TEXT AND CONTEXT IN FIJIANHINDUISM: USES OF RELIGION

Jim WilsonDepartment of Philosophy & Religious Studies,University of Canterbury, N.7.

From a study of Hindu texts, ancient and modern, Hinduism emerges as arich and complex picture of a cyclic universe and of man's place in it,and a set of beliefs and disciplines aimed at giving man freedom from allthe limitations of ordinary life . There emerges also a theoretically sub-sidiary set of symbols and myths, of images and rituals, which offer at apopular level means of attaining earthly or heavenly happiness . But these,too, are meant to lead eventually to greater understanding of the universeand thus towards eventual freedom .

During ten month's study leave in Fiji,' my interest lay in exploringthe relationship between this `textual' Hinduism and the context ofeveryday Hinduism . Of the rich set of stories and symbols, beliefs anddisciplines, how much is really known by this Hindu and that? Whatelements receive most stress in ordinary belief and practice? How arethese elements used in everyday lives and concerns?

I wanted details rather than generalizations, so I concentrated onlearning the views of a few Hindus fairly deeply . Consequently the resultsmust be taken as examples, I hope interesting, and perhaps useful someday in a broader study. They do not provide a survey of a statisticallysignificant sample of Hindus. My material comes from questionnaires toHindu students at the University of the South Pacific, from discussions, andfrom attendance at ritual observances . My informants were largelypeople living or working in and around Suva, and there was a high pro-portion of university students and schoolteachers amongst them . 2

In this article I am concerned with material relating to the use peoplesay or imply they make, or seem to make, of their religion . In the texts,the four aims of life and the four stages of each individual's life give aHindu considerable flexibility here . But the aims and the stages arehierarchically ordered, and the general stress is on moksha (freedom),as the highest aim of religion . In context, in my experience, while thishierarchical ranking is acknowledged, the legitimate but inferior aims ofenjoyment (kama), material prosperity (artha) and moral and religiousvirtue (dharma) are given greater prominence . 3

Six interwoven uses emerge :- i) for entertainment and enjoyment(kama) ; 2) for support and aid in times of crisis (artha) ; 3) for guidance andassistance in worldly success and happiness (artha) ; 4) for guidance and

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assistance in leading a morally good life (dharma) ; 5) to provide an intel-lectual and emotional framework for life ; 6) to provide a path to freedom(moksha) . As indicated, these six uses can in part be correlated with thefour aims of life .

i . Entertainment and Enjoyment

This first use may seem obvious yet in some ways is the basis for all else .In Hinduism a great deal of religious and moral teaching is mediatedthrough story and drama and through song and ritual . Unless these storiesand activities were enjoyed, rather than endured as a duty, it is doubtfulwhether people would participate enough for this method to work .

The most frequent Hindu gathering in Fiji is a Ramayana reading.Tulsidas' Ramayana, in rhythmic verse, is a good story running through arich range of human and divine emotion and activity . The poetry is sungand the prose explanation read, and the ceremony includes also the colourand movement of hawan (symbolic offering of food to God through thesacrificial fire) and arti (devotional circular waving of lighted camphor),and the enjoyment of prasad (the rest of the food offerings to God aredistributed to the devotees) . There is also the pleasure of communalsinging, accompanying a Ramayana reading or as an activity on its own .Popular bhajan (hymns) are sung by lead singers and often repeated by thegroup, to the accompaniment of accordian, cymbals and drums . Soundand colour, story, song and companionship, combine to give a veryentertaining evening . (As one questionnaire engagingly pointed out, thereis entertainment less strictly religious in these gatherings also : "I go toreligious activities mentioned (more) for the sake of social gathering,meeting girls, friends, than to participate in religious activity itself" . 2(c)

In addition to these gatherings, there is a wide range of ritual anddevotional activity. There is regular puja (worship) at the images of thevarious manifestations of the divine force, a colourful ritual whether atpublic mandir (temple) or private home shrine. At some Sangam 4 mandirthere are dramatic annual ceremonies during which devotees of Durga, 5to demonstrate their trust in her, walk barefoot over fire, or over sharpknives, or pick gulgul (small fried cakes) out of boiling ghi with bare hands .Then there are observances of family and life-stage rites, and of kathareadings (stories, usually illustrating some moral or religious point) .

Of course not all my informants always enjoyed these observances .On occasions some sat through as a duty, or from desire to gain merit ; somerefused to sit through at all. But many still attended and enjoyed, especiallyin rural areas, perhaps partly because there the range of other entertain-ment is narrower .

The other main aspect I noted of the enjoyment use of religion, harderto convey briefly, is the individual's delight in his own tradition . Thisemerged in a variety of ways . Several times, for example, I was involved inthe pleasure of a group-exchange of knowledge of the stories in Ramayana,discussing how different facets and ideals intertwine to form a rich whole .

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I was struck also by the pleasure Hindus get from showing that their idealsare capable of transition from ancient India of Shri Rama's day to Suvatoday. And several times, with vigour and enjoyment, it was suggested tome that many modern achievements might have been anticipated inancient tradition-perhaps Rama's aerial car is evidence that ancientIndia had already invented the aeroplane, and Arjuna's arrows mightshow that in the time of the Mahabharata India had ballistic missiles!Probably this game helps re-establish confidence in the Indian traditionafter Western abuse . 6 But the dominant element is enjoyment .

This enjoyment of religion cannot but increase knowledge of andprobably influence by the religious tradition . Indeed, comments by astudent illustrated that such influence could outlast the enjoyment . Thisstudent no longer participated in religious observances ("These are thevery things that `put me off' "), nor felt there was any conscious moralinfluence on him from his Hindu background . But he added : `If I wereasked to cut a chicken's throat I couldn't do it, and I do have an urge tohelp people and not to injure' . He could not remember direct teachingabout ahimsd (non-injury), but he does remember being told Hindu storieswhich exemplified this ideal, and thought these probably had an influenceon him .

Today, many other entertainments vie with the traditional religiousones, in urban and perhaps increasingly in rural areas, and it is hard topredict the effect of this . In Suva, while some traditional observancesseem to be dwindling, at least one new group, with a simpler ritual and agrouping and pattern of meetings more suited to urban life, is booming .'In the rural Labasa area there is a resurgence of youthful involvement inRamdydna groups and in care of mandir. And I came across interestingexamples of pleasure at relating scientific theories to traditional Hindumoral and religious attitudes (see use 5) . It may be there will be changerather than decrease in this entertainment aspect of religion . It is worthnoting that, as against the lure of the urban range of non-religiousentertainment, religious entertainment does have the advantage of a morecomplex appeal . It is rare to feel virtuous as well as pleased about film-going, for example, or to experience the film as putting one really intouch with the forces guiding human life .

2 . Crisis

Two types can be distinguished within this second use . The first involvespeople not regularly `religious' . The student mentioned above providesmy most explicit and self-aware example . In his questionnaire return heclassified himself as of no religion, and wrote : `I do not expect anythingfrom any religion but obstacles and problems' . But he also wrote : `Ivery much doubt the existence of God ; yet in times of crisis (e.g. beforeand during exams) I say a few prayers . This could be due to the amountof indoctrination about God I have received. This also could be due tosomething more profound, like I am afraid to deny the existence of God' .

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In discussion he added : `I want to reject belief in God, but it is not easy .When I think of death-a frightening thought-or in times of crisis I saya few prayers . I can see how belief in God makes it easier to face death' .

This example, and other less explicit ones, suggests the over-all powerof religious indoctrination is still considerable . Those who normally set nostore by, and even those who are angry about and consciously reject, Hindubelief and practice, are still involved and may fall back on it in a crisis .

But as well as being perhaps the only religious residue in the less- oranti-religious, use in crisis is an important and persistent use amongst themore religious, alongside other uses . In this second type, religion acts, atleast in part, as a psychological support . This was almost explicit in aquestionnaire reply : CI expect my religion] ' . . . to help me in times ofworry since I can look up to my religion to provide answers or hope at least' .(my italics). It was also suggested by the comments of two teachers .One, when he was young and had to walk home alone at night, `used tostep long and recite Hanuman Chalisa' . The other was once living alone nextto a remote village cemetery: `I kept the Gita and Hanuman Chalisa undermy bed ; I know Hanuman Chalisa off by heart, and used to recite and itcalmed my fears' .

In these cases thee psychological element ('calmed my fears') was clearlyrecognized. But clearly there was also belief in the external efficacy ofreciting religious texts . This was explicit in another story by one of theseteachers . Trying with his sister to get a boat across a swift current, he wasswept back twice, he told us ; but the third time he recited Hanuman Chalisa,`and straight as a die across the boat went' .

Belief in the power of recitation of texts has special sanction, and hasbeen backed up by elaborate theory, in the Tantra of Hinduism. I do notthink Tantric theory is much known in Fiji . But in Tulsidas' Ramayanamention is made of these texts, and the idea that reciting or hearingreligious texts can bring merit and help is frequently stressed . As with thealmost instinctive resort to prayer illustrated in the first type, it is notessential to know the background theory . It is indeed striking that religiousindoctrination can implant an idea so deeply in the mind that it is calledon in this way in time of crisis even when the theory `justifying' such reli-ance is either not known or not explicitly affirmed .

Though the range of use in crisis is wide, my most common examplesconcerned medical problems . I cite two cases .

A teacher's eight-month old daughter developed a very bad rash . Aftertrying, in vain, a number of doctors and several mandir, he took her to amandir where a lady known as The Mother had a reputation for healing. Inmixed desperation and hope he waited two hours for his turn, then simplyheld the child out and said, `Here is my daughter for your blessing,Mother' . The priestess took' her, stroked her arms, and told the father tobring a staff the same height as herself and a set of the child's clothes(including nappies), and to give the child a little of her own bath water todrink. When he returned next day with the articles, the priestess took thechild, passed her above a camphor fire, then gave her to her mother .

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`Step over the fire then go straight out', she told the mother ; `don't lookback, your child will be all right' . The child became much calmer even inthe car on the way home, the father told me, and was completely andpermanently cured of the rash in a few days .

This man was not insistent that this was a `miraculous' cure, or that it`proved' the truth of his beliefs . Indeed, he himself suggested that `themedicines may have had to reach a certain concentration', and agreedthis might have brought about a cure which happened to coincide withthis mandir visit . Though he himself preferred to attribute the cure toGod's power mediated through the Mother, ('I just said "Thank youGod"'), he was unwilling to be dogmatic about it .

Two elements in particular in the textual tradition might partly accountfor this attitude to `miraculous' happenings . Firstly, there is a range ofexplanations allowed for such events-the power of a god successfullypetitioned, the ripening of a person's karma, the power of a trained humanmind. Today, many Hindus seem able to add to this range other modernexplanations-that the illness was psychosomatic, that there may beundiscovered effects of mind on body, that the `cure' is a coincidenceremembered and highlighted. Secondly, the various explanations areranked in hierarchical order, and regarded as, at best, only true relativeto the imperfect schemes of explanation within which unenlightenedminds are bound. Explanations in terms of the power of the gods, appro-priate for minds of simple faith, are to be replaced in due course byincreasing understanding of the single power which accounts for all things .Such a range of explanations, and such stress on the relative and imperfectnature of human explanations, probably discourages dogmatism about anyone explanation, however convinced one might be that the incident wasnot obviously amenable to ordinary, non-religious, explanation .

The second medical example again involved a particular mandir . Ayoung woman and her husband had no child. Doctors and their ownpriest could give no help. At length they came to Ram Nath, the priest incharge of a Durga mandir near Suva at which there is an annual knife-walking ceremony. Ram Nath appealed to Durga for them, and predictedthe date of conception and of birth, the couple said; and on the due date aboy was born. The mother had vowed to Durga that if they had a childshe would pay homage to and prove her faith in Durga by `walking theknives' each year.$ The evening I met them the couple, with the baby,were at the mandir so that the mother could prepare herself for the ordeal .At the height of a very dramatic scene the chief dancer in the ceremonyswayed wildly round camphor fires with the baby (miraculously?) calmin his arms, while the mother, in a trance (this she confirmed later),danced even more wildly and tried desperately to break past the restrain-ing priest and get into the shrine . Eventually Ram Nath let her go in anddo puja and she emerged calmer. A few nights later I watched her fulfilher vow to walk the knives, 9 an action she intends to repeat every yeartill she dies, out of gratitude to Durga .

These examples differ significantly from those in the first type of crisis

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use. In the first type, the resort to religion is unwilling or even uninten-tional, and is not of a sort that requires much time or effort . It is difficultto imagine people normally indifferent or hostile to religion doing muchmore than offering, or having wrung out of them, a brief prayer in a crisis .They would be most unlikely to wait for hours at a mandir then carry outpeculiar instructions not obviously related to the crisis concerned . Inexamples of the second type, however, this sort of extended response waswillingly undertaken . For these people religion was more than merely aresort in times of crisis ; it was relied on also for a general guide to livingand for assistance in being moral . The broader and deeper significancereligion had for them was reflected in their crisis use .

3. Worldly Success and Happiness

In addition to providing a refuge in specific crises, religion is used toguide and assist towards a successful and happy life in general. As somequestionnaires put it : "I pray or do puja so that I am successful, happyand secure" ; "I expect religion to pass me in my exams . . . " ; . . . "To keepus peaceful and happy" .

`Success' and `happiness' indicate a range of inter-related goals :material success, competence at and satisfaction in one's job, success infamily life, better rebirth . These goals are sought by three main religiousmethods : ritual devotion, continuous trust in God, and application oflessons from scripture . Observance of God's moral rules could be consid-ered a fourth method, but seems more often regarded as a pre-conditionunderlying success by the other three methods rather than a separatemethod. A farmer did say to me, however, `If you follow the rules, thenyou will be successful . If only everybody would follow the rules of Ramayana[he had made it clear he meant moral rules] there would be no trouble-no droughts, no floods, no hurricanes' .

Businessmen's puja to Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, and appeals byall manner of people to Ganesh and Hanuman, are examples of the firstmethod . Ramayana readings, also, are frequently used for continuingsuccess as well as for specific problems . A farmer in the Labasa area, forexample, holds a Ramayana reading after his cane harvest each year, ingratitude to Rama for past help and in hope of continuing help in thecoming year. Regular puja at the family shrine, in some cases done onlyby one representative of the family, is said to ensure protection and happi-ness for the whole home . That participation in such ritual devotion isbelieved to aid success is also brought out by expressions of concern aboutnon-participation-for example : "I used to pray every morning till Idid my Fiji junior [examination] and I was too good . Since I left praying,I became lazy" .

Unfortunately I have no detailed discussions on how the method isbelieved to operate. I suspect a direct `bargain' type arrangement isoften envisaged, though not explicitly expressed : `I perform puja, thusshowing devotion to God, and God helps me' . The help expected seems

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to be either change in external circumstances brought about by God in thedevotee's favour (for example in business deals, or in getting the `right'questions in examinations), or inner strengthening to help overcome thecircumstances . But the result is not independent of one's own effort . As oneteacher put it, `Without hard work you cannot get God's blessing' . And atradesman said, `With two hands and God's help a man can make good' .

The second method is intense continuous reliance on God of whichritual periods are just publicly observable signs . A civil servant, a devoteeof Sal Baba whom he has seen and spoken to in India, is completelyconvinced Baba is an avatar of God. He now relies on him utterly, surethat he knows all that he or anyone else does, and can `tell him' at anymoment what course of action is the best. He has Sal Baba's picture inhis office, and when in difficulty over new work he `hands it over' toBaba and from then on feels it is not he himself writing but Baba writingthrough him and for him. The greatest test came when he had to replacethe Deputy Supervisor for a week . He said to Baba, `You take the chairand I'll sit at your feet'. When the Deputy Supervisor came back andasked how it had gone, the reply was `I' didn't even notice your absence' .I have, alas, no knowledge of the Deputy Supervisor's response to this!

This indirect guidance could be explained in terms of faith-inducedconfidence allied with the devotee's own ability . At times, though, advicecomes more dramatically through dreams. On one occasion he dreamtBaba was writing to him asking `Have you got your latest promotion?' Hereplied that he had . `What further prospects have you?' Baba asked .`None', he replied. `Oh yes you have', responded Baba ; and three weekslater the devotee learned there was a chance to reach grade three fromgrade five .

Though this man is a regular devotee of God in his Rama avatar as well,it seems likely that his continuous trust in God was made more intense,and the dramatic quality of the dreams enhanced, by his belief that inSai Baba, whom he has seen and talked to, we have an avatar actuallypresent in the world today . An avatar in the flesh is worth many in thetexts !

But similar trust can be directed to the older textual avatar. A 2o-yearold farmer, on his father's death, was charged suddenly with responsibilityfor the farm and the family . By any standards he has been very successfulin both. Again and again as I talked with him during a week's stay on hisfarm he would mention that this was Rama's doing, not his own . Wheneverin perplexity or feeling weak he had simply appealed to Rama . `No harmcan come to this compound', he told me with quiet confidence, `because ofShri Rama' .

The third method of gaining guidance and help is from holy scripture . 10In the Ramayana, or the Gita, virtually every type of human activity andpredicament is covered . When humans are, today, in doubt or perplexitythey need only find or remember the appropriate incident or advice in theholy text and adapt it to the present situation . One informant said,`In the Ramayana, for every problem there is a situation to suit' . Another,

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arguing that Hindus are too meek for their own good, reminded me thatwhile Rama tried his hardest to win over by kindness the one who waswronging him (Ravana), yet in the end he would not compromise withevil but overthrew it by force . And a teacher said : `The Gita has someadvice for every situation . Something arises, something similar happened inthe Gita; adapt the advice or incident there to your own situation and youhave wise help and guidance' .

Guidance and assistance for success, by whatever method sought, isbelieved to have effects beyond a person's present life, as is to be expectedfrom the textual background . Thus : [I expect my religion to] "guide me onearth and upon death give me a place according to my activities on earth" .And: "Everything that one does in the consequence of the karma which isdependent on the way you have lived and are living. The life you havelived before decides the kind of life you are going to live now" . It is fromreligious teaching that the ground-rules of karma are learned, and by theabove three methods religion can give guidance and assistance for successin future lives as well as in our present life . Comments concerning successor failure in one's next life, however, and indeed popular notions ofkarmain general, usually have strong moral content, and thus will need to betaken up again as we look at the fourth use .

4. Leading a Morally Good Life

With this fourth use we move from concrete, worldly and often short-term goals to less tangible long-term goals of morality and enlightenment-the `loftier' areas with which books and courses on religion seem prim-arily concerned . So I want to stress that in the context of Fijian Hinduismthe first three uses seemed at least as important as the last three .

Not that there is an abrupt break between uses three and four .Morality as an end in itself is often ambiguously combined with moralityas a pre-condition of happiness or success. Indeed, the idea of doing one'smoral duty is seldom completely divorced from the belief that somehow,sometime, such morality is rewarded. But there seems also strong beliefin the importance of being moral regardless of the consequences to oneself .To the question "Do you think your religion has helped or hindered yourdevelopment as an individual?", one response was : "Probably hinderedbecause I am more society conscious" . This hints that following the dic-tates of religion and being concerned for others may be to one's detrimentas an individual, but be the right course to follow nonetheless, as otherreplies in this questionnaire made clear . And one informant in discussioncontrasted use of religion for morality with use for `selfish' ends : `It is awrong use of religious power when people ask God for this and that forthemselves-money or what not-instead of asking for help to help others' .

We must consider both the belief that religion gives moral guidance,and that it helps one to live up to this guidance .

There is no doubt about the importance of religion as a moral guide .To the question, "What do you expect your religion to do for you, or to

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you?", 20 out of 47 questionnaire returns gave answers like : "Supply amoral guide . . ." ; "To teach us morality . . ." ; "Give guidelines to behaviour,morals, etc" . In discussion also this expectation of religion was frequentlyexpressed .

The dominant view was that this guidance came especially throughscriptures, which were believed to give direct moral advice and to provideexamples of correct living . A questionnaire reply sums up the position :`Follow the teachings of Gita and Ramayana. Rama has shown the sort oflife one should lead' . But more direct guidance from God is also expected .One fine old man, who came from India as an indentured labourer at theage of 12, was very scornful of the guidance of books, holy scripture notexcepted. ('Books are jars of water poured into the milk of true knowledge .')He recommended me to `Trust in Bhagavan (God) and act righteously ;and this you'll know by your own feeling of what is right or wrong' .Since this was in the context of `remembering God's name and virtuesmorning and night', and of a lifetime of `keeping good company, listeningand sifting', the guidance of the religious community, and thus indirectlyof scripture, was involved here. But there was also belief that to a disci-plined devoted person God will give direct guidance through the inner-most feelings that come to one when concerned over moral problems .

In a wide range suggested, from general principles to details of diet andetiquette, certain points recurred over and again, giving a list very similarto what one would extract from the texts . Most frequently mentioned wasthe ideal of concern for others. Some informants sounded as though theywere thinking mainly of humanity : "Love everyone in a like manner","Love enemy and friends alike" . But significantly the ideal was frequentlyapplied to all living things : "Kindness to all-animals and humans both","Hindus have respect for every sort of living thing ." Some were moregeneral still : "Love for all things in nature" ; "Part of the Indian custom hasbeen to respect everything that makes life possible for you (e .g. food-grains ;cattle, farmwork, water, Ganges) . . . " .11

Secondly, truth : "We must always speak the truth", "Never tell lies" ; andsuggesting we must seek out as well as tell the truth, "Acceptance of truthonly". I see here in context the influence of the strong stress in Hinduscriptures on truthfulness. One thinks of Yudhisthira's chariot sinking tothe ground when the King of Righteousness tampered ever so slightlywith the truth ; 1 .2 and of Rama, normally the embodiment of truthfulness . 13

Respect and love for those in special relationship to you, a specificapplication of the general ideal of love for all, received frequent separatemention. This ideal is very prominent in the texts, especially the Ramayana .Most stressed in questionnaires (the respondents being largely young)was duty to parents, elders and teachers, though the reciprocal aspect(love of parents for children) was also mentioned . The Ramayana receivedspecial mention as it "portrays an ideal family" . In discussions with olderpeople it was often the duty of parent to children and teacher to pupil thatwas stressed.

Ahimsa (non-injury) was given a prominent place : " . . . not to harmE

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others . . .", " . . .trying my best to do no wrong to any person, . . .".Againthe ideal was extended beyond the human realm. "Like all religions Iknow, any act against another person which is not in his interest is regardedas sin . Hinduism goes further and regards the act against any living thingas sin ." A retired teacher explained that we should visualise God in everyliving thing-'inside that fly, that tree-"therefore we should give no painto any living thing or creature, including even vegetable life . . . If yougive pain you have committed the sin of himsa . . . which can be inflictedby thought, word or deed. Because of this a Hindu mother stops childreneven picking a flower or leaf or breaking a branch, especially in the even-ings when every living thing prays to God" .' 14

The positive side of this is : "Benevolence by helping the poor andneedy" ; "To help those who are in need of your help" . It was often impliedand sometimes stated that help should be given to all life-forms : "Dharma,which simply means to `fulfil your duty'-to feed a hungry, to help a blindand the lame and so on-whether it is man or animal" .

Tolerance of others, and, specifically, tolerance of other religions wasoften stressed: "I expect a Hindu to be more tolerant of the beliefs of otherreligions . . ." ; "God comes to the earth whenever there is need. He mayhave come to the other parts of the world . That is why we do not condemnother religions" ; [The moral ideals of Hinduism are] "Truth, Peace,Love etc. . . . closely related to Christianity and Buddhism" . One personeven stated that the "Main belief of my religion is to communicate withthe other religions so that life may be happy under one God . Peopleregard God as different for each religion, but the beliefs show that thereis only one God" .' 5

Thus religion informs and guides morally . It is believed it also assists inliving up to this guidance, and again scripture has a dominant role . It`holds values up before us', as one student put it; and by doing this "Ithas helped me realize what my duties are" . A retired teacher pointed outthrough careful reading of the Ramayana `the ideals sink home'. A teacherexpected his religion "To keep on reminding me the virtuous path that Ishould follow" . The figure of Rama is very important here : "Rama is theideal person one should try to emulate" . Thus the ideals are repeatedlypresented to us in such a way that they compel our assent, become acceptedas `duties' by US .16

The effect is regarded by some as inspirational . An Arya Samajl'family said: `We do not accept that Rama (the human king) is God,but we regard the Ramayana as a parable teaching an ideal'. And aSanatanil 7 friend conceded that it is possible (though in his view un-likely) that the events described in the Ramayana did not happen. `Still theteaching would be there', he went on, `and would be important to followeven if it were only a parable' . But for many the Ramayana is not just aparable. It is God's example presented here, and it is believed that Goddirectly aids those who read or hear about, and try to emulate, his model .This belief is strongly urged in the Ramayana, where the virtues and bene-fits of listening to the acts of Rama are stressed . One student was a little

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cynical about this aspect of religious assistance for morality ; " . . . [moral]concepts backed by a picture of God just to make people follow the con-cepts" .

Religion also motivates morally in a more general way by giving aframework for moral ideals . It provides motivation in two almost opposedways, and the resulting tension is evident in text and context alike .On the one hand the framework provides what might be termed

selfish motives for being unselfish and loving . It is widely accepted, asnoted under the third use, that to be successful and happy moralconditions have to be fulfilled . Most frequently, this notion was linkedspecifically with the doctrine of karma, and thus included the idea of con-sequences of actions in future lives . Thus: "Reincarnation. . . `As you sow,so you reap' is easily explained here . . . . According to our karma we have tobe reborn in a new form to finish what was unfinished . (People say if webeat our yoking bullocks too much then next time the bullocks will be themaster and we have to take the form of bullocks . . .)", and: "Everythingyou do has its own reward", and "One has to pay for all the bad deeds afterdeath". But this religious assistance to being moral applies within any onelife as well. A teacher told of his brother-in-law stealing a tyre and rimbelonging to a big firm so he might have a spare on his truck for a longtrip. But first one and then a second tyre burst on him . When he came backmy informant told him, `There you are, the law ofkarma' . He added to methat he didn't know if it really was, but that it certainly had an effect onhis brother-in-law who never did that sort of thing again . His view wasthat this sort of fear of consequences, supplied by religion, is needed for theuneducated to get them to follow the virtuous path .

There is also a longer term `selfish' motivation : the aim of gainingfinal enlightenment (moksha). `You must continue your good deeds lifeafter life till you attain moksha . . .', said a retired teacher . `If you dohimsa [injury] you have to do penance, and achievement of moksha isretarded .'

On the other hand the framework can provide, and in context seems to,a less narrowly selfish motive for morality . As one put it : `Hindus believein the oneness of all living things . The whole world is your family . Every-thing on the surface of the earth is related to you, even plant life whichtakes in C02 and breathes out oxygen' . This belief can give a justificationfor ideals of love and service, and can provide a motive for striving toimplement them. `What is the real message of the Ramayana? To showcompassion to one another for all are part of the same para-atma, and sinceall are of one substance we should care for each other .'

Presumably through this aspect of the framework religion has inculcatedthe feeling expressed by some that the very purpose of life is to be foundin service of others . "What is life if you live it for yourself?" ; [I expect myreligion] "to teach me truth, justice, kindness, forgiveness . . . so that I maydo my earthly duty for the good of others . Thus to teach me the verypurpose of my life on this earth". It is probably wrong here to talk ofreligion being used to bring about this frame of mind . Religion, through

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text and community, is the active party, bringing about in such people adeep feeling that only in service is true life to be found . Self-interest andthe interests of others coincide then, and it is rather irrelevant to askwhether the action or motive is selfish .

5. Frameworkfor LifeThe fifth use is to provide an intellectual and emotional framework for

life . In addition to guidance in practical things, and methods (religiousor scientific) of control, it seems we humans need a sense of belonging, apicture of our environment which has us in some significant place . Suchpictures are the central powerhouse for all other uses of religion and arerightly given a dominant place in the study of religion . They underlie thestories and observances that give enjoyment, supply the theories behinduse in crisis and for success, and provide a basis for moral striving andfor the search for enlightenment. But in these other uses these picturesare in the background . For some people, at least some of the time, theyare consciously central, and their assistance in reconciliation with theenvironment (achieving a sense of belonging) is the major use to whichreligion is put.

Reconciliation brings peace of mind, and therefore a type of success inliving . But as against the goal of the third use, such peace is independentof external circumstances . It is sought not by persuading God to change theenvironment, but by changing one's attitude to the environment. This useis quite distinct from that for material success or happiness, and indeedmay develop out of disillusionment with it . A student said of his old beliefin a personal God : `I asked for things and didn't get them' . He nowbelieves in an all-pervasive energy . `This energy is everywhere, so there isno point in asking part of it to do something to another part (e.g . somepray to God for success in exams) .'

Essentially, what is involved is reflection on the central Hindu idea ofthe unity of all in such a way that the isolated individual is fitted into thetotal flow of the universe, giving intellectual satisfaction at having aunitary scheme and emotional satisfaction at feeling a part of it.

In Hindu theory there are two basic ways of expressing this fundamentalunity, theistic and monistic (advaita) . 18 In theistic mode, belief that there is`One God who creates, preserves and destroys this whole universe', asone person put it, gives a framework for seeing everything as a single sys-tem. My experience suggests that most Hindus who gain their sense ofbelonging less explicitly, as a by-product of their other uses(s) of religion,gain it primarily through such theistic imagery. Devotees of God whoprimarily trust in him for success in life (use 3), for example, also feel`at home' in a universe which they believe is under God's control .

I found more explicit examples of this use, however, in an advaitasetting. One was the student, mentioned above, who had become dis-illusioned with use of religion for material ends. He had come insteadto identify the all-pervasive non-personal power of advaita thought

IN FIJIAN HINDUISM

(Brahman) with the energy scientific disciplines speak of as the basis ofeverything . By thus linking his tradition's religious imagery, with all itsemotional and moral implications, with scientific imagery, with its wealthof detail about the complex manifestations of this basic energy, he hadprovided himself with a personally very satisfying frame of reference .It not only gave him a basis for behaviour, it was also a joy in its own right,giving him a feeling of belonging to the complex and exciting universe hewas currently studying. For regular prayer to a personal God, he hadsubstituted half an hour's morning meditation during which `I try to openmyself to the energy of the universe' .

Another student spoke of a central energy in more traditional, meta-physical terms. `Science can't describe the central energy', he said . `Thisenergy is everywhere, it is the basic fundamental energy . The energyscience talks about is dependent on it, one manifestation of it.' He gavean interesting example, however, in which modern scientific belief playedan important part. Speaking of belief in rebirth, . he said that over the agesthe same atoms and molecules form parts of different bodies . `So there issomething of other people in us,' he went on, `and thus the central energyis manifesting itself in different generations' . This idea gave him a basisfor moral concern and a feeling of belonging to an on-going indivisiblewhole rather than being an isolated individual .

Something of the way such beliefs can aid reconciliation was made clearin the views of a recent graduate . He thought complete identification ofBrahman with scientific theory was not wise : `scientific theory is aboutphysical energy and one could say differences between physical forms areimportant (e .g . different pigment in the skin etc .) Brahman is metaphysical,we can't see it so can't say differences are there, and therefore it is a betterbasis for unifying.' This person also said : `I'm not sure if there really is apara-atma [Brahman], but I can see the importance of believing there is forthen I have a basis for the belief that you and I are the same substance, andthus for breaking down hostility and the habit of seeing differences' . Usingreligious imagery in this way while remaining agnostic about the realreferent of the imagery gives a striking example of religion being used,consciously and explicitly, as a framework for intellectual and emotionalreconciliation . This use, then, stressed in textual studies, does occur incontext, though in my range of contacts was not common in so explicit aform .

6. Path to Freedom

Finally, religion is regarded in context as well as in text as being ableto provide a path to a final religious goal, moksha. But it emerged in dis-cussion and questionnaire as a major present concern of very few . Onlyfive questionnaires could be said to give this as a main use in response tothe question "What do you expect your religion to do for you, or to you?" .One wrote of an expectation, but an uncertain one, that religion would"give place to our souls when we die" . Two gave a general hope : 11 . . . I

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think my religion would make me a better man but the main thing is thatyou get the salvation of soul" ; "It earns salvation for you after death" . Andtwo others gave a more explicit theistic expression of the hope . "I expectmy religion to bring me . . . closer to God, to gain that higher state of mindthrough Yoga, and to the Lord's blessings for ever." "If I follow my religionproperly I hope to meet the Supreme Being."

In discussions, one unusual view questioned the possibility of permanentmoksha . `The process of our involvement in sdrrsara is endless . . . evengreat rishi don't achieve permanent balance . . . Moksha is a state ofbalance in sdmsara, which might last for a long time, but eventually itends.' Only in one discussion did I get unsolicited a clear expression ofmoksha as the main aim of religion. `You must continue your good deedslife after life until you attain moksha, which means assimilation into theSupreme Being; and then no return. Both Rdmdyana and Gita teach ourlife's mission must be attainment ofmoksha. This can only be done by gooddeeds . . . love of God . . . and man and all living things .'The general impression I got was that for many moksha was thought

of as vaguely desirable, and in theory the highest aim, but as a state tooremote to concern oneself with directly as yet. It is fair to add that thetextual framework of the four stages of life, or of the four aims throughwhich one is to work at one's own pace, makes this a perfectly acceptableposition for a Hindu to be in .

Conclusion

These same four aims of life provide a basis for the only general commentI would venture to make concerning the differences between text andcontext on this matter of uses of religion . It is that the differences are not ofdetail of belief or usage ; all uses found in context have a place and a justi-fication in the texts. The differences are of relative emphasis on the differ-ent aspects and uses of the complex Hindu tradition . As mentioned at thebeginning of this article, the hierarchical ranking of aims and uses givenin the texts is acknowledge in context . But in practice the legitimatethough theoretically inferior aims of enjoyment, of worldly prosperity andhappiness, and of moral and religious virtue are given greater prominence,religion being used a good deal, in complex inter-acting ways, to furtherthese aims.

NOTES

i . From August 1972 to June 1973. Fiji's Indian community, slightly over half the totalpopulation of the Dominion, provides the largest Hindu community close to NewZealand. I am very grateful to the Government of Fiji for granting me a researchpermit; and to the Council of the University of Canterbury for granting me leave .

2 . a) Questionnaires were circulated to about 350 Indian students at the University ofthe South Pacific . A hurricane intervened, and only 62 completed questionnaires werecollected, 47 from Hindu students. These were useless as a sample, but provided usefulinformation about individuals .

Length alone is not a good index of the value of a discussion, but it is the only generalguide I can give . The discussions were not taped but were written up as soon aspossible after they occurred (only occasional notes were taken during discussions) .c) In the article double quotation marks indicate an exact quotation from a question-naire, single quotation marks, usually, an approximate quotation from a discussion .d) I spent a week in a rural (cane-farming) area (Labasa, Vanua Levu), and almostall the rest of the time in a basically urban setting in and around Suva, Viti Levu .e) As has been my experience also in the past, members of the Indian community wereunfailingly courteous and friendly in responding to questions and welcoming me toritual observances, and I am most grateful to them .

3 . Where the transliteration into English script of key Sanskrit and/or Hindi terms ornames is firmly fixed with a final short `a' represented, I have bowed to the inevitableand followed the fashion (e.g . dharma, Ramayana, Rima) . Elsewhere I have included oromitted a final short `a' in a way which more closely indicates the present pronuncia-tion, in Fiji, of the words concerned (e .g. bhajan, avatar, prasad, but tantra) .

4. The Sangam is the organization of Hindus of South Indian origin in Fiji .5 . Durga is one of the most important manifestations of, or names for, the Mother

Goddess, Mahashakti ; also manifest/known as Kali, Parvati etc .6 . From a questionnaire: `At least now I know that the ideas that were hammered into

me by myprimary schoolteachers-that Hinduism was paganism and all the rest of it-were absolute rubbish. I'm quite content to be a Hindu'. From a discussion : `We wereculturally raped at school' .

7 . Bhagavan Shri Satya Sal Seva Samithi. Sal Baba, whose headquarters are in SouthIndia, is regarded by his devotees as the present avatar (incarnation) of God . His pictureis in countless homes and shops in Suva, and his movement seems to be developingstrongly in Fiji at present (5973)

8. This type of vow, to do something if some benefit is granted, is very common amongstHindus in Fiji.

9 . A set of very sharp sugar-cane knives set closely together in a stand ; the participantsmove their feet firmly up and down while standing on them, and in some casesvirtually dance on them (especially impressive in the case of the priest, as he must haveweighed at least 55 stone) .

Io. This is closely inter-related, of course, with the other methods . One knows the advicebecause one holds the ritual observance (Ramayana reading) ; and it is from scripturethat one learns of God and can come to trust him .

5 5 . Young, J. Z., An Introduction to the Study of Man, Clarendon, Oxford, 5975, p. 15 :`We are just able to recognize that all men are brothers . Should we not go much fur-ther and proceed on the assumption that we are of one flesh, not only with animalsbut with all plants, fungi and bacteria as well? . . . this concept is the sober scientifictruth .' Such passages in scientific literature suggest to me that in this respect at leastthe Hindu religious framework provides a more satisfactory basis for coming to

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b) Discussions:-Length in hours/Respondents 3 or more 1-3 Less than I TOTAL

Students 7 3 8 18Teachers 6 5 8 19Civil Servants 3 I 2 6Farmers &Farmers' Wives I 2 5 8Professional &Business Men 2 I 3Tradesmen 3 3Swamis & Pujaris 2 3 5Others 3 9 12

TOTAL 19 16 39

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terms with modern evolutionary theories and modern ecological problems than dothe more human-orientated Hebraic faiths,

12. Mahabharat, Drona Parva 191 (P . C . Roy translation Oriental, Calcutta, 2nd ed. 1958,Vol . VI, p . 448 .)

13 . Rama is normally the embodiment of truthfulness . But at one point in Tulsidas'Ramayana he lies to Ravana's sister about the marital state of Lakshman . (Aryanak-anda-Gita Press translation, Gorakhpur, 1968, p . 260) . In a discussion of thisincident some confessed to distress and even anger, while others tried to explain itaway in the interests of preserving the reliability of the sacred book .

14 . As he spoke, with gentle kindness (to me) he reached over and squashed a mosquitothat was about to sting my bared leg, thus saving the mosquito from the sin of himsaby taking it upon himself! For my part, I was happy to be spared both the sin and thehimsa .

15 . It is true there has been and to a lesser extent still is bitterness between the two majorbranches of Hinduism in Fiji (see note 17) . One student said wryly, `We Hindus arevery tolerant of other religions, but not within our own .' There is also still some anti-Muslim feeling amongst Hindus in Fiji . Several informants were very critical ofHinduism, and of religion in general, for its divisiveness . "If people gave up theirreligions (or the labels of Christians, Hindus, Muslims etc .) we will get rid of one formof differentiation . We could do with this." `Arya-Sanatani differences do a lot ofharm . . .' Nonetheless, against a background of propaganda against Hinduism innumerous Christian schools in Fiji (see note 7), I found repeated insistence on the idealof tolerance rather refreshing.

16 . Note again the importance of `entertainment value'-the Ramayana as a good story-sothat we keep on listening again and again. Though no one stated this to me, there isno doubt that the singing of bhajan, in which these ideals are hymned, has a similarrepetitive and inspirational effect .

17 . The Arya Samaj is a reform movement founded in India in 1875, by Swami Dayanand .It has been very critical of the elaborate ritual, and some of the beliefs and socialregulations, of traditional Hinduism . The term Sanatani is used variously in Fiji .It often refers to all Hindus other than Arya Samaj ; but sometimes a distinction ismade between Sana tani Hindus of north Indian origin (whose religious organizationis the Sanatan Dharma Pratinidhi Sabha) and members of the South Indian Sangam(see note 4) .

18 . I found the two ways very much intermingled in context, as indeed they are in thetwo most popular texts in Fiji, the Ramayana and the Gita. Certainly they are notregarded as mutually exclusive or antagonistic ways of expression by Hindus I spoketo . Distinction between them needs to be made, but also needs much more extensivequalification than I can give here .