In the Classroom

622 Journal of Chemical Education • Vol. 84 No. 4 April 2007 • www.JCE.DivCHED.org

Terra Firma: “Physics First” for Teaching Chemistryto Pre-Service Elementary School TeachersMichelle B. MoreDepartment of Chemistry, Weber State University, Ogden, UT 84408; mmore@weber.edu

In a society where even children play with high-tech-nology toys that most of their parents cannot understand,let alone master, scientific literacy for all members of society,including children and adolescents, is of utmost importance(1, 2). A previous editor of this Journal has suggested thatscientific illiteracy in America arises from students receivinginsufficient science exposure during their elementary schoolyears (3). Others have noted that this lack of science coverageis easily accounted for by elementary teachers’ own fears ofscience that result from a lack of appropriate, if any, scienceeducation (4).

Activities have been initiated to bring science to elemen-tary schools via special science programs that increase stu-dents’ exposure to chemistry (5–8). However, it has beennoted that the most desirable approach is to provide scienceeducation and training to elementary school teachers (9, 10).Several innovative pre- and in-service elementary teacherchemistry (9, 11) and integrated science (12, 13) classes havebeen noted in this Journal.

This paper describes a pre-service elementary schoolteacher chemistry class that differs from previous courses byincorporating the “physics first” idea popularized by LeonLederman (14, 15). In this class, the conventional sequenceof biology, chemistry, and physics (16) has been reversed andtruncated; only basics physics followed by introductory chem-istry is taught. Though as of this date there have been noformal studies of the physics-first approach, anecdotal infor-mation indicates that both science literacy and science inter-est increase using this method (17, 18).

How the Physics-First Curriculum Createsthe Foundation for Teaching Chemistry

The support for a “physics-first” approach for introduc-tory and pre-service elementary school teacher chemistryclasses rests on several researched ideas from the last 35 years.Some of these key ideas are:

1. Students construct understanding (19, 20)

2. Explaining new concepts by referring to related con-cepts that are not well understood by students oftenresults in little or no understanding (21–23)

3. New information must be linked to old informationto be understood (24, 25)

4. Many students come to college with poorly developedformal reasoning skills (26, 27)

As explained in the following paragraphs, the physics-first approach makes it possible to incorporate these key find-ings in teaching introductory chemistry to pre-serviceelementary teachers and others.

Physics is identified as the foundational science and pro-vides the terra firma (solid ground) for chemistry, the centralscience (18). Most pre-service elementary teachers have littleor no physics background. To construct an understanding ofchemistry, it is logical that these students first learn basic phys-ics concepts to serve as building blocks (18). For example,an understanding of atomic and nuclear structure, the bond-ing of atoms to form molecules, and the deflection of a beamof β and α particles from charged plates (a figure often shownin introductory texts) requires knowledge of electrostaticforces of repulsion and attraction, and the strong nuclearforce. Simply referring in a piecemeal fashion to physics con-cepts that are not familiar to students does not provide anopportunity for students to build on what they already knowand have fully assimilated, often resulting in little real un-derstanding.

By teaching basic physics first, a student is introducedto the toolbox of natural laws that govern the universe, mat-ter, and energy. Teaching chemistry after physics gives stu-dents the opportunity to construct a view of chemistry usingtools they have already mastered, thus reinforcing the physics,and making a link from already learned concepts (physics)to new concepts (chemistry). The physics-first approach alsoprovides more continuity than introducing the physics bit-by-bit, as needed, before the chemistry topic requiring it. Thisphysics-first practice is not as challenging to students’ lim-ited experience with scientific reasoning.

Numerous concrete examples found in the introductoryphysics curriculum lend themselves to demonstrations thatstudents can experience sensorially on a macroscopic level.For example, students can experience the repulsion of likeelectrical charges using two charged balloons, and the attrac-tion of oppositely charged objects such as a wool sweater anda balloon that have been rubbed together. Such demonstra-tions can be referred to later when discussing how polar orionic solutes dissolve in aqueous solutions.

The importance of prior experience with concrete ex-amples comes indirectly from studies using Piaget’s cognitivedevelopment theory (28–39). Studies indicate that up to 50%of college students function at the concrete-operational stageof cognitive development. In Piaget’s scheme, this stage pre-cedes the formal operational stage that is necessary for learn-ing much of chemistry (30, 35, 40). Research shows that bothconcrete and formal thinkers profit from learning with con-crete examples (41, 42).

Class Organization and Teaching

This semester-long class consists of approximately twoweeks of an introduction to science, five weeks of physics,and six weeks of chemistry. Each week the class is divided

In the Classroom

www.JCE.DivCHED.org • Vol. 84 No. 4 April 2007 • Journal of Chemical Education 623

into approximately 2.5 hours of lecture and in-class activi-ties, and 2.5 hours of laboratory activities. Table 1 containsthe topics covered in the class as well as associated in-classactivities and demonstrations. The topics in Table 1 lend

themselves to conceptual learning with little or no mathemat-ics used. The in-class activities and demonstrations empha-size the concrete, often easy-to-experience nature of physicalscience.

seitivitcAssalC-nIdnascipoTerutceLfonoitubirtsiD.1elbaT

scipoTerutceL seitivitcAssalC-nItnaveleR

1 cifitneicseht,deidutstisiwoh,deidutssitahW:ecneicsfoerutaNsnoitatimilriehtdnasesnesehtnodesabsnoitavresbo,dohtem

;snoisullilacitpoD2gniweiv;muludnepcitengamagnivresbOecneicsoduespdnaecneicsfotsartnocdnanosirapmoc

2 tnemerusaem,smetsystnemerusaemrofdeenehT:tnemerusaeMsnigiroriehtdna,sdradnatsdnasmetsys

)ardyspelc(kcolcretawagnitcurtsnoc;ssamdnayromemelcsuM

3 noitacifissalC seohs’stnedutsfonoitacifissalcyraniB

4 stnemirepxedoogfoscitsiretcarahc,ngisedlatnemirepxE:noitatnemirepxE ytivitcapmardepahs-VanwodsllabgnilloR

5 locotorpgnihparg,sedutingamevitaleR:atadgnitneserpeR )evoba(ytivitcasllabgnillorehtmorfatadgnihparG

6 ,noitomyratenalp,noitarelecca,yticolev,deeps,ecroF:noitoMytivarg,ssam/thgiew

secrofsasthgiewllorynnepgnisusracyotfonoitareleccA

7 noitomfoswals’notweN stekcorretaw;snoitartsnomedstcejbognillaf-eerfdnaaitrenI

8 fosmrof,egatnavdalacinahcem,senihcamelpmiS:krowdnaygrenEsnoisrevnocygrene,ygrenefonoitavresnoc,ygrene

sdnahgnibbur;smuludnep;spmar;srevelssalc-dnocesdna-tsriF)noitcirffoygrene(

9 ,noitaidar,noitcevnoc,noitcudnoc,wolftaeH:erutarepmetdnataeHsretemomreht,selacserutarepmet

retawdlocdnatohnispordrolocdoof;sdnabrebburgnihctertS

01 ,ielcuncimota,snortcele,yticirtcelecitatS:msitengamdnayticirtcelE,stengam,stiucric,yticirtceletnerruc,seirettab,ytiralopralucelom

dleifcitengams’htraE,sdleifcitengam,selopcitengam

agnilbmessasid;yticirtcelecitatsdna)snoollab(stcejbodegrahCmunimuladnayrettabahtiwthgilblubthgilagnikam;blubthgil)ssapmochtiw(ytivitcanoegipgnimoh;tiucricynneptneduts;liof

11 ,thgilfodeeps,thgilfoerutancitengamortcele,sevawthgiL:thgiL,sesnel,srorrim,noitcarferdnanoitcelfer,murtcepscitengamortcele

aremacelohnip

;snelxevnocelbuodhtiwgniyalp;sevawepordnatnedutSsresalniahcyekdnasrorrimhtiwgniyalp

21 ?yrtsimehcfoydutsehtsitahW smetiderutcafunamdnalarutanfoselpmaS

31 erutannidegnarrasirettamwoh,serutximdnasecnatsbuseruP:rettaM salumroflacimehcriehtdnaselucelomkciphtoot–raebimmuG

41 ,salumrof,sdnuopmoc,slobmyslatnemele,stnemelE:elbatcidoirePeht,htraE,stnalp,)slamina(ydobnamuhnistnemelefonoitubirtsid

efilyliadnismeti,esrevinu

snoitartsnomedsegnahclacimehcdnalacisyhp;snoitcaerogeLefilyadyrevemorf

51 ;segnahclacimehcdnalacisyhp;seitreporplacimehcdnalacisyhPetatsfosegnahc

sledomcimotaedam-tnedutS

61 dnasessam’selcitrapcimotabus,ledomraelcuN:erutcurtscimotAthgiewcimota,sepotosi,segrahc

sriahclacisumdnuopmoccinoI

71 epythcaefoscitsiretcarahc,tnelavocdnacinoI:sdnoblacimehCdnuopmocfo

stnemirepxeadosgnikabdnarageniV

81 noitavresnocfowaleht,erutalcnemoN:snoitcaerlacimehCstsylatac,snoitcaerlacimehcfosetar,rettamfo

nodicadna,dloc,taeh,lohoclafotceffE:ytivitcatsylataCseotatopniesalatac

91 elbicsim,)yhwdnawoh(gnivlossid,setulosdnatnevloS:snoituloSsetulostnelavocdnacinoifoseitreporp,setuloselbicsimmidna

noitulossuoeuqanisetulosnwonknuhtiwsutarappaytivitcudnoC

02 retawdrahfostceffe,selleciM:stnegreteddnaspaoS noitartsnomedstnegreteddnaspaosnoretawdrahfostceffE

12 ,elacsHp,sesabdnasdicafoscitsiretcarahC:sesabdnasdicAefilyliadnisesabdnasdica,srotacidni

esabdnadicafosnoitartsnomed;srotacidniesab-dicalufroloCslairetamyadyrevehtiwsnoitcaer

22 ,snietorp,rebbur,loow,hcrats,klis,esolullec(larutaN:sremyloP,nolfet,CVP,enerytsylop,enelyhteylop(citehtnysdna)setardyhobrac

)TEP,nolyn,nolro

nosedocgnilcycer;gniknil-ssorchtiwniahcremyloptnedutSscitsalp

32 noissif,efil-flah,noitaidarfosecruos,noitaidarfosepyT:ytivitcaoidaRsnamuhnonoitaidarfostceffe,noisufdna

noisufdnanoissifrofielcun)yalcro(hod-yalp;retnuocregieG

In the Classroom

624 Journal of Chemical Education • Vol. 84 No. 4 April 2007 • www.JCE.DivCHED.org

Table 2 contains the laboratory activities and their con-tent. The laboratory activities are designed either to be doneby elementary students, or in a few cases, demonstrated bythe teacher. No textbook is used in this course. Instead, thestudents have Internet access to the course Web site that con-tains a comprehensive set of classroom notes, worksheets, andhandouts, and laboratory activities. All written materials usedin the class are available by request from the author.

The introduction and physics portions of the class arecurrently taught by a Ph.D. astrophysicist who is also atrained and certified secondary education teacher. The chem-istry portion is taught by the author, a Ph.D. physical chem-ist. Both instructors are present in the class and the laboratoryduring all sessions. Though neither instructor has taught theentire class alone, both are qualified and capable of doing so.The class has been taught 12 times over the past 11 years.

Student Assessment and Reaction to the Class

The assessments used in the class and their weighting areshown in List 1. Homework assignments are designed to helpthe students review and use recently learned material. Mostof the homework exercises could be used with the pre-serviceteachers’ future students with little or no modification.

Lab write-ups consist of two parts: (i) analysis of studentdata with probing questions for students about relationshipsin the data, and (ii) student suggestions about similar activi-ties that could be used in an elementary school setting. It isemphasized in lab that students are not graded on whetheror not their analysis of data is in agreement with currenttheory (which is usually introduced to them after they havedone the lab), but rather on their attempts to make sense oftheir data based on what they currently know. The explana-tion of data is very difficult for pre-service elementary teachers(and many other college students) because they have beenconditioned to produce the “right” answer even if they donot understand what it is or how it was obtained. One ofthe goals of the lab portion of class is to help students realizethat they can collect and critically analyze data themselves,and that lab is for discovery and playing with nature. Oneimportant idea that is honored with the homework assign-ments and labs is to never create busywork for the students,but instead to use assignments and labs that are aids to learn-ing and discovery.

List 1. Assessment Tools and Their Relative Contributionsto a Final Course Grade

Weighting

20%20%40%20%

Assessment Tool

Physics and chemistry homework (4)Lab write-ups (13)Physics exams (2)Chemistry exam (1)

seitivitcAdetaicossAriehTdnascipoTyrotarobaLfonoitubirtsiD.2elbaT

scipoTerutceLdetaleR cipoTyrotarobaL seitivitcAbaLfosnoitpircseDfeirB

2,1 IsnoitaluclacdnastnemerusaeM aeradnasretemirepetaluclac;stcejboD2erusaeM

2,1 IIsnoitaluclacdnastnemerusaeM emulovdnaaeraecafrusetaluclac;stcejboD3erusaeM

5,4,2,1 shpargdnaselbairav;noitatnemirepxE roivahebhpargdnamuludnepdnuopmocdnaelpmisydutS

8 egatnavdalacinahcemdnasenihcamelpmiS swercsdna,spmar,syellup,srevelhtiwtnemirepxednatcurtsnoC

9,8 krowdnaygrenE fonoisuffotaehehtyduts;serutarepmettnereffidtaselpmasdiuqilxiMsleehwretawtcurtsnoc;gniloocevitaropaveetagitsevni;eci

01 stiucricyretsymdnayticirtcelecitatS stiucricetaercdnaepocsortceleepat-enahpollecadliuB

01 msitengamdnayticirtceletnerruC ;yticirtceletnerrucraenroivahebstiydutsdnassapmocaekaMrotomcirtcelenadliub

11 srorrimdna,sesnel,thgiL gnisu,nitalegxolB-xonKdnaselttobfoedamsesnelydutsdnaekaMsecruosthgilsasresalniahc-yek

51,31,21 dnaseitreporplacimehcdnalacisyhPsegnahc

repapknikcalb;segnahclacimehcdnalacisyhpdlohesuohetagitsevnIsmetidlohesuohdnadoofnisnoitcaerenidoi–hcrats;yhpargotamorhc

91 snoitulosdnaserutxiM adosnomelyzzifekam;stnevloslarevesniydnacfognivlossidetagitsevnI

12 sesabdnasdicaforoivaheB larutangnisusmetidlohesuohfoseitreporpesab–dicaehtetagitsevnIsrotacidniesab–dicatiurfdnaelbategev

22 sremylopfoyrtsimehcehtotnoitcudortnI ehtyduts;eulgetihwdnalohoclalynivylopgniknil-ssorcybemilsekaMsrepaidybabnietalyrcaylopmuidosdna,EPDH,EPDLfoseitreporp

ynA ytivitcayrotarobalafotnempoleveD odotsetamssalcrofseitivitcanwoetaerC

ynA ytivitcayrotarobalafotnempoleveD odyehtseitivitcaetaulaveyllacitirc;seitivitca'sreepdnanworiehtoD

In the Classroom

www.JCE.DivCHED.org • Vol. 84 No. 4 April 2007 • Journal of Chemical Education 625

Exams for both physics and chemistry consist of mul-tiple choice and short answer–essay questions that explorethe students’ knowledge and application of the physical sci-ence topics in everyday situations. Students are given old teststo review so that they are fully aware of our testing style (notnecessarily the question content) and the format of exams.Review sessions are conducted at the students’ request to helpallay their fears and reinforce subject matter.

The students’ reactions to the class as evidenced by writ-ten class evaluations and verbal comments during the semes-ter have been positive. Students have appreciated the manydemonstrations and hands-on laboratory activities. Most im-portantly, the students indicate that they plan to incorporatewhat they learned in class into their future classrooms. Com-paring a conventional pre-service elementary teacher classwith the physics-first class would be worthwhile. However,no formal attempts have been made to compare the outcomeof this physics-first approach with the conventional approachto teaching chemistry to pre-service elementary teachers be-cause very few courses in this country are designed to teachchemistry to pre-service elementary teachers. The class de-scribed in this paper was created and fought for because ofthe need to give pre-service elementary teachers a physics andchemistry class that was more suitable for their needs thantypical general education classes.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges and thanks the creators of thisclass, Bradley W. Carroll and Spencer L. Seager, as well asthe reviewers, for their helpful comments.

Literature Cited

1. Klotz, I. M. J. Chem. Educ. 1992, 69, 225–228.2. Crosby, G. A. J. Chem. Educ. 1997, 74, 271–272.3. Lagowski, J. J. J. Chem. Educ. 1987, 64, 193.4. Seager, S. L.; Swenson, K. T. J. Chem. Educ. 1987, 64, 157–

159.5. Waterman, E. L.; Bilsing, L. M. J. Chem. Educ. 1983, 60, 129–

130.6. Steiner, R. J. Chem. Educ. 1984, 61, 1013–1014.7. Fenster, A. E.; Harpp, D. N.; Schwarz, J. A. J. Chem. Educ.

1985, 62, 1100–1101.8. Barnes, R. D. J. Chem. Educ. 1986, 63, 56–57.9. Kelter, P. L.; Paulson, J. R. J. Chem. Educ. 1988, 65, 1085–

1087.10. Woodward, L. M.; J. Chem. Educ. 1985, 62, 527–529.

11. Kelter, P. B.; Jacobitz, K.; Kean, E.; Hoesing, A. J. Chem. Educ.1996, 79, 933–937.

12. Gunter, M. E.; Gammon, S. D.; Kearney, R. J.; Waller, B. E.;Oliver, D. J. J. Chem. Educ. 1997, 74, 183.

13. Jaisien, P. G. J. Chem. Educ. 1995, 72, 48.14. Lederman, L. M. ARISE: American Renaissance in Science Edu-

cation; Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory: Batavia, IL,1998; FERMILAB-TM-2051. http://ed.fnal.gov/arise/ (accessedNov 2006).

15. Lederman, L. M. Physics Today 2001, 54, 11–12.16. Sheppard, K.; Robbins, D. M. J. Chem. Educ. 2005, 82, 561–

566.17. Wilkinson, S. L. Chem. Eng. News 2002, 80, 34–35.18. Mason, D. S. J. Chem. Educ. 2002, 79, 1393.19. Taber, K. Chem. Educ. Res. Practices 2001, 2, 43–51; http://

www.uoi.gr/cerp/2001_February/07.html (accessed Nov 2006).20. Resnick, L. Science 1983, 220, 477–478.21. Tsaparlis, G. J. Chem. Educ. 1997, 74, 922–926.22. Tsaparlis, G. Res. Sci. Educ. 1997, 27, 271–287.23. Coll, R.; Taylor, N. Chem. Educ. Res. Practices 2002, 3, 175–

174 ; http://www.uoi.gr/cerp/2002_May/08.html (accessed Nov2006).

24. How People Learn; Bransford, J., Cocking, R. Eds.; AcademyPress: Washington, DC, 1990.

25. Ausubel, D.; Novak, J.; Hanesian, H. Educational Psychology:A Cognitive View; Holt, Rinehart, and Winston: New York,1978.

26. Bitner, B. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 1991, 28, 265–274.27. Chiapetta, E. Sci. Educ. 1976, 60, 253–261.28. Nurrenbern, S. C. J. Chem. Educ. 2001, 78, 1107–1110.29. Dunlop, D. L.; Fazio, F. School Sci. Math. 1977, 77, 21–26.30. Williams, H.; Turner, C. W.; Debruil, L.; Fast, J.; Berestiansky,

J. J. Chem. Educ. 1979, 56, 599–600.31. Wulfsberg, G. J. Chem. Educ. 1978, 55, 165–170.32. Ward, C. R.; Herron, J. D. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 1980, 17, 387–

400.33. Thornton, M. C.; Fuller, R. G. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 1981, 18,

335–400.34. Craig, B. S. J. Chem. Educ. 1972, 49, 807–809.35. Chiappetta. E. L. Sci. Educ. 1976, 60, 253–261.36. Kavanaugh, R. D.; Moomaw, W. R. J. Chem. Educ. 1981, 58,

263–265.37. Lythcott, J. J. Chem. Educ. 1990, 67, 248–252.38. Libby, R. D. J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 72, 626–631.39. Piaget, J. Hum. Dev. 1972, 15, 1–12.40. Herron, J. D. J. Chem. Educ. 1975, 52, 146–150.41. Herron, J. D. J. Chem. Educ. 1983, 60, 725–725.42. Goodstein, M. P.; Howe, A. C. J. Chem. Educ. 1978, 55, 171–173.