testing of stones
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Stones
Bahram Nawabi 2012UCE1790
2nd Year 1st Sem
Construction Materials “ST211”
![Page 2: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Contents:• Stones• - Rocks• - Quarrying of stones• - Uses of stones (1-2)• - Characteristic of good building stones
• Tests of stones• - Different types of stones tests• - Why should we test and …• Preservation of stones
![Page 3: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
STONES
Stone has been defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth material
which are present in rocks.
![Page 4: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Rocks
Rock may be defined as the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite
shape and structure.
![Page 5: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Quarrying of stones
The only operation involved in the production of natural stone is the
quarrying process.
The open part of the natural rock from which useful stone is
obtained is known as quarry.
![Page 6: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Uses of stones-1
Use of stone as building material depends upon the:Nature of the work Type of the structural elementQualityAvailability Transportation cost
![Page 7: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Uses of stones-2For structural purposes:
Granite
Gneiss
Trap
Sandstone
Limestone
Marble
Quartzite
Slate
are most useful.
![Page 8: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Valley National Bank building, Arizona
![Page 9: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
B.L. Stone Building, Portland
![Page 10: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Characteristics of good building stonesA good building stone should have:
Appearance
Structure strength
Weight
Hardness
Toughness
Seasoning
Weathering
Workability
Fire resistance
Specific gravity
Thermal movement
![Page 11: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Testing of stones
To choose and utilize stones and for their satisfactory performance, it is necessary to test them for its strength properties, durability and quality.
![Page 12: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Different types of test• Acid test
• Attrition test
• Absorption test
• Brad’s test
• Crushing strength test
• Crystallization test
• Freezing and thawing test
• Hardness test
• Impact test
• Microscopic test
• Smith’s test
• Specific gravity test
• Durability test
![Page 13: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
• Acid test:This test is carried out on stone to
check the weathering resistance.
![Page 14: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
• Attrition test:The aim of this test is to determine the resistance
of the stone to abrasion, specially for those stones which are to be used for path ways, pavements and roads subjected to the grinding action of the traffic.
percent wear=(M1-M2)/M1*100
Where;
M1= Initial mass of stone ballast.
M2= Final mass of stone ballast
Deval’s Attriton Machine;
![Page 15: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
• Water absorption test:
The water absorption test is carried out to determine the quality of stone.
% Absorption= (M1-M2)/M1*100
![Page 16: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
• Brad’s test:
This test is conducted for frost resistance.
![Page 17: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
• Crushing strength test:
This test is conducted on a compression testing machine.
The test samples are dressed from all sides. The diameter of the test pieces known as specimen, is not less than 40 mm.
![Page 18: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
• Hardness test:
The hardness test is conducted on Dory's testing machine.
Coefficient of hardness= 20-loss of mass in gm/3
Alternatively the hardness test may be performed by scratching the stone with a knife on Mohr’s scale.
![Page 19: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
• Impact test:
Is carried out on an impact machine to determine the toughness of stone.
![Page 20: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
• Microscopic examination:
This is basically a geologists test. Thin sections of stone are taken and placed under a microscope to study the following properties:
i. Average grain size
ii. Texture of the stone
iii. Mineral constituents
iv. Type of cementing material
v. Presence of pores, fissures, veins, shakes etc.
vi. Presence of harmful constituents
vii. Condition of fractured surfaces.
![Page 21: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
• Smith’s test:
This test is conducted to find out the presence of water soluble matter present in the stone. It is only a qualitative test.
![Page 22: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
• Weathering resistance (Crystallization)test:
This test is conducted as per Indian Standard Specific
a1= 100*(M3-M1)/M1
V1= (M3-M2)/µ
a2= 100*(M4-M1)/M1
V2= (M4-M5)/µ
Where;a1= original absorption of the specimen at the end of 24
hr immersion
a2= final absorption of the specimen after 30 cycles
V1= original volume of the specimen at the end of 24 hr immersion
V2= final volume of the specimen after 30 cycles of test
µ= density of water
![Page 23: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
a1= 100*(M3-M1)/M1
V1= (M3-M2)/µ
a2= 100*(M4-M1)/M1
V2= (M4-M5)/µ
Where;a1= original absorption of the specimen at the end of
24 hr immersion
a2= final absorption of the specimen after 30 cycles
V1= original volume of the specimen at the end of 24 hr immersion
V2= final volume of the specimen after 30 cycles of test
µ= density of water
Increase in absorption due to weathering= 100*(a2-
a1)/a1
![Page 24: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
• Specific gravity test:
This procedure is adopted for determination of specific gravity of stone, as per IS : 1121-1974
Gt=(M2-M1)/((M4-M2)-M3-M2)
![Page 25: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
• Durability test:
The durability (soundness) test is performed to find out the capacity of stone to resist disintegration and decomposition.
Durability value= change in the mass= (M1-M2)*100
![Page 26: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Why should we test and which tests are appropriate?• • Failure mode effect analysis
• – What can go wrong?
• – What can we test for this?
• – How can we manage the risk?
• • Is it safe?
• • Will it last?
• • Is it strong enough?
![Page 27: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Different types of test -flexural
![Page 28: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Different types of test -flexural
![Page 29: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Different types of test - compressive
![Page 30: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Different types of test – porosity
![Page 31: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Different types of test – slip
![Page 32: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Different types of test – salt
![Page 33: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Preservation of stonesThe various natural agents, Like:• Rain• - Physical action• - Chemical action• Frost• Wind• Temperature changes• Vegetable growth• Mutual decay• Chemical agents• Lichensare deteriorate the stones with time.
Due to preventing from these deteriorations on stones there are some preservations.
![Page 34: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
1) Coal tar:
If coal tar is applied on stone surface, it preserves stone.
But the colour of coal tar produces objectionable appearance and surface coated with coal tar absorbs heat of the sun. Hence this preservative is not generally adopted because it spoils the beauty of stones.
![Page 35: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
2) Linseed oil:This preservative may be used either as raw
linseed oil or boiled linseed oil. The raw linseed oil does not disturb the original shade of stone. But it requires frequent renewal usually one in a year. The boiled linseed oil lasts for along period, but it makes the stone surface dark.
![Page 36: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
3) Paint:
An application of paint on stone surface serves as a preservative. The paint changes the original colour of stone. It is applied under pressure, if deep penetration is required.
![Page 37: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
4) Paraffin:
This preservative may be used alone or it may be dissolved and naphtha and then applied on stone surface. It changes the original colour of stone.
![Page 38: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
5) Solution of alum and soap:
The alum and soft soap are taken in proportion of about 0.75N and 0.50N respectively and they are dissolved in a liter of water. This solution, when applied on stone surface, acts as preservative.
![Page 39: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
6) Solution of baryta:
A solution of barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2, when applied on stone surface, acts as a preservative. This preservative is used when the decay of stone is mainly due to calcium sulphate, CaSO4. Following chemical reaction takes place:
Ba(OH)2+CaSO4 = BaSO4+Ca(OH)2
The barium sulphate is insoluble and it is least affected by atmospheric agencies. The calcium hydroxide absorbs Carbon-di-Oxide from atmosphere and forms Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 which adds to the strength of stone.
![Page 40: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Sources
1. ) Engineering materials, By Rangwala.
2. ) Basic Civil Engineering, By Dr.B.C. Punmia
3. ) Internet, (Wikipedia.com, Google image)
![Page 41: Testing of stones](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022042607/55ab2bb11a28abd6428b4827/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)