel.

3.Examinetheroleofwateranditseffectsonthephysicalandbiologicalenvironmentinanecosystem.Discusstheeffectsofvariousdisrup7ons(drought,flood,invasivespecies,disturbance,etc.)tothissystem’shydrologicalregime.

4.Whatisabioindicator?Namethreedifferenttypesoforganismsokencitedasbioindicators,andexplainhowandwhytheyfunc7onassuchintheirenvironments.

5.Manydifferentorganismsoccupythesameenvironment--forest,stream,meadow.Discusssomeofthewaysspeciessharetheirenvironment,thetypesofinterac7onsbetweenspecies,andtheeffectsoftheseinterac7onsonspecieshealthandpopula7ons.

6.Examinetheenvironmentalimplica7onsofthefollowingphilosophy.ThroughinterpretaLonunderstanding;throughunderstanding,appreciaLon;throughappreciaLon,protecLon.Howdoesitaffectyourvaluesandbehavior?

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tennessee naturalist program...temperate, and boreal. while angiosperms and temperate forests are...

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