Terminologies for Research Methodology

Business Research Methods

Terminologies

• Concept• Construct• Proposition• Operational Definition• Variable• Law

• Hypothesis• Model• Research problem• Theory• Paradigm• Framework

Concept

• A Concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors

• Concepts are created by classifying and categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond the single observation– Spreadsheet, warranty card

• We abstract such meanings from reality and used words as labels to designate them– We see a man passing (running, walking skipping, crawling or hop

ping)

-- Cooper & Schindler, 8th Ed.

Concept

• A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name

• Concept abstract reality• Concepts are our building blocks

-- Zikmund

• A (theoretical) concept must be tied to observable operations that any person can observe or perform.

--McBurney

Sources of Concepts

• Concepts have been developed over time through shared usage– Different society may use many of the same concepts– Some concepts are unique to a particular culture

• Concepts can be borrowing from other fields– Strategic weapon, gravitation, distance, threshold, velocity

• Borrowing is not always practical, so we need to – Adopt new meanings for words– Develop new label for concepts

ConceptsAbstract Level

Empirical LevelObservations of Objects and Events (Reality)

Concepts Are Abstractions of Reality

Concept

• Expresses an abstraction formed by generalization from particulars

• Examples– Weight, mass, energy, force, achievement, intel

ligence aggressiveness, conformity, honesty– Weight expresses numerous observations of thi

ngs that are more or less “heavy” or “light”

--Kerlinger

Vegetation

Fruit

Banana

Reality

A Ladder of Abstraction for Concepts

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Construct• A construct is a concept

• Construct has the added meaning, however, of having been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose

• An example (Intelligence)– Enter into theoretical schemes and is related in various way

s to other constructs. – “Intelligence” is so defined and specified that it can be obs

erved and measured

-- Fred N. Kerlinger

Construct• A construct is an image or idea specifically for a

given research and/or theory-building purpose• We build constructs, which are more complex, by

combining the simpler concepts, especially when the idea or image we intend to convey is not directly subject to observation

• There is no sharp demarcation between concepts and constructs

-- Cooper & Schindler

Syntax

Vocabulary

Spelling

Manuscripterrors

Typingspeed

FormatAccuracy

“ Language Skill Construct ”

“ Job Interest Construct ”(Components unknown by analyst)

“ Presentation Quality Construct ”

Mostabstract

Most concrete

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ConstructsComposed ofConcepts in a JobRedesign Example

Proposition

• Statements concerned with the relationships among concepts

• The logical linkage among concepts

• Assert a universal connection between properties

• State that every event or thing of a certain sort either has a certain property or stands in a certain relationship to other events or things that have certain properties

-- Zikmund

Proposition

We define a proposition as a statement about concepts which may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena -- Cooper & Schindler

Theories

Propositions

Concepts

Theory Building Is a Process of Increasing Abstraction

Observations of Objects and Events (Reality)

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Operational Definition

• A statement of the precise meaning of a procedure or concept within an experiment

--McBurney

• Assign meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the activities or “operations” necessary to measure– A constitutive definition defines a construct with oth

er constructs

-- Fred N. Kerlinger

Operational Definition

• An operational definition is one stated in terms of specific testing criteria or operations

• Whether the object to be defined is physical or highly abstract, the definition must specify the characteristics to study and how they are to be observed

-- Cooper & Schindler

Operational Definition

• The specifications and procedures must be so clear that any competent person using them would classify the objects in the same way

• Operational definitions may vary depending on your purpose and the way you choose to measure them

-- Cooper & Schindler

Variable

• A variable is some property of an event in the world that has been measured

-- Donald H. McBurney

• A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned

• A variable is a property that takes on different values

-- Fred N. Kerlinger

Variable

• The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for construct or the property being studied

• A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned

-- Cooper & Schindler

Types of Variables

• Independent and dependent variables

• Quantitative and categorical variables

• Continuous and discrete variables

• Physical and nonphysical variables --McBurney

Types of Variables

• Independent and dependent variables

• Active and attribute variables

• Continuous and categorical variables

• Latent variables --Kerlinger

Dependent and Independent Variables

• An independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable, the presumed effect

• The independent is the antecedent; the dependent is the consequent

• The terms come from mathematics• In experiments

– The independent variable is the variable manipulated by the experimenter

• In nonexperiment– The independent variable is the variable that “logically” has some e

ffect on a dependent variable

Kerlinger

Active and Attribute Variables• Manipulated variables will be called active variables;

measured variables will be called attribute variables• All variables that are human characteristics are

attribute variables– Intelligence, aptitude, sex, socioeconomic status.

Conservatism, field dependence, need achievement, and attitude

• The active-attribute distinction is general, flexible, and useful– The variable anxiety can be active or attribute

Kerlinger

Continuous and Categorical Variables

• A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a certain range

• Categorical variable belong to a kind of measurement called nominal– There two or more subsets of the set of objects being

measured

– Individuals are categorized by their possession of the characteristic that defines any subset

-- Kerlinger

Latent Variable

• A latent variable is an unobserved “entity” presumed to underlie observed variables

• Intelligence is the best-known example– verbal, numerical and spatial tests are positively and

substantially related, we believe that something is common to the three tests or observed variables and name this something “intelligence”

• Examples– Achievement, creativity, social class, anti-Semitism,

conformity, and so on

Constructs and Observed Variable

• Constructs are nonobservables

• Variables, when operationally defined, are observables

Types of Variables

• independent and dependent variables

• Explanatory variables

• Extraneous variables

• Intervening variables -- Cooper &Schindler

IndependentVariable

DependentVariable

Defining Independent and Dependent Variables

Presumed causeStimulusPredicted from...AntecedentManipulated

Presumed effectResponsePredicted to...ConsequenceMeasured outcome

Moderating Variables

• Moderating variables– a second independent variable that is included

because it is believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the original state IV-DV relationship

• Example– The introduction of the four-day workweek (IV)

will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)

Extraneous Variables

• An almost infinite number of extraneous variables exists that might conceivably affect a given relationship

• Example – In routine office work (control), the

introduction of the four-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)

Intervening Variables• That factors which theoretically affects the observed

phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured, or manipulated; its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator variables on the observed phenomenon

• Examples– The introduction of a four-day workweek will lead to higher

productivity by increasing job satisfaction (IVV)– A promotion campaign (IV) will increase saving activity (DV),

especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (control). The results come from enhancing the motivation to save(IVV)

Hypothesis• A provisional assertion assumed to be true for the purpo

se of testing its validity -- Donald H. McBurney

• A conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables

• Two criteria for “good hypothesis”– Hypotheses are statements about relations between variables– Hypotheses carry clear implications for testing the stated relat

ions --Kerlinger

Hypothesis

We define a proposition as a statement aboutconcepts which may judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena. When a proposition is formulated for empiricaltesting, we call it a hypothesis.

-- Cooper & Schindler

Types of Hypothesis

• Descriptive hypotheses– These are positions that typically state the

existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable

• Relational hypotheses– These are statements that describe a

relationship between two variables with respect to some case

Descriptive Hypotheses

• These are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable

• Example– The current unemployment rate in Detroit exceeds 6

percent of the labor force

• Researchers will often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis– What is the unemployment rate in Detroit?

Relational Hypotheses

• These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case

• Example– Foreign cars are perceived by American consumers to be of better

quality than domestic cars

• Correctional relationships– Young machinists are less productive than those who are 35 years

or older

• Explanatory, or causal relationships– An increase in family income leads to an increase in the

percentage of income saved

Hypotheses Are the Empirical Counterparts of Propositions

AbstractLevel

Empirical Level

Concept A(Reinforcement)

Concept B(Habit)

Dollarbonus for

sales volumeover quota

Always makesfour sales calls

a day

The Role of Hypothesis

• It guides the direction of the study• It limits what shall be studied and what shall not• It suggests which form of research design is likely to be

most appropriate• It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions

that result• Example

– Husbands and wives(who should be studied) agree in their perceptions of their respective roles(what shall be studied) in purchasing decisions(what context shall be studied)

Theory• A theory is a set of systematically interrelated con

cepts, definitions, and prepositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts)

-- Cooper & Schindler

• A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose explaining and predicting the phenomena --Kerlinger

Theory• A theory is a set of statements that organize a large bo

dy of facts (laws) into a single explanatory system, in a nutshell a theory is an explanation for a set of facts

• A theory is a statement or set of statements about the relationships among variables

• Sometimes a number of laws are tied together into a more general set of statements, which is called a theory

--McBurney

Theory

• The role of theory– Organizing knowledge and explaining laws– Predicting new laws– Guiding research

--McBurney

• The Goal of theory– Prediction– Understanding

--Zikmund

A Basic Theory Explaining Voluntary job turnover

Labor MarketPersonality

Perceived Easeof Movement

Perceived Easeof Movement

PerceivedDesirability of

Movement

PerceivedDesirability of

Movement

PayJob Complexity

Participation

Intention toQuit

Intention toQuit

VoluntaryJob Turnover

VoluntaryJob TurnoverJob

Performance

Job Performance

Theory and Song

A fact without a theoryIs like a ship without a sail,Is like a boat without a rudder,Is like a kite without a tail.A fact without a figureIs a tragic final act,But one thing worseIn this universeIs a theory without a fact

Paradigm

• A paradigm is a perspective way of thinking about a branch of science that includes all of assumptions and theories that are accepted as true by a group of scientists

• A new paradigm will be accepted when it accounts more successfully for empirical data than did the old paradigm

--Kuhn

Theory and Paradigm• Paradigm are general framework or viewpoints

– Points from which to view

– Provide ways of looking at life and are grounded in sets of assumptions about the nature of reality

• Theory is a systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life

– Theories flesh out and specify paradigm

– A theory aims at explaining what we see

Theory and ParadigmExamples

• Exchange paradigm– suggest that we analyze social situations in terms of perceived costs an

d benefits of various behavior

• Exchange theory– asserts, among other things, that “the more often a particular action of a

person is rewarded, the more likely the person is to perform that actions

• examples– Macrotheory vs. microtheory– Conflict paradigm– Role theory– Feminist paradigms

Model• A model is defined here as a representation of a syst

em which is constructed for the purpose of studying some aspect of that system or the system as a whole

• Models differ from theories in that a theory‘s role is explanation whereas a model’s role is representation

• A model is not an explanation; it is only the result of taking the structure or function of one object or process and using that as a model for the second --Cooper&Schindler

Law

• A law is a statement that certain events are regularly associated with each other in an orderly way

• Laws are probabilistic

• Laws do not have to state cause-effect relationships between events; any regular relationship is a law

--McBurney